PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION MIDTERMS REVIEWER

MODULE 1: Communication Process  Two other factors in the process

and Its Components
What is Communication?
 Is the process of using symbols to
exchange meaning.
 The transmission of a message from a
sender to a receiver in an
understandable manner.
 Means you are able to listen,
understand, and tame action on what
other people say.
We communicate…
Communication – is defined as a systematic
process in which people interact with and
through symbols to create and interpret
meanings, (Wood, 2003).
present in form of the sender and the
receiver which begins from the sender
and ends with a receiver.
 “Communication Process is a
systematic process.”
 “Communication is an ever-changing
and continuing process.”
 “When we communicate, what
happens before the process affects the
interaction.”
1. We communicate when we encode
(get ideas and put them into
messages)
2. Send them through our primary signal
system (senses)
3. To someone who receives them
through his or her sensed using a
channel and decodes (translates) the
message.
4. He or she then gives his or her
feedback.

Communication Process:
 Is the guide toward realizing effective
communication.
 Process that the sharing of a common
meaning between the sender and the
receiver takes place.

Four Key Components of Communication Components of Communication:

Process: 1. Context
1. Encoding 2. Participants
2. Medium of Transmission 3. Messages
3. Decoding 4. Channels
4. Feedback 5. Presence of absence of noise
6. Feedback
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The Components of Communication:
Context – it is the setting in which the
communication occurs. This could be
physical, social, historical, cultural, or
psychological.
1. Physical Context – refers to where
communication takes place.
Temperature, lighting, and noise level
are factors that affect the
communication process.
2. Social Context – is the relationship
that exists between and among
participants.
3. Historical Context – involves the
expectation of the speaker and the
audience in situations that happen
regularly or have happened in the past.
4. Psychological Context – refers to the
mood and emotions of the audience,
as well as the speaker to a lesser
extent. How the audience is feeling will
have an impact on how the speaker’s
messages will be received, and how
they should be delivered.
5. Cultural Context – is one of the most
obvious factors of communication, but
it is also one of the most important.
Culture relates to the beliefs and
values of a group.
Participants – are the people
communicating – the sender and the
receiver. As senders, we form messages and
send them through different means. The
receiver processes the message and reacts
to them.
Messages – are encoded or decoded
information in a communication process.
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 Communication takes place through
sending and receiving of messages.
Channels – according to Verderber (1999), is
both a route traveled by the message and
the means of transportation.
 During communication, the message is
carried through a channel.
 Messages are transmitted to sensory
channels.
 Face-to-face communication has two
basic channels:
- Sound (verbal symbols)
- Light (non-verbal cues)
Noise – is anything that interferes with
communication.
1. External Noises – are sights, sounds,
and other stimuli in the environment
that draw people’s attention away
from what is being said.
2. Internal Noises – are the thoughts and
feelings that intervene with the
communication process.
3. Semantic Noises – are unintended
meanings aroused by certain symbols
that prevent comprehension.
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Feedback – is the response to the message.
It shows how the message sent is heard,
seen, and understood.
 If the transmission of the message is
not successful, the sender may find
other ways of doing to. The re-
encoded message is also feedback
because it gives meaning to the
original receiver’s response.
 Feedback improves communication.
The Levels of Communication:
1. Verbal Communication
2. Non-verbal Communication
3. Intrapersonal Communication
4. Interpersonal Communication
5. Public Communication
Verbal Communication:
 It encompasses any form of
communication involving words,
spoken, written, or signed.
 As Lucas (2017), our ability to
communicate with a language that is
based on an organized system of
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words, rather than merely sounds, is
what set us apart from lower species.
Non-verbal Communication:
 It includes body language such as
gestures, facial expressions, eye
contact, and posture.
 Touch doesn’t only indicate a person’s
feelings or level of comfort but
illustrates personality characteristics as
well.
 The sound of our voice (pitch, tone,
and volume) is also forming of non-
verbal communication.
Intrapersonal Communication:
 It occurs within the person. This is
