DESCRIPTION

Introduction to the cultural roots of Great Britain and the English Language: The contributions of
the Roman Empire, Celtic Heritage, Germanic Invasions, and Christianity to the rise of a nation
and its language.

PURPOSE
Understanding the influence of the Roman Empire, the set of Germanic and Celtic invasions
during the Middle Ages, as well as the arrival of Christian missionaries on the British Isles is of
the utmost importance for analysing the cultural roots of Great Britain and the historical, social,
and linguistic factors which paved the way for the rise of the English language.

PREPARATION
Before starting this Unit, make sure you have a good English dictionary to clarify any doubts you
may have concerning vocabulary and linguistic expressions. The following list of on-line
dictionaries may be useful: Merriam-Webster, Cambridge Dictionary, and Oxford Learner’s
Dictionary.

GOALS

SECTION 1

To recognize the importance of the Roman Empire and its influence on the cultural roots of
Great Britain

SECTION 2

To compare the contributions of Germanic and Celtic tribes to the establishment of the first
kingdoms on the British Isles

SECTION 3

To relate the set of Christian beliefs and values to the end of Vikings’ Raids in England

SECTION 4

To identify the social, political, and historical factors which led to the rise of the English language
and its first literary productions
WARM-UP
Welcome to our Unit on the Cultural Roots of Great Britain and the English Language!

In the following sections, you will enjoy an exciting tour through different historical, social, and
linguistic elements which have influenced Great Britain, its culture, and the English language
over the centuries.

We will learn about the importance of the Roman Empire and its influence on Britain. The arrival
of the Roman troops on British soil, the inevitable clashes against its former inhabitants – the
Celts, as well as the Empire’s collapse, subsequent Germanic invasions, the arrival of the first
Christian missionaries, and the rise of today’s world lingua franca – the English language – will
be dealt with as we explore each section.

Moreover, by exploiting the cultural contributions of each people who settled in Britain, their
values, beliefs, habits, and traditions, we will be able to better understand the initial literary
productions in Old English, which were commonly recited, sung, and passed down from
generation to generation. Finally, historical figures such as Julius Caesar, Boudicca, Saint
Patrick, and King Alfred – to name just a few – will be present in our “virtual wanderings”.

Have a nice trip!

SECTION 1

 To recognize the importance of the Roman Empire and its influence on the cultural
roots of Great Britain

Britain was under Roman domination for more than three hundred years – from 43 A.D. to 409
A.D. The land, previously inhabited by the Celts, would experience drastic changes concerning
infrastructure, language, and culture.

CELTS
 According to Matson & Roberts (2010, p. VII-VIII), the Celts were a large but diverse
group of people who dominated much of western and central Europe in the first
millennium BC.

WHY DID THE ROMANS DECIDE TO INVADE BRITAIN?

WHAT HISTORICAL FACTORS LED TO THE FALL OF THE
ROMAN EMPIRE?
WHAT WAS THE CONNECTION BETWEEN THE ROMAN
EMPIRE AND CELTIC QUEEN BOADICEA?
These are the topics we will explore in this section.

HOW JULIUS CAESAR DISCOVERED THE

BRITISH-CELTS: THE ARRIVAL OF THE
ROMAN EMPIRE

Photo: Shutterstock.com

“Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears;

I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him;

The evil that men do lives after them,

The good is oft interred with their bones,

So let it be with Caesar ..."

(Julius Caesar, Act III, Scene II)

The Romans formed one of the most important and successful empires in Ancient Times.
Having their central governmental and cultural base in the city of Rome (in Italy today), they
expanded their dominance over the lands around the Mediterranean Sea, until their furthest
western conquest – the British Isles – in 43 A.D.

We can have an idea of the areas dominated by the Romans in the first decades of the common
era by examining the following picture:

Image: Andrei nacu / en.wikipedia / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

The Roman Empire in 117 A.D.

Because the conquering of lands represented the means for charging taxes, exploiting soil for
food, livestock, and minerals, the Romans developed a state-of-the-art military training and
recruiting system – The Roman Legions, which allowed them extreme efficiency in defeating
their opponents while expanding their dominance.
Image: James William Edmund Doyle / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
Illustration of the Romans landing in Britain.

The arrivals of the Roman troops on the British Isles, a geographic area unknown by them for
several centuries, happened as a result of Julius Caesar’s efforts in combatting the Celtic tribes
in Gaul (a region on today’s France) in 55 B.C. While commanding his legions against his
enemies, the Roman general realized that the Gaulish-Celts were constantly being helped by
other tribal members coming from the sea.
Image: historicair / Sémhur / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0
Multi-year overview of the Gallic Wars. The general routes taken by Caesar’s army are
indicated by the arrows.

Upon noticing this, Julius Caesar organized a military entourage in an attempt to discover
possible overseas areas under Celtic control, lands whose inhabitants might have been
supporting the Celts for decades. After crossing The English Channel and getting to know the
military skills of the British-Celtic warriors, Julius Caesar realized that defeating them would not
be an easy and immediate task, which made him face the most significant impediment to his
imperial plans.

Baugh and Cable (2002) comment that it was only in A.D. 43, almost one century after Julius
Caesar’s first raids, that the emperor Claudius undertook the actual conquest of The Island:

WITH THE KNOWLEDGE OF CAESAR’S EXPERIENCE

BEHIND HIM, HE DID NOT UNDERESTIMATE THE
PROBLEMS INVOLVED. ACCORDINGLY, AN ARMY OF
40,000 WAS SENT TO BRITAIN AND WITHIN THREE
YEARS HAD SUBJUGATED THE PEOPLES OF THE
CENTRAL AND SOUTHEASTERN REGIONS.
SUBSEQUENT CAMPAIGNS SOON BROUGHT ALMOST
ALL OF WHAT IS NOW ENGLAND UNDER ROMAN
RULE.

(BAUGH & CABLE, 2002, p.40)

AS A MATTER OF FACT, THE CONQUERING OF BRITAIN

WOULD JUST BE COMPLETED IN 122 A.D. UNDER THE
COMMAND OF EMPEROR HADRIAN.
One of the most famous accounts of the Celtic resistance against the Romans refers to the
rebellion of the British-Celtic Queen Boudicca (Boadicea), who was married to Prasutagus, ruler
of the Iceni people. In 43 A.D, the Romans conquered southern England; Prasutagus, however,
was allowed to continue to rule. Upon his death, the Romans decided to rule, which led to the
confiscation of leading tribesmen's property.

Photo: paula french / Shutterstock.com

Boadicea and Her Daughters is a bronze sculptured monument and is located on Westminster
Pier in London.
Photo: Ad Meskens / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0
Statue of Gaius Suetonius Paulinus on the terrace of the Roman Baths (Bath).

The Roman governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, in 60 or 61 A.D., while in the middle of a
campaign in North Wales, had to face the Iceni's rebellion. Members of different tribes also
joined the Iceni, which led to Boudicca's defeat of the Roman legions. However, Boudicca was
later defeated by a Roman army led by Paulinus. Many British-Celts were killed, and Boudicca
is believed to have poisoned herself to avoid capture. Other versions claim that the Romans
have stripped and flogged Boudicca and raped her daughters. These actions exacerbated
widespread resentment towards the Roman rule.

 DID YOU KNOW?

When the Romans finally settled on the island, they called their inhabitants Pretani. With the
daily use of this word by soldiers, Pretani became Britanni. It is from this term – Britanni – that
the name Britons was derived, being used until today to name the natives or inhabitants of
Brittany. The name of the island, in turn, comes from Britannia, a Latin word that means “island
of the Britons”. Over time, the name became the current Britain (DA SILVA, 2006).

It was not until the 18th century that the term Great Britain was coined to refer to the
geographical areas of England, Scotland, and Wales. More specifically, the name appeared in
1707 to mark the union of the Parliament of Scotland with that of England, which represented a
loss of part of Scotland’s autonomy to the English.

GREAT BRITAIN

Two important pieces of information must be highlighted: 1) Great Britain is often used as
a reference to the political state officially called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland, or simply the United Kingdom, composed of the countries of Brittany
plus Northern Ireland; 2) The term British Isles is used to geographically refer to the
islands of Brittany and Ireland.

