TITRATIONS IN

ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY
CHEM 2105: ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY I
 DISCLAIMER
THE CONTENTS OF THIS PRESENTATION IS NOT THE ORIGINAL
WORK OF THE PRESENTER AND WAS DERIVED FROM COPYRIGHTED
MATERIALS, MOSTLY FROM THE PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOK (SKOOG, ET. AL.,
FUNDAMENTALS OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, 9E, 2014) FOR THIS
SUBJECT. THIS PRESENTATION AND ITS CONTENTS WAS ONLY PROVIDED
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE OF CHEM 2105 STUDENTS OF CENTRAL
PHILIPPINE UNIVERSITY. ANY PART OF THIS PRESENTATION MUST NOT BE
SHARED OR DISCLOSED TO A THIRD PARTY WITHOUT THE CONSENT OF
THE CHEM 2105 INSTRUCTOR.
• Titration methods are based on determining the quantity
of a reagent of known concentration that is required to
react completely with the analyte. The reagent may be a
standard solution of a chemical or an electric current of
known magnitude.
• Gravimetric titrations
• Volumetric titrations
• Coulometric titrations
SOME TERMS USED IN VOLUMETRIC TITRATIONS
• A standard solution is a reagent of known concentration
that is used in a titrimetric analysis.
• Titration is a process in which a standard reagent is
added to a solution of an analyte until the reaction
between the analyte and reagent is judged to be
complete.
 SOME TERMS USED IN VOLUMETRIC TITRATIONS

• Back-titration is a process in which the excess of a standard

solution used to consume an analyte is determined by
titration with a second standard solution.
• Back-titrations are often required when the rate of reaction
between the analyte and reagent is slow or when the
standard solution lacks stability.
SOME TERMS USED IN VOLUMETRIC TITRATIONS

• Determination of Phosphate by back-titration of Silver

nitrate with Thiocyanate solution.
 EQUIVALENCE POINTS AND
END POINTS
• The equivalence point is the point in a titration when the amount
of added standard reagent is equivalent to the amount of analyte.
• The equivalence point in the titration of sulfuric acid with
sodium hydroxide is reached after introducing 2 moles of base
for each mole of acid.
 EQUIVALENCE POINTS AND
END POINTS
• The equivalence point of a titration cannot be determined
experimentally.
• Instead, we can only estimate its position by observing some
physical change associated with the condition of chemical
equivalence.
• The position of this change is called the end point for the
titration.
 EQUIVALENCE POINTS AND
END POINTS
• The end point is the point in a titration when a physical change
occurs that is associated with the condition of chemical
equivalence.
• The difference in volume or mass between the equivalence point
and the end point is the titration error.
Et = Vep − Veq
 EQUIVALENCE POINTS AND
END POINTS

• Indicators are often added to the analyte solution to give an

observable physical change (the end point) at or near the
equivalence point.
• Large changes in the relative concentration of analyte or titrant
occur in the equivalence-point region. These concentration
changes cause the indicator to change in appearance.
 EQUIVALENCE POINTS AND
END POINTS

• Indicators are often added to the analyte solution to give an

observable physical change (the end point) at or near the
equivalence point.
• Large changes in the relative concentration of analyte or titrant
occur in the equivalence-point region. These concentration
changes cause the indicator to change in appearance.
 EQUIVALENCE POINTS AND
END POINTS

• Typical indicator changes include the appearance or disappearance of

a color, a change in color, or the appearance or disappearance of
turbidity.
• We often use instruments to detect end points. These instruments
respond to properties of the solution that change in a characteristic
way during the titration. Among such instruments are colorimeters,
turbidimeters, spectrophotometers, temperature monitors,
refractometers, voltmeters, current meters, and conductivity meters.
 PRIMARY STANDARDS

• A primary standard is a highly purified compound that serves

as a reference material in all volumetric and mass titrimetric
methods.
• Important requirements for a primary standard are
1.High purity (established methods for confirming purity should be
available)
2. Atmospheric stability

4-13
 PRIMARY STANDARDS

3. Absence of hydrate water so that the composition of the

solid does not change with variations in relative humidity
4. Ready availability at modest cost
5. Reasonable solubility in the titration medium
6. Reasonably large molar mass so that the relative error
associated with weighing the standard is minimized
 PRIMARY STANDARDS

• Very few compounds meet or even approach these criteria,

and only a limited number of primary-standard substances are
available commercially. As a consequence, less pure
compounds must sometimes be used
• A secondary standard is a compound whose purity has been
established by chemical analysis and that serves as the
reference material for a titrimetric method of analysis.
 STANDARD SOLUTIONS

• The ideal standard solution for a titrimetric method will

1. Be sufficiently stable so that it is only necessary to
determine its concentration once
2. React rapidly with the analyte so that the time required
between additions of reagent is minimized
3. React completely with the analyte so that satisfactory end
points are realized
4. Undergo a selective reaction with the analyte that can be
described by a balanced equation
 STANDARD SOLUTIONS

• Two basic methods are used to establish the concentration

of such solutions.
• The first is the direct method in which a carefully weighed
quantity of a primary standard is dissolved in a suitable
solvent and diluted to a known volume in a volumetric flask.
 STANDARD SOLUTIONS
• The second is by standardization in which the titrant to be
standardized is used to titrate (1) a weighed quantity of a
primary standard, (2) a weighed quantity of a secondary
standard, or (3) a measured volume of another standard
solution.
• A titrant that is standardized is sometimes referred to as a
secondary standard solution. The concentration of a
secondary-standard solution is subject to a larger uncertainty
than is the concentration of a primary-standard solution.
 STANDARD SOLUTIONS