sometimes referred to as a cognitive or
personal communication or “self-talk”.
 Activities such as thought-processing
and decision making are intrapersonal
communication. We engage to it to
understand ourselves better and to
ultimately enhance our self-esteem.
Interpersonal Communication:
 It refers to communication that occurs
between two or more persons who
establish a communicative
relationship.
 Ideally, everything is interpersonal
communication except intrapersonal. It
has been proven that communication
is the lifeblood of any relationship.
Public Communication:
 It is a speaker sending message to an
audience.
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 It could be a direct, face-to-face
message delivery of a speaker to an
audience, or it could be indirect, using
a radio of television.
The Functions of Communication:
1. We communicate to meet needs.
2. We communicate to enhance or
maintain our sense of self.
3. We communicate to fulfill social
obligations.
4. We communicate to develop
relationships.
5. We communicate to exchange
information.
6. We communicate to influence others.
Principles of Communication:
1. Communication is purposive.
 It may be trivial or significant but
one way of evaluating if the
communication is successful is if it
has accomplished its purpose.
Different purposes require
different strategies.
2. Communication messages vary in
conscious encoding.
 It may occur spontaneously
(without much thought), it could
be also based on a “learned”
script, or it could be constructed
based on the understanding of a
situation.
3. Communication is continuous.
 Communication happens non-
stop, even silence communicates
something. Even non-verbal
behavior represents reactions to
your environment and to the
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people around you (Verderber,
1999). It is imperative that we be
aware and conscious of the
nonverbal behavior we constantly
send.
4. Communication is relational.
 In any communication setting,
people not only share meanings
but also negotiate and enhance
their relationships.
Communication plays a role in
developing, maintaining, and
dissolving relationships.
5. Communication has ethical
implications.
 We must recognize ethical
standards in communicating.
6. Communication is learned.
 Communicating well is a skill,
therefore it can be learned. Simply
talking is not communicating. It
involves listening, processing
thoughts and opinions then
speaking. This could be acquired
through practice.
Communication Ethics:
Ethics – are values that have instilled in us,
we have knowingly or unknowingly
accepted them and govern our actions. Our
ethical value system is our basis for our
decision-making and our basis for
communication ethics.
 In all communication situations there
are ethical considerations such as what
is fair and unfair, right and wrong; it
means communicating in a way that
conforms to moral standards.
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Ethical communicators or speakers
according to Berko (1995) should:
1. Speaks with sincerity.
2. Does not knowingly expose an
audience to falsehood or half-truths
that can cause significant harm.
3. Does not premeditatedly alter the
truth.
4. Presents the truth as he or she
understands it.
5. Raised the listeners level of expertise
by supplying the necessary facts.
6. Employs message that is free from
mental as well as physical force.
7. Does not invent or fabricate
information.
8. gives credit to the source of
information.
 In ethical communications, you get
your ideas across to your audience or
listeners without violating their rights,
without misinterpretation, and without
misleading them.
MODULE 2: Intercultural and
Global Communication
Culture:
1. Cultures are created through
communication.
 That is communication is the
means of human interaction
through which cultural
characteristics, whether customs,
roles, rituals, laws, or other
patterns-are created and shared.
2. Communication shapes culture.
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 And culture shapes
communications.
3. Culture, in relation to communication
cannot be viewed as something
represented by a particular group of
people.
 From a specific region or location
that has exclusive rituals, lifestyles,
attitudes, beliefs, and customs.
4. Culture does not create different
communication
 But different communication
creates "culture”.
Culture – according to Wrench McCroskey,
and Richmond (2008), the term culture
refers “to a relatively specialized lifestyle of
a group of people consisting of their values,
beliefs, behavior, and communication”.
 Simply, culture consists of people with
similar backgrounds who think, act,
and communicate in similar ways
(McCroskey, and Richmond, 2005).
Ethnocentric Bias – believing that your
culture is the benchmark of all others.
Culture as Geography or Ethnicity:
 Cross-cultural Communication –
compares the communications styles
and patterns of people from very