Image: Shutterstock.com adapted by Yuri Cooke

ROMAN CONTRIBUTION
The Roman domination of Britain contributed significantly in a variety of aspects.
LINGUISTICALLY SPEAKING, ENGLISH IS THE ANGLO-SAXON
LANGUAGE WITH THE MAJOR INCIDENCE OF LATIN-BASED
TERMS.
Crystal (1996) comments that Latin has been a major influence on the English language
throughout history, not only during the Roman period on the Island but also in subsequent
moments (the arrival of Christian missionaries and the Norman Invasion in 1066). Moreover, he
points out that there is evidence of its role from the earliest moments of contact.

The Roman army and merchants gave new names to many local objects and experiences and
introduced several fresh concepts. About half of the new words had to do with plants, animals,
food and drink, and household items, such as:

planta


plant

vinum


wine

cattus


cat

rosa


rose

 LEARN MORE
Other important clusters of words related to clothing (balteum “belt”), buildings and settlements
(dormitorium “dormitory”, castra/ceaster “city”), military and legal institutions (decretum “decree”,
legionis “legion”), and religious (servus “servant”, monachus “monk”, clericus “clerk”).

Culturally and materially speaking, Roman architecture is another important legacy, which can
be exemplified by two large constructions: The Hadrian Wall and The Antonine Wall.

To protect the island against the peoples from the north, Emperor Hadrian built one of the most
magnificent defensive fortifications of the Roman province – The Hadrian Wall, which runs a
total of 117 kilometres in northern England. Another important defence is The Antonine Wall, a
three-to-four-meter-high fortification which stretches 60 kilometres across the centre of
Scotland, constructed as an attempt to assert some control over the region.

The following pictures show these constructions:

Image: NormanEinstein / Talifero / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0

Photo: Excalibur / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0

THE ANTONINE WALL

Photo: Adam Cuerden / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

THE HADRIAN WALL

Location of Hadrian's Wall (73 miles long, or 118Km long) and the Antonine Wall (39 miles long,
or 63Km long).

The Roman Empire began to lose power in 367 A.D. In 409 A.D., the Roman troops left Britain
in an attempt to save the capital of the Empire which was under constant attack from a set of
Germanic tribes. In 410 A.D. Rome collapsed. The complete fall of the Roman Empire was now
a matter of time.

THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Several reasons can be pointed out in order to explain the collapse of the Roman Empire, the
invasion of Barbarian tribes being the most straightforward theory. Rome had fought against
Barbarian tribes for centuries, but a sequence of raids against it led the Empire to fall apart. The
main catalysts for the crisis of the Empire may have been the lengthy journeys of the Gothic and
Vandal armies, and the expansion of Hunnic power over central Europe during the first decades
of the fifth century.

Image: Shutterstock.com

Blockmans and Hoppenbrouwers (2018) also highlight that the collapse of the Roman Empire of

the West at the beginning of the 5th century was rather “coincidental” – the direct problems that
caused the Fall of the Empire in the West originated in the East. To understand the irony of the
situation you must know that, believing it would make the Empire more easily governable,
emperor Diocletian divided it into two large regions:

The Roman Empire of the West

Located in the city of Milan.


The Roman Empire of the East

Located in the city of Byzantium.

The western region descended into an economic crisis, whereas the eastern part prospered
exponentially. The causes of the fall of the Empire of the West originated due to the successful
developments and administration of the East. As time went by, the two halves were unable to
work in partnership to combat foreign threats, normally arguing over resources and military
support.

Image: Shutterstock.com adapted by Yuri Cooke

The Division of the Roman Empire

Finally, “the fall of the Roman Empire of West should be understood as the end of Roman
civilization in terms of loss of high-quality material prosperity” (BLOCKMANS &
HOPPENBROUWERS, 2018, p. 49), of a predominantly secular world view, of a guiding
political ideal and cultural model. Nevertheless, the Eastern Empire survived until 1453, when it
was finally conquered by the Ottoman Turks (Ottoman Empire).

The loss of control of the western regions of the Roman Empire paved the way for a new period
of conquests in Britain, the moment a group of Germanic tribes known as the Angles, Saxons,
and Jutes settled on the island and established the first English-speaking kingdoms of the
region.
ROMAN INVASIONS

Too many dates and names? Let’s recap the rise and fall of the Roman Empire in Britain.

LEARNING CHECK

1. READ THE TEXT BELOW:

“BEFORE THE GERMANIC INVASIONS, THE LANGUAGE (OR

LANGUAGES) SPOKEN BY THE NATIVE INHABITANTS OF THE BRITISH
ISLES BELONGED TO THE CELTIC FAMILY, INTRODUCED BY THE
PEOPLE WHO HAD COME TO THE ISLAND AROUND THE MIDDLE OF THE
FIRST MILLENNIUM BC. MANY OF THESE SETTLERS WERE, IN TURN,
EVENTUALLY SUBJUGATED BY THE ROMANS.”

(ADAPTED FROM: CRYSTAL, DAVID. THE CAMBRIDGE ENCYCLOPEDIA

OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CAMBRIDGE: CUP, 1996, P.8)

BASED ON THE HISTORICAL PIECES OF INFORMATION ABOVE AND THE

TOPICS COVERED IN THIS SECTION, WHICH LANGUAGE IS SAID TO
HAVE BEEN A MAJOR INFLUENCE ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
THROUGHOUT ITS HISTORY?
A) German

B) Anglo-Saxon

C) Celtic

D) Old Norse

E) Latin

2. IN WHICH GEOPOLITICAL CONTEXT HAS THE ROMANS ARRIVED IN

BRITAIN?

A) German Invasion in Roman Empire.

B) Julius Caesar’s raids.

C) Icelandic Saga.

D) Under emperor Claudius.

E) With help of Norman Invasions.

GABARITO

1. Read the text below:

“Before the Germanic invasions, the language (or languages) spoken by the native
inhabitants of the British Isles belonged to the Celtic family, introduced by the people
who had come to the island around the middle of the first millennium BC. Many of these
settlers were, in turn, eventually subjugated by the Romans.”

(Adapted from: CRYSTAL, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.
Cambridge: CUP, 1996, p.8)

Based on the historical pieces of information above and the topics covered in this
section, which language is said to have been a major influence on the English language
throughout its history?

Option "E " is correct.

Latin has had a strong impact on the English language, not only during Roman domination, but

also due to the arrival of Christian missionaries in the 6th century and, later on, because of the
Norman Invasion in 1066.

2. In which geopolitical context has the Romans arrived in Britain?

Option "D " is correct.

It was emperor Claudius who undertook the conquest of Britain. Subsequent campaigns during
three years and with an Army of 40 thousand men, brought the island under Roman rule. But
the complete conquest (over all the territory) was only finished in 122 A.D., over emperor
Hadrian.

SECTION 2

 To compare the contributions of Germanic and Celtic tribes to the establishment of

the first kingdoms on the British Isles

MIGRATIONS AND INVASIONS (THE CELTS,

ANGLES, SAXONS, AND JUTES)
The fall of the Roman Empire of the West paved the way for new incursions onto Britain. This
time, however, the island would experience so many drastic changes in its cultural, linguistic,
and societal infrastructure that the rise of a “national” language was simply a matter of time.
Moreover, once a specific dialect of a Germanic tribe gained political and cultural importance,
registers of traditional epic poems began to be passed down not only orally, but in written form
as well.

WHO WERE THE ANGLES, SAXONS, AND JUTES?

WHAT HAPPENED TO THE REMAINING CELTIC TRIBES?
WHAT IS THE CONNECTION BETWEEN THE GERMANIC
INVASIONS AND THE RISE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE?
You will find out the answers to these questions in the following section.

THE CELTIC EUROPE BEFORE AND AFTER

THE GERMANIC INVASIONS
Linguistically and socially speaking, the Celts were known for having a common language,
customs, and religion, but in many other ways, they were a very diverse group. Thus, the use of
the term Celt is an attempt to unify the variety of tribal societies which were linked by a set of
cultural, linguistic, and societal traits.