• In a standardization, the concentration of a volumetric

solution is determined by titrating it against a carefully
measured quantity of a primary or secondary standard or an
exactly known volume of another standard solution.
 VOLUMETRIC CALCULATIONS

• For the standard solutions used in most titrations, either

molar concentration, c, or normal concentration, cN, is
usually used. Molar concentration is the number of moles of
reagent contained in one liter of solution, and normal
concentration is the number of equivalents of reagent in the
same volume.
SOME USEFUL ALGEBRAIC RELATIONSHIPS
SOME USEFUL ALGEBRAIC RELATIONSHIPS

(6-3)

(6-4)
 EXAMPLE 6-6

• A 0.8040-g sample of an iron ore is dissolved in acid. The iron

is then reduced to Fe²⁺ and titrated with 47.22 ml of 0.02242
M KMnO₄ solution. Calculate the results of this analysis in
terms of (a) % Fe (55.847 g/mol) and (b) % Fe₃O₄(231.54
g/mol). The reaction of the analyte with the reagent is
described by the equation
 GRAVIMETRIC TITRATIONS
• Mass (weight) or gravimetric titrations differ from
their volumetric counterparts in that the mass of
titrant is measured rather than the volume.
Therefore, in a mass titration, a balance and a
weighable solution dispenser are substituted for a
buret and its markings.
 GRAVIMETRIC TITRATIONS
• The most common way to express concentration for mass titrations
is the weight concentration, cw, in weight molar concentration units,
Mw, which is the number of moles of a reagent in one kilogram of
solution or the number of millimoles in one gram of solution.
 GRAVIMETRIC TITRATIONS
• Advantages of Gravimetric Titrations
1. Calibration of glassware and tedious cleaning to ensure proper drainage are
completely eliminated.
2. Temperature corrections are unnecessary because the mass (weight) molar
concentration does not change with temperature, in contrast to the volume molar
concentration. This advantage is particularly important in non-aqueous titrations.
3. Mass measurements can be made with considerably greater precision and
accuracy than can volume measurements.
4. Gravimetric titrations are more easily automated than are volumetric titrations.
 TITRATION CURVES

• Titration curves are plots of a concentration-

related variable as a function of reagent volume.
 TITRATION CURVES

• An end point is signaled by an observable physical change near the

equivalence point of a titration. The two most widely used signals
involve (1) changes in color due to the reagent (titrant), the analyte,
or an indicator and (2) a change in potential of an electrode that
responds to the titrant concentration or the analyte concentration.
 TITRATION CURVES

• To understand the theoretical basis of end point determinations and

the sources of titration errors, we calculate the data points
necessary to construct titration curves for the systems under
consideration.
 FIGURE 13-2
Two types of titration curves.
 TYPES OF TITRATION CURVES

• A sigmoidal curve, important observations are confined

to a small region (typically ± 0.1 to ± 0.5 ml)
surrounding the equivalence point.
 TYPES OF TITRATION CURVES

• Linear segment curve, measurements are made on both

sides of but well away from the equivalence point.
Measurements near equivalence are avoided. In this
type of curve, the vertical axis represents an instrument
reading that is directly proportional to the
concentration of the analyte or the titrant.
 TYPES OF TITRATION CURVES

• The sigmoidal type offers the advantages of speed and

convenience. The linear segment type is advantageous
for reactions that are complete only in the presence of a
considerable excess of the reagent or analyte.
 FIGURE 6-2

Figure 13-3 Titration

curves of pH and pOH
versus volume of base
for the titration of
0.1000 M HCl with
0.1000 M NaOH.
20.00mL of 0.1M HCl was titrated with 0.1M of sodium hydroxide.
Volume titrant pH Volume Titrant pH
0.00 mL 1 19.90 mL 3.60
5.00 mL 1.22 20.00 mL 7.00
10.00 mL 1.48 20.10 mL 10.40
15.00 mL 1.85 20.50 mL 11.09
17.00 mL 2.09 21.00 mL 11.38
19.00 mL 2.59 23.00 mL 11.84
19.50 mL 2.90 25.00 mL 12.05
At 0.00 mL At post equivalence point

𝑉𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 − 𝑉𝑒𝑞 × 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻

𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑐𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑝𝐻 = 14 + log
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

At pre-equivalence point
𝑉𝐻𝐶𝑙 × 𝑁𝐻𝐶𝑙 − 𝑉𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 ×𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

At equivalence point
pH = 7 – for titration of strong acids or base
* Volume of equivalence point
𝑉𝐻𝐶𝑙 × 𝑁𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝑉𝑒𝑞 =
𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
 Titration Curve for HCl
14

12

10

8
pH

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
VOLUME OF TITRANT IN mL
 First Derivative of the Titration Curve of HCl
40

35

30

25
∆pH/∆V

20

15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-5
Volume of Titrant in mL
 Second Derivative of the Titration Curve of HCl
150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
∆(∆pH/∆V)/∆V

-50

-100

-150

-200

-250

-300

-350
Volume of Titrant in mL