different cultural/social structures.
 Intercultural Communication – deals
with how people from these
cultural/social structures speak to one
another and what difficulties or
differences they encounter, over and
above the different languages they
speak.
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Transacting Cultures
 The structure and discipline of
society exert their force through
communication and impose beliefs
on people through collective values.
 In here, “society” is a way of talking
about a coded system of meaning, a
set of beliefs, a heritage, and a way of
being that is transacted in
communication.
Cross-Cultural Characteristics (Duck and
McMahan, 2009)
Context – is where speech and interaction
take place.
 High Context – spoken words are
much less important than the rest of
the context.
 Low Content – words are important.
It is more important to have a well-
structured argument or a well
delivered presentation.
 Collectivism – place greater
emphasis on the whole group,
stressing common concerns and the
value of acting not merely for
oneself but for the common good.
 Individualism – focuses on the
individual person and his or her
dreams, goals, and achievements,
and right to make choices.
Time – is being viewed differently in
cultures as a distinction between
monochronic societies (view time as a
valuable commodity and punctuality as very
important) and polychronic societies (have
much more relaxed attitude toward time).
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Monochronic Society – place emphasis in
speed and punctuality plus rapid and
efficient accomplishment of task.
 Example: North American and North
European countries are monochronic
societies where business managers
typically divide work schedules into
sequential chunks.
 To maintain a thriving business in a
monochronic time culture, the
company must emphasize the
following elements.
1. Punctuality
2. One Activity at a time
3. Business Time Management Tools
4. Short Term Relationships
5. Individual Accomplishment
6. Hard Deadlines
Polychronic Society – places emphasis on
the relationship between people than on
the task.
 Example: Arab, African, South
American and Asian countries are
typically more accepting of changes in
schedules because they are
polychronic cultures.
 Human Interaction and Personal
Connection
 Group Work
 A Holistic Approach
 Flexibility
 High context communication
 Long Term Relationships
Conflict – is viewed into two:
1. Conflict as opportunity
2. Conflict as destructive
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Conflict-as-opportunity cultures tend to be
individualist.
Conflict-as-Opportunity is based on the
following assumptions (Martin and
Nakayama, 2007):
1. Conflict is normal, useful process.
2. All issues are subject to change
through negotiation.
3. Direct confrontation and conciliation
are valued.
4. Conflict is necessary renegotiation of
an implied contract – a redistribution
of opportunity, release of tensions,
and renewal of relationships.
Conflict-as-destructive tend to be
collectivist.
Conflict-as-Destructive is based on the
following assumptions (Martin and
Nakayama, 2007):
1. Conflict is a destructive disturbance of
peace.
2. The social system should be not be
adjusted to meet the needs of
members; rather members should
adapt to established values.
3. Confrontations are destructive and
ineffective.
4. Disputants should be disciplined.
Five Styles of Conflict Management:
1. Dominating Styles – involve forcing
one’s will on another to satisfy
individual desires regardless of
negative relational consequences.
Dominating seeks to gain total control,
(low concern for others).
2. Integrating Styles – necessitate a great
deal of open discussion about the
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conflict at hand to reach a solution
that completely satisfies everyone
involved, (high concern for self and
others).
3. Compromising Styles – demands that
everyone must give something up to
reach a solution, (moderate levels for
both).
4. Obliging Styles – involve giving up
one’s position to satisfy another’s and
seeks to give it a way, (low concern for
self).
5. Avoiding Styles – is when people avoid
the conflict entirely either by falling to
acknowledge its existence or by
withdrawing from a situation when it
arises. Only appropriate as a
temporary measure and should not be
seems as the “end” in a conflict, (low
concern for self and others).
Dimension of Culture (1980):
Individualism V.S. Collectivism
 In an individualist culture, the interest
of the individual prevails over the
interest of the group, ties between
individuals are loose, and people look
after themselves and their immediate
families.
 Individualism values personal
independence.
 “See themselves as separate from
others, define themselves based
on their personal traits, and see
their characteristics as relatively
stable and unchanging.”
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 Self is defined more by who they are