 FRIENDLY REMINDER

As you might know by now, the Celts had already been inhabiting Britain by the time the first
Roman Legions invaded the island. But their tribes also exerted a strong cultural influence on
continental Europe for several centuries. Matson & Roberts (2010) comment that “the Celts first
lived in central Europe during the end of the Iron Age and the beginning of the Bronze Age. At
the height of their influence and power, Celt-occupied lands spanned hundreds of miles, from
the Atlantic Ocean to the North Sea and to the Black Sea”. (MATSON & ROBERTS, 2010, VII)

IRON AGE

The Iron Age refers to the period in early history starting about 1100 B.C. when iron was
used for tools.
 BRONZE AGE

The Bronze Age relates to the time in the past when tools and weapons were made of
bronze before iron was discovered. Different parts of the world have entered this Age in

different time periods. While in other parts of the world it started by mid-4th millennium
B.C., in Britain it started around 2.000 B.C.

Image: QuartierLatin1968 / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0

Celts in Europe

Historically speaking, two distinct periods can be traced in the lifespan of the Celtic culture: its
earliest days, called the Hallstatt Era (700 B.C.-450 B.C.), and a subsequent period called 
La Tène (450 B.C.-50 A.D.). Both names were given after villages (Hallstatt in Austria, and La
Tène, in Switzerland) where Celtic artifacts have been unearthed.
Photo: Tyssil / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0

Hallstatt swords

Photo: Herzi Pinki / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0

Hallstatt Muscle Cuirasses and Double Ridge Helmet

Photo: Ealdgyth / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0

La Tène’s Great Torc

Photo: Dirk Huth / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0

La Tène’s Granite Stone decorated in Celtic Style

“Sometime before Hallstatt era the Celts moved into Spain. By 600 B.C., they had already
settled in Ireland. In the years that followed, they continued to colonize the British Isles”

(MATSON & ROBERTS, 2010, VIII). From the start of La Tène Era, in the 4th century B.C., the
Celts proved their great strength by challenging the Greco-Roman world. According to Matson &
Roberts (2010):

Image: Alexikoua / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0

Celtic Expansion.

390 B.C.: They sacked Rome.

 279 B.C.: They invaded Greece, a moment in their territorial expansion which already
covered parts of central Turkey, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and France, besides their
strongholds in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, the Isle of Man, Brittany, and Gaul.

By 250 B.C., La Tène culture was the predominant culture in Britain.

CELTIC SOCIETY, BELIEFS, AND LIFESTYLE

Because of their large areas of domination, the Celts understood that a central government
would not operate efficiently. Therefore, organizing themselves into many kinds of social groups
with small family clans led by a chieftain was the most common type of societal stratification,
although large Celtic groups could have an aristocratic infrastructure with kings, queens, and
druid-poets (a type of Celtic “priest”) or form roving bands of warriors who survived by defeating
tribes at war. All in all, it can be said that Celtic society was based upon a balance of powers
among leaders, even though the role of the druid-poet was a bit more complex.

Image: gutenberg.org / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

Druids Inciting the Britons to oppose the landing of the Romans – from Cassell's History of
England, Vol. I – anonymous author and artists.
In both Continental (Gaul) and insular (Britain) Celtic society, great importance was placed upon
eloquence.

SINCE CELTIC CULTURE WAS NONLITERATE, RECITATION

PLAYED A VERY IMPORTANT ROLE IN CONVEYING
HISTORICAL, GENEALOGICAL, AND MYTHOLOGICAL
INFORMATION FROM GENERATION TO GENERATION.
As a result, members of the druidic orders were highly trained in memorization and
extemporaneous composition, making the art of storytelling vital to the survival of Celtic
traditions and folktales. The Legend of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table is
probably the most famous remnant of this art form. In addition, they practiced what we may call
psychic skills:

Image: Shuttestock.com

Casting oracles
Image: Shuttestock.com

Interpreting dreams

Image: Shuttestock.com

Reading omens

Consequently, the druids were not only priests, but also poets, historians, judges, troubadours,
and professors (not all druids practiced all these arts: they normally specialized in one or the
other).

In essence, the Celts had an agrarian and herding culture, to whom the land was an important
source of food and income. Some Celts farmed or bred livestock. Others made their living
from trading and selling goods. Many Celtic traditions reflect this way of life. One example of
this can be found in two important festivals held every year:
IMBOLC
Imbolc, observed on February 1st, “celebrated longer, light-filled days and looked forward to the
beginning of spring. It also marked the start of a new agricultural cycle. In addition, pagan
festivals at Imbolc honoured Brigit, the fire goddess” (MATSON & ROBERTS, 2010, p. 69),
which connects to the modern holiday in honour of Saint Brigit.

SAMHAIN
The second festival, Samhain, was held around November 1st and marked the beginning of
winter and the Celtic year. The dates and types of celebrations varied slightly by region, but
each included ceremonial fires and human sacrifices to gods. “In some regions, young children
would go door to door the night before Samhain, collecting provisions for the celebrations.
Sometimes celebrants would display hollowed-out turnips lit from inside with a candle”.
(MATSON & ROBERTS, 2010, p. 100) In the Celtic culture, Samhain “marked the time of year
when the barrier between the spiritual realm and the mortal world was thinnest: residents of the
Otherworld were believed to move about freely and the living could visit Otherworldly places”.
As it can be easily noticed, this celebration has obvious similarities to modern Halloween.

Normally, “celebrations marked the changing of the seasons, the beginning or ending of a
harvest, and the life cycle of livestock. Festivals were also a time to connect to the spiritual
world, honor gods and goddesses, and perform rituals that would bring good luck and health in
the coming months.” (MATSON & ROBERTS, 2010, IX)

Photo: Andrew Dunn / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 4.0

The Sun rising over Stonehenge on the morning of the Summer Solstice.

The Celtic culture contributed significantly to the cultural heritage of England. However, a set of

Germanic invasions starting in the 5th century led to the present political format of the island.

GERMANIC INVASIONS: KINGDOMS AND THE

EMBRYO OF A NATION

Anglo-Saxon settlers from northern Europe travelled to Britain in the 5th century. The kingdoms

that emerged by the 7th century later coalesced into the kingdom of England. Wilhelm et al.
(2009) explain that:

WHEN THE ROMAN EMPIRE BEGAN TO FALL, THE

ROMAN LEGIONS LEFT BRITAIN TO DEFEND ROME,
MAKING THE BRITONS EASY PREY TO INVADERS.
THEREFORE, ANGLES, SAXONS, AND JUTES –
GERMANIC TRIBES COLLECTIVELY REFERRED TO AS
ANGLO-SAXONS – BEGAN INVADING BRITAIN’S
EASTERN SHORES.
GRADUALLY, THEIR WARRIORS DROVE THE BRITONS
INTO THE MOUNTAINS AND TOOK THE LAND FOR
THEMSELVES. IT WAS A BLOODY BEGINNING FOR
THE NATION THAT WOULD COME TO BE KNOWN AS
ENGLAND.

(WILHELM, 2009, p.14)

Image: mbartelsm / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0
Britain and the Anglo-Saxons

By the early 7th century, several Anglo-Saxon kingdoms had emerged from a patchwork of
smaller units: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, and Kent represent
the attempts of having an administrative and political infrastructure for the Island. The meaning
of each kingdom is described in the following table:

KINGDOM MEANING

Northumbria In the north of Humber

Mercia In the middle, a territory between realms

East Anglia Angles of the East

Essex Saxons of the East

 Sussex Saxons of the South

Wessex Saxons of the West

Kent Coastal District


Table: The seven kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England
Created by Fellipe Fernandes Cavallero da Silva.

Attention! Drag to the sides to see the whole table

KINGDOM MEANING

Northumbria In the north of Humber

Mercia In the middle, a territory between realms

East Anglia Angles of the East

Essex Saxons of the East

Sussex Saxons of the South

Wessex Saxons of the West

 Kent Coastal District


Table: The seven kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England
Created by Fellipe Fernandes Cavallero da Silva.

This map shows kingdoms in the island of Great Britain around the year 800. The colors
indicate ethnic groups:

WESSEX: Anglo-Saxons (red).

GWYNEDD: Celts (grey).

FORTRIU: Picts (green).

Image: Sakurambo / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

If we take a closer look at the pictures above, we will realize that all the remains of Celtic culture
were pushed westward and northward, making Ireland, Wales, and Scotland their last and
modern representatives: collections of Celtic folktales, legends, and myths, as well as
archaeological monuments abound in those territories.
WHILE KINGDOMS WERE DEFINED, MISSIONARIES FROM
ROME BEGAN CONVERTING KINGS TO CHRISTIANITY.
Since Germanic pagan beliefs did not rely on written texts, which resembled the Celtic way of
preserving their culture – the art of storytelling, it was the embrace of this new faith that brought
Latin literacy and the technology of writing to the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Consequently,
Churches started importing and copying religious books, and kings began to use administrative
documents, such as law codes and charters.

Image: bl.uk / Eadfrith of Lindisfarne / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain.

Sample pages of Northumbria’s Illuminated Gospels.

By 660 A.D., Northumbria became the most powerful Anglo-Saxon kingdom. It had strong
cultural connections with Ireland and Rome, which shaped the production and circulation of
illuminated gospel books during Northumbria’s Golden Age.


Later, the kingdom of Mercia began to displace Northumbria as the most powerful English

kingdom in the early 8th century. Military prowess and political skill sustained Mercian

supremacy in the later 8th century.

However, in the 9th century, the balance of power between the kingdoms shifted again. Internal
tensions were amplified by external pressures from rival kingdoms and hostile Viking forces.
The West Saxons consolidated their power in the south and west, and military victories paved
the way for later dominance within England under King Alfred and his heirs.

Image: Bogdangiusca / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0

Viking settlements and voyages.

Inevitably, violent attacks by Viking raiders from Scandinavia became more frequent by the mid-

9th century. The raiders subsequently became ruling landowners in Northumbria, Mercia, and
East Anglia. Around 880 A.D. a peace treaty was agreed between Guthrum, leader of the Danes
in East Anglia, and Alfred, who was now recognized as king of the Anglo-Saxons. A depiction of
the wave of Scandinavian invasions can be seen just above. Thanks to the advent of
Christianity in the British Isles, Viking raiders were converted to the new faith and the constant
threats came to an end.
It was King Alfred who created a new political entity, the kingdom of the Anglo-Saxons, and
promoted a cultural revival through the patronage of the arts and scholarship, especially in the
English language. Since the Germanic dialect of the Angles had become the official language of
the kingdom, the land was named after them: Angle Land, the land of the Angles, ENGLAND.
Englisc, the language of the Angles, now had a national status and served as the instrument for
cultural and literary productions.

SC

The sc spelling represents the voiceless palatal fricative consonant sound “sh”.

The Anglo-Saxons then used Old English, a Germanic language brought from their continental
homelands, as the official means of communication and art expression. The earliest examples
are inscriptions written in runes, but Old English written in the Roman alphabet was also used
as a literary and legal language.

Image: Charles Eamer Kempe / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY 3.0

King Alfred depicted in a stained-glass window
AGAIN, KING ALFRED ENCOURAGED A REVIVAL OF
LEARNING AND SOUGHT TO RAISE THE STATUS OF WRITTEN
ENGLISH TO EQUAL LATIN.
Anglo-Saxon England was deeply connected with the wider world of Latin learning and
literature, and the multilingual and multicultural mingling continued up to the Norman Conquest

in the 11th century. Meanwhile, the stream of oral narratives, such as The Seafarer and The
Wanderer, as well as the Legend of Beowulf remained as a cultural heritage amongst the Anglo-
Saxons and are still part of British Literature course syllabi worldwide.

As it could be seen in the preceding paragraphs, the arrival of Christian missionaries brought
valuable cultural contributions to Britain. Moreover, new types of symbols, beliefs, and
celebrations became part of the island’s culture.

CELTIC CULTURE

Curious about Celtic Culture? Click to learn more about it.

LEARNING CHECK
1. READ THE TEXT BELOW:

FROM THE FIRST TO THE FIFTH CENTURY, ENGLAND WAS A PROVINCE

OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE AND WAS NAMED BRITANNIA AFTER ITS
CELTIC-SPEAKING INHABITANTS, THE CELTS. THE BRITONS ADAPTED
THEMSELVES TO ROMAN CIVILIZATION. HOWEVER, THE WITHDRAWAL
OF THE ROMAN LEGIONS DURING THE FIFTH CENTURY, IN A VAIN
ATTEMPT TO PROTECT ROME FROM THE THREAT OF GERMANIC
CONQUEST, LEFT THE ISLAND VULNERABLE TO SEAFARING
GERMANIC INVADERS. THESE BELONG PRIMARILY TO THREE RELATED
TRIBES.

(ADAPTED FROM: GREENBLATT, STEPHEN.; ABRAMS, M. H. THE

NORTON ANTHOLOGY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE – VOLUME I. LONDON:
W. W. NORTON & COMPANY, 2006, P.3-4)

BASED ON THE TEXTUAL INFORMATION ABOVE AND THE TOPICS

COVERED IN THIS SECTION, THE NAMES OF THE THREE MAJOR
GERMANIC TRIBES WHO INVADED ENGLAND IN THE FIFTH CENTURY
A.D. ARE:

A) Gaulish Celts, British Celts, and Frisians.

B) Huns, Visigoths, and Gaulish Celts.

C) Vandals, Alani, and Burgundians.

D) Picts, Franks, and Scots.

E) Angles, Saxons, and Jutes.

2. READ THE TEXT BELOW:

THE ANGLO-SAXON OCCUPATION WAS NO SUDDEN CONQUEST BUT

EXTENDED OVER DECADES OF FIGHTING AGAINST THE NATIVE
BRITONS. THE LATTER WERE, FINALLY, LARGELY CONFINED
WESTWARDS AND NORTHWARDS, WHERE MODERN FORMS OF THEIR
LANGUAGE IS SPOKEN ALONGSIDE ENGLISH TO THIS DAY.

(ADAPTED FROM: GREENBLATT, STEPHEN.; ABRAMS, M. H. THE

NORTON ANTHOLOGY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE – VOLUME I. LONDON:
W. W. NORTON & COMPANY, 2006, P.-4)

WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING COUNTRIES PRESENT MODERN FORMS OF

THE ANCIENT CELTIC LANGUAGE?

A) France, Italy, and England.

B) Northern Ireland, Spain, and Portugal.

C) Germany, The Netherlands, and Scotland.

D) Switzerland, Wales, and Ireland.

E) Scotland, Ireland, and Wales.

GABARITO

1. Read the text below:

From the first to the fifth century, England was a province of the Roman Empire and was
named Britannia after its Celtic-speaking inhabitants, the Celts. The Britons adapted
themselves to Roman civilization. However, the withdrawal of the Roman legions during
the fifth century, in a vain attempt to protect Rome from the threat of Germanic conquest,
left the island vulnerable to seafaring Germanic invaders. These belong primarily to three
related tribes.

(Adapted from: GREENBLATT, Stephen.; ABRAMS, M. H. The Norton Anthology of

English Literature – Volume I. London: W. W. Norton & Company, 2006, p.3-4)

Based on the textual information above and the topics covered in this section, the names
of the three major Germanic tribes who invaded England in the fifth century A.D. are:

Option "E " is correct.

The Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, also called Anglo-Saxons, were the main Germanic tribes that
invaded England in the fifth century A.D. and founded the first English speaking kingdom on the
island.

2. Read the text below:

The Anglo-Saxon occupation was no sudden conquest but extended over decades of
fighting against the native Britons. The latter were, finally, largely confined westwards
and northwards, where modern forms of their language is spoken alongside English to
this day.

(Adapted from: GREENBLATT, Stephen.; ABRAMS, M. H. The Norton Anthology of

English Literature – Volume I. London: W. W. Norton & Company, 2006, p.-4)

Which of the following countries present modern forms of the ancient Celtic language?

Option "E " is correct.

As the Germanic tribes expanded their territorial domination during the fifth, sixth, and seventh
centuries, the former British-Celts were continually pushed westwards and northwards to the
areas of present-day Wales, Ireland, and Scotland.

SECTION 3

 To relate the set of Christian beliefs and values to the end of Vikings’ Raids in
England

THE ARRIVAL AND PERMANENCE OF

CHRISTIANITY
It was this bloody beginning of invasions that paved the way for the rise of a nation that would
come to be known as England. Besides the societal and cultural changes brought by the Celts,
Romans, Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, it would be the Christian church the one responsible for
remodelling the culture of medieval England, influencing all aspects of life forever: politics,
warfare, education, business, art, literature, folkways, and recreation.