on the “inside”, minimizing the
Masculinity V.S. Femininity
influence of factors, contexts, and
 Cultures that place high on values on
people "outside” the individual.
masculine traits stress assertiveness,
competition, and material success
while quality of life, interpersonal
relationships, and concern for the
weak are ion the feminine traits.
 Understand that these traits apply to
both women and men.

Communication across Cultures:

Power and Distance – it is the extent to
 In a collectivist culture, the interest of
which less powerful members of institutions
the group prevails over the interest of
and organizations within a country expect
an individual and tightly integrated.
and accept that power is distributed
unequally.
 Collectivism values personal
 Countries like the United States,
interdependence.
Mexico, China, and Japan are all
 “See themselves as connected to
considered to be masculine.
others, define themselves in terms
“Masculinity stands for a society in
of relationships with others, and
which social gender roles are clearly
see their characteristics as more
distinct (Laigo, 2020).
likely to change across different
 Men are supposed to be assertive,
contexts.”
though, and focused on material
success; women are supposed to be
more modest, tender, and concerned
with the quality of life.”
 In masculine cultures, men hold more
positions of power, get paid more, and
expected to act in a masculine manner.

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 Women get the short end of the stick.
They are expected to be caretakers, are
paid less, and are not fairly
represented in positions of power in
any field.
 Countries that are considered feminine
cultures are Sweden, Norway, the
Netherlands, and Costa Rica.
 According to Hofstede, “Femininity
stands for a society in which social
gender roles overlap: both men and
women are supposed to be modest,
tender, and concerned with the quality
of life."
 Feminine cultures tend to have loose
gender roles, equal pay, female
representation in most positions of
power, and quality of life and
relationships with people are valued
over materialistic items like money or
expensive cars.
Ethnocentric Bias/Ethnocentrism:
 Where you view other cultures in the
context of your own.
Uncertainty Avoidance:
 It is the extent to which people in a
culture feel threatened by uncertain or
unknown situations.
 The cultural dimension named
“uncertainty avoidance” also emerged
from the research as very important. It
is “the extent to which a society,
organization, or group relies on social
norms, rules, and procedures to
alleviate the unpredictability of future
events” (House et. al., 2004, p. 30).
 How culture differ on the amount of
tolerance they have of unpredictability.
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 Some characteristics of societies that
have high and low uncertainty
avoidance orientation (based on House
et. al., 2004, p. 618).
 Low Uncertainty Avoidance societies
have characteristic such as…
 Use informality in interactions
with others.
 Are less orderly and keep fewer
records.
 Rely on informal norms for most
matters.
 Are less circulating when taking
risks.
 Show only moderate resistance to
change.
Task V.S. Social Orientation:
 Groups in societies with strong task
orientation focus heavily on getting
the job done (individual success).
 Groups in societies with strong social
orientation are more likely to be
concerned about the members and
their smooth function as a team
(cooperative problem solving, friendly
atmosphere, and good physical
working conditions).
Intercultural Communication: Ethics and
Competence:
1. Identifying your Culture.
2. You belong without knowing it.
3. You do it without knowing it.
The Language and Ethics of Prejudice and
Racism:
 Prejudice – preconceived opinion that
is not based on reason or actual
experience.
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 Racism – the belief that different races
possess distinct characteristics,
abilities, or qualities, especially so as to
distinguish them as inferior or superior
to one another.
 Prejudice and Racism are commonly
viewed as being rooted in the child’s
early socialization and fostered in
communication with other people who
are prejudiced or racist (Adorno et. al.,
1950).
 Hate speech includes threats or verbal
slurs directed against specific groups or
physical acts such as spray-painting on
public and private property, (Walker,
1994).
The Language and Ethics of Othering:
What is Othering?
 Othering is a phenomenon in which
some individuals or groups are defined
and labeled as not fitting in within the
norms of a social group.
 It is an effect that influences how
people perceive and treat those who
are viewed as being part of the in-
group versus those who are seen as
being part of the out-group.
 Othering also involves attributing
negative characteristics to people or
groups that differentiate them from
the perceived normative social group.
It is an “us vs. them” way of thinking
about human connections and
relationships. This process essentially
involves looking at others and saying
“they are not like me” or “they are not
one of us”.
 Examples: While racial and religious
othering are some of the most obvious
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examples, some types can be much
less overt and apparent.
 “Freshmen are all so annoying!”
 “Ugh, Philippine plates… no
wonder they can’t drive!”
 “Policemen are all the same, am I
right?”
Communication Approach to Intercultural
Communication:
1. Personality Strength:
 Self-concept - the way a person
views the self.
 Self-disclosure - willingness to open
or reveal information about
themselves to others.
 Self-monitoring – using social
comparison information to control
and modify self-presentation and
expressive behavior.
 Social Relaxation – ability to reveal
little anxiety in communication.
2. Communication Skills:
 Being competent in verbal and
nonverbal behaviors.
 Intercultural Communication Skills
requires message skills (ability to
use and understand language).
 Behavioral flexibility (have
appropriate behavior in different
context).
 Interaction management
(attentiveness and responsiveness)
 and Social Skills (empathy and
identity maintenance).
3. Psychological Adjustment:
 Ability to adapt to new
environments and handle the
feelings of “culture shock”.
4. Cultural Awareness:
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PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION MIDTERMS REVIEWER