WHEN DID THE FIRST CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES ARRIVE IN

ENGLAND?
HOW IMPORTANT WERE THE MONASTERIES TO THE SPREAD
OF THE WRITTEN WORD, ESPECIALLY THE HOLY BIBLE?
WHO WAS THE VENERABLE BEDE AND WHY ARE HIS
WRITINGS SO IMPORTANT?
WHAT WAS SAINT PATRICK’S ROLE IN CHRISTIANITY IN THE
BRITISH ISLES?
Go on to find out.

RELIGIOUS LEGENDS AND LITERARY

WORKS: RECORDS ON EARLY
CHRISTIANITY IN THE BRITISH ISLES

THE DREAM OF THE ROOD

Listen, I will speak of the best of dreams, of what I dreamed at midnight when men and their
voices were at rest. It seemed to me that I saw a most rare tree reach high aloft, wound in light,
brightest of beams. All that beacon was covered with gold; gems stood fair where it met the
ground, five were above about the crosspiece. Many hosts of angels gazed on it, fair in the form
created for them. This was surely no felon’s gallows, but holy spirits beheld it there, men upon
earth, and all this glorious creation. Wonderful was the triumph-tree, and I stained with sins,
wounded with wrongdoings. I saw the tree of glory shine splendidly, adorned with garments,
decked with gold: jewels had worthily covered the Lord’s tree.
(GREENBLATT, Stephen; ABRAMS, M. H. The Norton Anthology of English Literature –
Volume I. London: W. W. Norton & Company, 2006, p.27)

Image: Shutterstock.com

Despite the collections of records concerning the efforts of the Roman Catholic Church to
convert Anglo-Saxon peoples into the new faith, it is worth mentioning a famous story on how
Christianity may have initially arrived on the island: The Legend of the Holy Grail.

According to the legend, Christian faith was introduced into Britain in the first century A.D. when
Joseph of Arimathea, a wealthy follower of Christ, received the Grail (the cup used by Christ at
the Last Supper) from an apparition of Jesus and was then sent with a group of followers to
Britain. Upon arriving in Britain, he is believed to have climbed up to Wearyall Hill at
Glastonbury.
Image: The Yorck Project / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
Joseph of Arimathea, Pietro Perugino, a detail from his Lamentation over the Dead Christ, 1495.

Photo: Shutterstock.com
Wearyall Hill and views of Glastonbury, Somerset, England.

Exhausted, Joseph and the group of followers lied on the ground and rested. On the following
day, Joseph and the followers established the first monastery in Glastonbury – Glastonbury
Abbey - and built its first Christian wattle church. It is also believed that Joseph buried the Holy
Grail in a secret place, possibly in an area nowadays known as The Chalice Well also in
Glastonbury:
Photo: Kurt Thomas Hunt / Wikimedia Commons/ CC BY 2.0
Chalice Well in Glastonbury.

LATER ARTHURIAN LEGENDS ELABORATED THIS STORY,

BEING THE SEARCH FOR THE VESSEL THE PRINCIPAL
QUEST OF THE KNIGHTS OF KING ARTHUR.

Historically speaking, the British-Celts had become Christians in the 4th century after the
conversion of Emperor Constantine along with most of the rest of the Roman Empire.
Nevertheless, for approximately 150 years, after the German invasions, Christianity could only
be maintained in the remote regions where the yet pagan Anglo-Saxons failed to penetrate. As
a matter of fact, the remaining Celtic survivors had been forced to move to present-day Wales,
Scotland, and Ireland, the areas where Christianity had sufficient conditions to develop and
spread.

Later, in 569, it is known that Pope Gregory I tried to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity by
sending missionaries. One of these missionaries, a Benedictine Monk named Augustine (after
Saint Augustine of Canterbury) had the mission to convert the king of Kent to Christianity (the
king’s wife had come from continental Europe and was already Christian). Although Augustine
was successful, he and his group were not able to make significant progress with ordinary
people. Surprisingly, because Christianity had already taken roots in Ireland, Celtic monks from
there were able to preach in several parts of England, being responsible for establishing the first
monastery in England on the coastal island of Lindisfarne.
Photo: Nilfanion / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0
Ruins of Lindisfarne Priory.

It was the Celtic Church that brought Christianity to the ordinary people of Britain. Following a
simple but effective methodology:

Celtic missionaries

Celtic missionaries normally went out from their monasteries of Wales, Ireland, and Scotland,
walking from village to village teaching Christianity.


Roman missionaries

The missionaries from the Roman Church, nevertheless, lived at the court of kings, which they
made centres of the Church power across England.

As it can be seen, the two churches were different in character:

Celtic Church

The members were mostly interested in the hearts of ordinary people.


Roman Church
The church aimed at authority and organization.

Moreover, Anglo-Saxon kings preferred the Roman Church to the Celtic Church for economic
reasons: villages and towns grew around the monasteries, increasing local trades. Finally, as
time went by, the value of Church approval became a type of political propaganda because it
suggested that kings were chosen not only by people but also by God.

BY THE YEAR 650, MOST OF ENGLAND MAY HAVE BECOME

CHRISTIAN AND WITHIN 75 YEARS THE ISLAND WAS
PREDOMINANTLY UNDER THE NEW FAITH.
Moreover, due to Christianity, the glimmerings of education and culture became part of the
nation’s lifestyle. Thanks to men and women who chose to dedicate their lives to work and pray,
monks and nuns joined religious orders responsible for the establishment of libraries and
schools inside the monasteries, where the importance of the written word – especially the Bible
– was strongly emphasized.

It can be said that before Christianity, there had been no books on the island. Consequently, the
impact of Christianity on literary production was of exponential rate and it is thanks to the
working of scribes that much of Anglo-Saxon oral narratives, several events involved in the
conversion of Germanic invaders into Christianity, chronicles on the Vikings’ raids, and a
handful of codes of law were registered (in Old English and Latin), preserved and passed down
from generation to generation, which allows us to have an idea on the principles, beliefs, fears,
and values of that time.

IN THE CENTURIES THAT FOLLOWED THE CONVERSION,

ENGLAND PRODUCED MANY DISTINGUISHED CHURCHMEN,
BEING THE VENERABLE BEDE (C. 632-735 A.D.) ONE OF THE
EARLIEST FIGURES.

THE VENERABLE BEDE AND HIS

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY OF THE
ENGLISH PEOPLE
Having his life totally dedicated to religion and scholarly pursuit, Venerable Bede went to study
and live in monasteries in England at the age of seven. Being a man of great learning, he had
far-ranging interests which included:

Religion

Poetry

Grammar

Music

Art

Mathematics

Science

Bede wrote mostly in Latin, the language of religion and learning at the time, rather than in Old
English, the language of the people. Fortunately for us, he was a talented storyteller, since his
histories are far more than mere chronicles of events: they present meticulously researched
stories of conquests, saints, missionaries, and monasteries.

Image: beloit.edu / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

Depiction of the Venerable Bede (CLVIIIv) from the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493.

Bede’s most popular and enduring work is the Ecclesiastical History of the English People,
which he completed in 731. The book talks about the Anglo-Saxon conquest and the difficulties
of the kingdoms that comprised Anglo-Saxon England. Its main theme, nevertheless, refers to
the spread of Christianity and the growth of the English church. Stories of saints and miracles
are also included with a view to testifying the grace and glory of God.

Abrams & Greenblatt comment that several manuscripts of Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the
English People contain the Old English text in addition to Bede’s Latin version. A sample of
Bede’s History in contemporary English, as provided by the authors, is shown below:

THE STORY OF CAEDMON

Heavenly grace had especially singled out a certain one of the brothers in the monastery ruled
by the abbess, for he used to compose devout and religious songs. Whatever he learned of
holy Scripture with the aid of interpreters, he quickly turned into the sweetest and most moving
poetry in his own language, that is to say English. It often happened that his songs kindled a
contempt for this world and a longing for the life of Heaven in the hearts of many men. Indeed,
after him others among the English people tried to compose religious poetry, but no one could
equal him because he was not taught the art of song by men or by human agency but received
this gift through heavenly grace. Therefore, he was never able to compose any vain and idle
songs but only such as dealt with religion and were proper for his religious tongue to utter. As a
matter of fact, he had lived in the secular estate until he was well advanced in age without
learning any songs. Therefore, at feasts, when it was decided to have a good time by taking
turns singing, whenever he would see the harp getting close to his place, he got up in the
middle of the meal and went home.

Once when he left the feast like this, he went to the cattle shed, which he had been assigned
the duty of guarding that night. And after he had stretched himself out and gone to sleep, he
dreamed that someone was standing at his side and greeted him, calling out his name.
“Caedmon”, he said, “sing me something”.

And he replied, “I don´t know how to sing; that is why I left the feast to come here – because I
cannot sing.”

“All the same,” said the one who was speaking to him, “you have to sing for me.”

“What must I sing?” he said.

And he said, “Sing about the Creation.”

At this, Caedmon immediately began to sing verses in praise of God the Creator, which he had
never heard before…
(Abrams & Greenblatt, 2006, p.24-25)

Image: Shutterstock.com

ABBESS

Abbess Hilda (614-680), a grandniece of the first Christian king of Northumbria,

founded a double house for monks and nuns in 657 and ruled over it for twenty-two
years.
Image: orthodoxengland.org.uk / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

HARP

Oral poetry was performed to the accompaniment of a harp; here the harp is being
passed from one participant of the feast to another, each being expected to perform
in turn.
 Image: Shutterstock.com

As we advance in reading the narrative, we discovered how an illiterate cowherd named

Caedmon miraculously received the gift of song. Moreover, details on people’s traditions, habits,
and the extent to which Christian values had become part of society are present in the text.

SAINT PATRICK’S CONTRIBUTIONS:

SYMBOLS & BELIEFS
Because Ireland was never invaded by either the Romans or the Anglo-Saxons, it easily
became a land of monasteries, having a flourishing Celtic Church Culture.

Christianity came to Ireland in about 430 A.D. Once literacy was a privilege of Christian monks,
the history of Ireland can be said to date from that time, since for the first time there were
people who could write down events. The gospel of Christ helped displace the traditional power
of the Druids, who had been the religious authorities of the country for centuries.

The message of Christianity was successfully spread in Ireland by a British slave named
Patrick, who would later become Saint Patrick, the patron saint of the nation. Although
legendary and historical facts intertwine, an overall perspective of his contributions to the
establishment and development of Christianity in Ireland can be given.

Image: Nheyob / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 4.0

Stained-glass window of St. Patrick from Saint Patrick Catholic Church, Junction City, Ohio,
United States

Traditionally called “The Apostle of Ireland”, it is believed Patrick was born around 385 A.D.
into a wealthy family in Roman Britain. In his Confessions, details on his life and beliefs can be
found, especially his period of captivity at the age of sixteen and his being sent to Ireland to
spread the message of the Lord.

Upon being taken prisoner by a group of Irish raiders, he was transported as a slave to Ireland
and worked as a shepherd. Feeling lonely and afraid, he turned to his religion for solace, which
made him become a devout Christian. It was also at this time that, as it is commonly believed,
Patrick dreamed of converting the Irish people to Christianity.

After more than six years in captivity, Patrick managed to escape and return to his homeland.
According to his Confessions, he heard a voice – which he believed to be God’s voice – telling
him in a dream that he had to leave Ireland. Sometime later, he had another dream – this time
an angel tells him to return to Ireland as a missionary. In order to fulfil God’s command, he
immediately began religious training, a special course of study to which he devoted more than
fifteen years of his life.
UPON BEEN ORDAINED AS A PRIEST, PATRICK WAS SENT
BACK TO IRELAND WITH A DUAL MISSION: THE FIRST, TO
MINISTER TO CHRISTIANS WHO HAD ALREADY BEEN LIVING
THERE; THE SECOND, TO CONVERT THE IRISH.
Since he was familiar with the Irish language and cultural habits, Patrick decided to incorporate
traditional rituals into his lessons on Christianity instead of trying to eradicate native Irish beliefs.
It was his sensitivity and ingenuity to deal with the inevitable clash of different beliefs involved in
pagan and Christian values that made his work as a missionary fruitful. For example, Patrick
used bonfires to celebrate Easter, since the Irish were used to honouring their gods with fire.

Patrick also had the idea of superimposing a sun, another important and valuable symbol of the
Irish culture, onto the cross to create what is nowadays called The Celtic Cross with a view to
making veneration of the symbol more natural to Irish people.

Photo: Shutterstock.com
The Celtic Cross.

In order to teach the Irish the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, Patrick used the famous shamrock, a
three-leafed plant, to illustrate the Christian belief of three persons in one God. This is the
reason why the shamrock has been a central symbol for Saint Patrick’s Day, celebrated on

March 17th, the date of his death in 461 A.D.

The introduction of Christianity to the British Isles allowed the register of traditional oral
narratives in Old English, the official language of Anglo-Saxon England.
THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY

Although Protestant nowadays, British culture has a strong influence of Catholicism. Check it
out in this video.

LEARNING CHECK

1. READ THE TEXT BELOW:

THIS KING LAY AT CAMELOT AT CHRISTMASTIDE.

MANY GOOD KNIGHTS AND GAY HIS GUESTS WERE THERE,
ARRAYED OF THE ROUND TABLE RIGHTFUL BROTHERS,
WITH FEASTING AND FELLOWSHIP AND CAREFREE MIRTH.

(GREENBLATT, STEPHEN.; ABRAMS, M. H. THE NORTON ANTHOLOGY

OF ENGLISH LITERATURE – VOLUME I. LONDON: W. W. NORTON &
COMPANY, 2006, P163)

THE TEXT ABOVE TELLS US ABOUT KING ARTHUR AND THE KNIGHTS
OF THE ROUND TABLE, WHOSE MAIN QUEST WAS RELATED TO
FINDING A SACRED OBJECT, THE HOLY GRAIL. ACCORDING TO THE
LEGEND, WHO BROUGHT AND BURIED THIS SACRED OBJECT IN
BRITAIN?

A) Saint Patrick

B) Pope Gregory I

C) The Benedictine Augustine

D) The Venerable Bede

E) Joseph of Arimathea

2. READ THE TEXT BELOW:

THE VENERABLE BEDE AND OTHER MONKS COMPOSED THEIR OWN

SCHOLARLY LITERATURE, WHICH REPRESENTS THE FIRST WRITTEN
LITERATURE IN ENGLAND. HOWEVER, BEDE STANDS OUT DUE TO HIS
INNUMEROUS CONTRIBUTIONS ON RELIGIOUS, HISTORICAL, SOCIAL,
AND LINGUISTIC ISSUES.

(ADAPTED FROM: WILHELM, JEFFREY D. ET AL. BRITISH LITERATURE.

COLUMBUS: MCGRAW HILL GLENCOE, 2009, P.14)

WHICH OF BEDE’S WORKS BELOW OFFERS A REMARKABLY

COMPLETE PICTURE OF EARLY ANGLO-SAXON LIFE, TIME, AND
CONVERSION TO CHRISTIANITY?

A) History of the Abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow

B) Martyrology

C) Hymns

D) Commentary on the Apocalypse

E) Ecclesiastical History of the English People

GABARITO

1. Read the text below:

This king lay at Camelot at Christmastide.

Many good knights and gay his guests were there,
Arrayed of the Round Table rightful brothers,
With feasting and fellowship and carefree mirth.

(GREENBLATT, Stephen.; ABRAMS, M. H. The Norton Anthology of English Literature –

Volume I. London: W. W. Norton & Company, 2006, p163)

The text above tells us about King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, whose
main quest was related to finding a sacred object, the Holy Grail. According to the
legend, who brought and buried this sacred object in Britain?

Option "E " is correct.

As the legend states, Joseph of Arimathea became a missionary after the death of Jesus and
was eventually sent to England to preach the Gospel. He took with him the Holy Grail, which he
buried in a secret place in Glastonbury.

2. Read the text below:

The Venerable Bede and other monks composed their own scholarly literature, which
represents the first written literature in England. However, Bede stands out due to his
innumerous contributions on religious, historical, social, and linguistic issues.