 Understanding the social customs  Another name to it is cultural

and the social system of the host
culture. Understanding how people
think and behave is essential for
effective communication with them.
Barriers to Intercultural Communication
(Berna, 1997)
 Anxiety – it is when you are anxious
because of not knowing what you are
expected to do. It is only natural to
focus on that feeling and not be totally
present in the communication
transaction.
 Assuming Similarity Instead of
Differences:
 It is when you have no information
about new culture, it might sense
to assume there are no
differences, to have as you would
in your home culture but making
that assumption could result to
miscommunication.
 Each culture is different and
unique to some degree. It’s better
to assume nothing. It’s better to
ask.
relativism, meaning that everything is
equal. A less extreme form of
ethnocentrism is called cultural
nearsightedness or taking one’s own
culture for granted and neglecting
other cultures.
Stereotypes and Prejudice:
 Stereotype is used to refer to negative
or positive judgements made about
individuals based on any observable or
believed group membership.
 Prejudice refers to the irrational
suspicion or hatred of a particular
group, race, religion, or sexual
orientation.
Characteristics of Intercultural
Competence:
1. Motivation is the desire to
communicate successfully with
strangers.
2. Tolerance of Ambiguity is the ability to
recognize that some things may be
strange to you.
3. Open Mindedness is recognizing
people differences in culture.
4. Knowledge and Skill are awareness of
your own behavior and that of others.

MODULE 3: Varieties and Registers of

Spoken and Written Language

Ethnocentrism: Diversity in Culture, Language, and

 It is negatively judging aspects of Communication:
another culture by the standards of
one’s own culture. It is to believe in the What is Diversity?
superiority of one’s culture.

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 Diversity is reality. It is increasingly
affecting traditional and digital media,
trade, labor, practices, and even casual
conversations.
Cultural Diversity:
 Cultural Diversity doesn’t just entail
differences in dress and language. It
also encompasses different ways of
thinking, managing, and
communicating.
 Clerks (2014) study suggests that
people are increasingly and
deliberately using English in a way that
identifies them with a particular place.
 People integrate in their speech, a set
of linguistic features drawn from a
particular variety of English.
 For Barry Tomalin, culture is the fifth
language skill in addition to listening,
speaking, writing, and reading. This
brings forth the British and American
traditions of pronunciation, accent,
spelling, and writing conventions.
Varieties and Registers of Spoken and
Written Language:
 It doesn’t mean that if you have
learned the language of others, you
also learned their culture.
 It involves understanding how to use
language to accept difference, to be
flexible, and tolerant of ways doing
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things which might be different to
yours. It’s an attitudinal change.
 Because of globalization, people live in
a world where varieties of spoken and
written language cross national
boundaries, and migration bring
people together from different
backgrounds and cultures.
There are Two Factors that distinguish
spoken language from the written one:
1. The actual situation or context in
which the language is used.
2. The Purpose of Communication.
Characteristics of Spoken Language:
 There is a presence of an interlocutor.
- Your interlocutor is the person
with whom you are having a
conversation.
 It is mostly maintained in the form of a
dialogue.
 It utilizes the human voice and all kinds
of gesture.
 It is spontaneous but momentary.
- Lasting but a moment; very brief.
 It cannot be detached from the user of
it.
 It widely uses intensifying words
(oaths, swear-words).
 It is characterized by the insertion of
words without meaning.
Varieties of Spoken Language:
1. Interactional – having a social
function. This makes use of informal
type of speech which aims to develop
relationships between the
interlocutors.
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- Example A: Hi! How’re you 5. Phatic – engaging in small, plain talk.