(Adapted from: WILHELM, Jeffrey D. et al. British Literature. Columbus: McGraw Hill
Glencoe, 2009, p.14)

Which of Bede’s works below offers a remarkably complete picture of early Anglo-Saxon
life, time, and conversion to Christianity?

Option "E " is correct.

Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People outlines the Anglo-Saxon society of the time
and serves as a source on the history of their conversion to Christianity.

SECTION 4

 To identify the social, political, and historical factors which led to the rise of the
English language and its first literary productions

THE RISE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

The arrival of the Germanic tribes in Britain in the 5th century provoked innumerable
modifications on the island, especially in terms of linguistic issues: both the Celtic dialects from
the Britons and the Latin from the Romans were replaced by a Germanic-based Indo-European
language: Anglo-Saxon, which would later be called Old English and become the official,
“national” language of the island in the ninth century.

Over the course of time, English gained political, cultural, and economic status all over the
globe, being the world’s lingua franca of the contemporary era. Moreover, due to the spread of
Christianity in the British Isles, versions of traditional Anglo-Saxon oral literature – epic poems,
folktales, myths, legends, sagas, etc. – were written down by Christian monks, which made
those narratives and poems be passed down from generation to generation over the course of
time.

HOW DID THE GERMANIC TRIBES MANAGE TO CONQUER

BRITAIN?
WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF TRADITIONAL OLD ENGLISH
POETRY?
HOW WAS THE OLD ENGLISH LATIN ALPHABET DEVISED?
This is the final chapter of this story.
THE ORIGINS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
They consulted what was to be done, and where they should seek assistance to prevent or
repel the cruel and frequent incursions of the northern nations; and they all agreed with their
King Vortigern to call over to their aid, from parts beyond the sea, the Saxon nation ...

In the year of our Lord 449… the nation of the Angles or Saxons, being invited by the aforesaid
king, arrived in Britain with three long ships, and had a place assigned them to reside in by the
same king, in the eastern part of the island, that they might thus appear to be fighting for their
country, whilst their real intentions were to enslave it. Accordingly, they engaged with the enemy,
who would come from the north to give battle, and obtained victory; which, being known at
home in their own country, as also the fertility of the country, and the cowardice of the Britons, a
more considerable fleet was quickly sent over, bringing a still greater number of men, which,
being added to the former, made up an invincible army…

(ST. BEDE. The Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation. Translated by Lionel Cecil
Jane. New York: Cosimo Classics, 2007, p. 22)

Image: Shutterstock.com

The narrative in the citation above gives us a brief account of the moment a group of Germanic

tribes realized the opportunity to take over Britain in the 5th century A.D.:

The Angles
The Saxons

The Jutes

Although the fighting went on for several decades, the Britons did not manage to overcome the
imposition of Anglo-Saxon power. Moreover, over a period of about a hundred years, more and
more bands of Germanic immigrants continued to arrive on the island, which caused the Anglo-
Saxon settlements to spread all over Britain, except the highlands of the west and north.

Consequently, by the end of the 5th century, the foundation of a Germanic-linguistic strata was
established for the emergence of a language that would achieve international status centuries
later: the English language.

When referred to as having a Germanic-based stratum, we mean that English is a member of

the western Germanic branch of languages, which is, in turn, a branch of the Indo-European
language family.

Image: Yuri Cooke.

Germanic Family of Languages

Not only had Britain become a melting pot of cultures – the British-Celts, the Romans, and now
the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, but also a plurilinguistic territory, if we consider the variety of
dialectical contributions from every people. Nevertheless, the dialects spoken by the Germanic
tribes evolved into a separate language called English.

Crystal (1996) explains that, by the end of the sixth century, the term Angli (‘Angles’) was in use
and, as early as 601, a king of Kent (one of the first British territories to be settled by Germanic
tribes, most notably the Jutes) named Aethelberht, was called Rex Anglorum (‘King of the

Angles’). Moreover, during the 7th century, the Latin-based terms Angli or Anglia became the
usual names to refer to the country. Thus, Old English Engle derives from this usage, “and the
name of the language found in Old English texts is from the outset referred to as Englisc.
References to the name of the country as Englaland (= Engle + Land = ‘Land of the Angleos’),
from which came England, do not appear until circa 1000”. (CRYSTAL, 1996, p.7)

Photo: Saforrest / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0

Sculpture of Aethelberht on Canterbury Cathedral in England

Image: Hel-hama / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0

The state of Anglo-Saxon England at the time Aethelberht came to the throne of Kent.

Finally, scholars tend to make a distinction between the terms Anglo-Saxon and Old English.
The former is normally used to refer to all aspects of the early period – people, culture, and
language. The latter has been the preferred one since it emphasizes the continuing
development of English, from its Anglo-Saxon times through Middle English to the present day.
All in all, it can be said that Anglo-Saxon can be understood as the primary manifestations of a
Germanic-based language on the island and the embryo of what later developed into Old
English.

Old English was first written in the runic alphabet, commonly used in northern Europe –
Scandinavia, being preserved in several inscriptions and a few manuscripts. The common runic
alphabet consists of twenty-four letters and each letter has a name and the alphabet as a whole
was named after its first six letters – F.U.TH.O.R.C (see below), in the same way as the word
alphabet comes from Greek alpha + beta.

Image: Rursus / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

Runic Alphabet

It is believed that the pagan Vikings and Germanic tribes attributed magical or mystical powers
to the Runes. This information can be easily found in Germanic Mythology and Sagas, as it can
be seen in the following two passages:
PASSAGE I

War runes you must know

if wise would be [...]

Wave runes you must cut

to over with care

your sailed steeds in swimming [...]

Speech runes you must know,

to be spared, if you wish

repayment of grief rendered […]

Life runes you must learn

for those labouring with child,

to deliver babe safe and sound […]

Twig runes you must know

for treating the sick,

to see wisely to wounds […]

Mind runes you must learn

if other men you would

quite outweigh in wisdom.

(FINCH, R. D. The Saga of the Volsungs. Melbourne: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., 1965,
p.36-37.)

PASSAGE II

The highest and the oldest of all the gods is Odin. Odin knows many secrets. He gave an eye
for wisdom. More than that, for knowledge of runes, and for power, he sacrificed himself to
himself. He hung from the world-tree, Yggdrasil, hung there for nine nights. His side was
pierced by the point of a spear, which wounded him gravely. The winds clutched at him, buffeted
his body as it hung. Nothing did he eat for nine days or nine nights, nothing did he drink. He was
alone there, in pain, the light of his life slowly going out. He was cold, in agony, and on the point
of death when his sacrifice bore dark fruit: in the ecstasy of his agony he looked down, and the
runes were revealed to him. He knew them, and understood them and their power. The rope
broke then, and he fell, screaming, from the tree. Now he understood magic. Now the world was
his to control.

(GAILMAN, Neil. Norse Mythology. London: W. W Norton & Company, 2017, p.15)

Runes were typically used for short messages, as they can be found in monuments across
Scandinavia and the British Isles. However, as Latin was the official language inside the

monasteries, Christian monks – the only people who could read and write before the 14th
century – had to add some Runic signs to the alphabet so that they could write in Old English,
creating what later became the Old English Latin Alphabet in the 700s. Thanks to their initiative,
most of the native English culture they preserved was not registered in Latin, the language of
the church, but in Old English, the language of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. As McRae and
Carter (1997) speculate, it would seem that the church, in preserving texts in Old English, was
aware of a particular English linguistic and cultural identity.

It was in this alphabet that traditional Anglo-Saxon oral narratives and poems were then
registered, which can offer us an overview of the Germanic peoples’ beliefs, values, and
traditions. The Seafarer, The Wanderer, and the epic poem Beowulf stand out as great
examples of the Anglo-Saxon mindset.