today? The speaker and listener use minimal
- Example B: I’m good. You? amount of language to engage in the
- Example C: I’m OK conversation. This poses familiarity of
 The use of informal language topic and context between the speaker
makes the speakers feel and the listener.
comfortable and close without - Example A: Coffee?
worrying much on the terms. - Example B: Yes, black
2. Referential – providing the listener
some information referring to objects
or abstract concepts. The speaker
assumes that the listener has
knowledge on the matter at hand. The
listener has to know the context before
they understand the references.
- Example: The mobile phone unit
has been sent via door-to-door at
10 o’clock. Please notify our
office once you have received it. Characteristics of Written Language:
3. Expressive – showing the speaker’s  Absence of the Interlocutor.
judgements or feelings about a person, - Your interlocutor is the person
event, or situation. with whom you are having a
- Example: It’s truly unbelievable! conversation.
How could she do such a terrible  It is mostly maintained in the form of
thing? a monologue.
 The speaker uses emotive words  It is more carefully organized and
which make the sentence more explanatory. The word choice is
subjective. Such emotive words more deliberate.
may be either be adjectives or
 It is able to live forever with the idea
adverbs.
it expresses.
4. Transactional – getting information or
 It can be corrected or improved and
making a deal. It has a specific purpose
objectively looked at.
and is driven by needs and wants
 It bears a greater volume of
rather than sociability. Its intention is
responsibility than spoken.
to achieve a give-and-take relationship
between the speaker and the listener.
- Example A: May I know how
much this pen costs?
- Example B: You can give me Php
15.00.

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Culturally Responsive, Engaging, and
Appropriate Language:
 “Calling an illegal alien
undocumented immigrant is like calling
a drug dealer an undocumented
pharmacist.”
- Anon
Ways on How to Choose Appropriate
Language:
1. Notice and reflect on disrespectful
language, thoughts, and actions.
 Educate yourself and monitor your
thoughts. Be an open, respectful,
and informed individual instead of
a careless, disrespectful person.
 Avoid racist, sexist, homophobic
jokes, etc. because these are
always hurtful and offending.
2. Respect people of different races.
 Recognized racist root of words.
 Terms such as “Chinese auction”,
“Indian giver”, “Jew down”, “gyp”
from the term “Gypsy” for the
Roma are racist.
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 Instead use “Roma” for “gypsy”
and “Asian” for “Oriental”.
3. Use language that included LGBTQIA+
people.
 Work on substituting gender-
neutral language to include people
of different sexual orientations
and gender identities.
4. Avoid exclusionary, gender-specific
language.
 Use gender-neutral job titles when
you are not referring to a specific
person. Use “chairperson” instead
of “Chairman”, “firefighter”
instead of “fireman”, etc.
5. Avoid using explicitly religious terms
in mixed religious company.
an
 Avoid referencing God/god. Every
religious group had had different
names for and rules for saying the
term.
 Jews do not say the name of god,
Muslims refer god as Allah, and
Hindus worship many different
gods.
6. Avoid expressions that devalue
people with physical or mental
disabilities.
 Some prefer identity-first language
(“disabled person”) while others
prefer person-first language
(“person with disability”).
 Words such “derp”, “crippled”, and
“psycho” are examples of
disability-based insults.
7. Refrain from language that groups
people into one large category.
 Avoid classifying people together
based on religion, sexual
orientation, gender, and ethnicity.
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PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION MIDTERMS REVIEWER

 An example would be referring to This poses deeper concerns and issues of

groups by saying things like: the communication in which the origin of that
poor, the gays, or the Blacks. Use particular culture gets offended.
language that makes a group or
person feel like they are equal and  Cultural sensitivity is an attitude and
included in any situation. way of behaving in which you are
aware of and acknowledge cultural
The choice of words is a powerful strategy differences.
in communication. When Confucious said,
“when words lose their meanings, people
lose their freedom”, the control of language
is an essential tool for an engaging and
responsive communication.

Politically Correct Words and Expressions:

 Political correctness has an important
purpose: It promoted equality by
demonstrating an understanding that
all people and groups are valuable to
society regardless of race, culture,
gender, or sexual orientation.

 Cultural appropriation of images is the

adaption of the iconography of
another culture. Defined as the use of
a culture’s symbols, artifacts, genres,
rituals, or technologies by members of
another culture.

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