ANGLO-SAXON ORAL LITERATURE: THE

SEAFARER, THE WANDERER, AND
BEOWULF
THE TWO MOST IMPORTANT INFLUENCES ON OLD
ENGLISH LITERATURE WERE THE GERMANIC
TRADITIONS AND THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. ANGLO-
SAXON LITERARY TRADITION WAS DEEPLY ROOTED
IN THE DARK, HEROIC TALES OF GERMANIC
MYTHOLOGY, WHICH DEPICT A TRAGIC WORLD IN
WHICH EVEN THE GODS ULTIMATELY PERISH. SINCE
GERMANIC RELIGIOUS BELIEFS HELD NO PROMISE
OF AN AFTERLIFE, THE WARRIOR’S (OR THE
EVERYDAY PERSON’S) PRIMARY GOAL WAS TO
ACHIEVE FAME IN THIS LIFE. THE COMING OF
CHRISTIANITY, WITH ITS OMNIPOTENT GOD AND
PROMISE OF ETERNAL LIFE, DID NOT SO MUCH
REPLACE THIS STARK GERMANIC MYTHOLOGY AS
COEXIST WITH IT.

(WILHELM et al., 2009, p.12-14)

McRae and Carter (1997, p. 11) comment that Old English poetry is characterized by a number
of poetic tropes which enable a writer to describe things indirectly and which require a reader
imaginatively to construct their meaning. The most widespread of these figurative descriptions
are what are known as Kennings. Moreover, Old English poetry also contained a wide range of
conventional poetic diction, many of the words being created to allow alliterative patterns to be
made. According to Borges (2002, p.5):

TROPES

A trope is something such as an idea, phrase, or image that is often used in a particular
artist's work, in a particular type of art. In our case, it refers to a linguistic manifestation,
 such as kennings.

ALLITERATIVE

Alliteration is the use, especially in poetry, of the same sound or sounds, especially
consonants, at the beginning of several words that are close together.

BECAUSE POETS WERE ALWAYS TALKING ABOUT

THE SAME THINGS, ALWAYS DEALING WITH THE
SAME THEMES - THAT IS: SPEARS, KINGS, SWORDS,
THE EARTH, THE SUN - AND AS THERE WERE WORDS
THAT DID NOT BEGIN WITH THE SAME LETTER, THEY
HAD TO FIND A SOLUTION. THE ONLY POETRY THAT
EXISTED WAS EPIC POETRY. FOR THIS POETRY,
WHICH WAS ONLY EPIC, THEY FORMED COMPOUND
WORDS TO DENOTE THINGS WHOSE NAMES DID NOT
BEGIN WITH THE REQUISITE LETTER. THESE KINDS
OF FORMATIONS ARE POSSIBLE, AND NORMAL, IN
THE GERMANIC LANGUAGES. THEY REALIZED THAT
THESE COMPOUND WORDS COULD VERY WELL BE
USED AS METAPHORS. IN THIS WAY, THEY BEGAN TO
CALL THE SEA “WHALE-ROAD”, “SAIL-ROAD”, OR
“FISH-BATH”; THEY CALLED THE SHIP “SEA-
STALLION”, OR “SEA-STAG”, OR “SEA-BOAR”,
ALWAYS USING THE NAMES OF ANIMALS; AS A
GENERAL RULE, THEY THOUGHT OF THE SHIP AS A
LIVING BEING. THE KING WAS CALLED “THE
PEOPLE’S SHEPHERD”, AND ALSO – THIS SURELY
FOR THE MINSTRELS’ SAKE, FOR THEIR OWN
BENEFIT – “RING-GIVER” […] AS FOR THE USE OF
ALLITERATION, IT IS INTERESTING TO NOTE THAT A
VERSE IS CONSIDERED ALLITERATIVE EVEN IF IT
CONTAINS STRESSED WORDS BEGINNING WITH
DIFFERENT VOWELS. IF A VERSE CONTAINS A WORD
WITH THE VOWEL A, ANOTHER WITH E, AND
ANOTHER WITH I, THEY ARE ALLITERATED.

(BORGES, 2002, p.5)

BEARING THE PREVIOUS INFORMATION IN MIND, WE ARE

NOW ABLE TO EXPLOIT SOME LINES OF THREE IMPORTANT
LITERARY TEXTS IN OLD ENGLISH: THE SEAFARER, THE
WANDERER, AND BEOWULF.
Created by an unknown writer, The Seafarer is representative of the somewhat grim Anglo-
Saxon worldview. In their culture, a person’s fate was unavoidable, i.e., all roads led
inescapably to death. In the poem, this view is united with Christian notions of heaven and God.
These elements are highlighted in the passage below.

This tale is true, and mine. It tells

How the sea shook me, swept me back

And forth in sorrow and fear and pain,

Showed me suffering in a hundred ships,

In a thousand ports, and in me. […]

Thus the joys of God

Are fervent with life, where life itself

Fades quickly into the earth. The wealth

Of the world neither reaches to Heaven nor remains.

No man has ever faced the dawn

Certain which of Fate’s three threats

Would fall: illness, or age, or an enemy’s

Sword, snatching the life from his soul.

(RAFFEL, Burton. Poems and Prose from the Old English. New Have: Yale University, 1998,
p. 10-12)

Image: Patrick W. Conner / people.umass.edu / Public Domain

The Seafarer  Manuscript in Old English

Also composed by an unknown writer, The Wanderer focuses on the theme of the solitary
outcast, with no help or protection from a noble lord. In Anglo-Saxon culture, every family or
tribe had a warrior chief, who in turn served a noble or royal warlord. Each warlord and his
followers formed a close-knit group. Warlords rewarded the bravest of their followers with
treasure, and warriors responded by showing absolute loyalty to their leaders. Destitute from his
warlord support, the singer recalls the glorious days of his fortunate past and sings of loss, grief,
and, above all, exile, as can be seen in the elements in bold in the following passage.

This lonely traveler longs for grace,

For the mercy of God; grief hangs on

His heart and follows the frost-cold foam

He cuts in the sea, sailing endlessly,

Aimlessly, in exile. Fate has opened

A single port: memory. He sees

His kinsmen slaughtered again, and cries:

"I've drunk too many lonely dawns,

Gray with mourning. Once there were men

To whom my heart could hurry, hot

With open longing. They're long since dead.

My heart has closed on itself, quietly

Learning that silence is noble and sorrow

Nothing that speech can cure. Sadness

Has never driven sadness off;

Fate blows hardest on a bleeding heart.

(RAFFEL, Burton. Poems and Prose from the Old English. New Have: Yale University, 1998,
p. 7)
Image: The Exeter Anthology of Old English Poems / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
The Wanderer  Manuscript in Old English

Finally, Beowulf is one of Europe’s first literary works to be composed in the vernacular, or the
language of the people, rather than in Latin, the language of the church scholarship at the time.
As typical of every epic, Beowulf related the deeds of a great national hero who arose in the
Anglo-Saxon’s ancestral home on the European mainland, where legends about him were part
of the oral tradition of the Germanic tribes.

According to Wilhelm et al. (2009, p. 220): “It is uncertain whether the Beowulf poet composed
the poem orally and later transcribed it or wrote it down in the form in which we now have it. But
at some time, the poem was written down, and Christian scribes made a copy of it in the late
tenth century. It is their manuscript that has survived over the years, despite various
misadventures. Today, the Beowulf manuscript is carefully preserved in the British Library in
London”.
Image: British Library / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
Beowulf  Manuscript in Old English

In summary, Beowulf – protagonist of the epic – is a hero who fights the monster
Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and a fire-breathing dragon. As we advance in the lines of the
epic poem, it is possible to see how Beowulf’s boasts single him out as the strongest, ablest
warrior around. Moreover, he is able to unite a set of essential values over the course of his life:
in his youth, he personifies all the best values of the heroic culture and, in his old age, he
becomes a wise and effective ruler.

The passages below emphasize Beowulf’s boldness, Christian elements, and the hero’s funeral:

GRENDEL ATTACKS THE DANES

A powerful monster, living down

In the darkness, growled in pain, impatient

As day after day the music rang

Loud in that hall, the harp’s rejoicing

Call and the poet’s clear songs, sung

Of the ancient beginnings of us all, recalling

The Almighty making the earth, shaping

These beautiful plains marked off by oceans,

Then proudly setting the sun and moon

To glow across the land and light it;

The corners of the earth were made lovely with trees

And leaves, made quick with life, with each

Of the nations who now move on its face [...]

UNFERTH'S CHALLENGE
Beowulf answered…:

“Ah! Unferth, my friend, your face

Is hot with ale…. But the truth

Is simple: No man swims in the sea

As I can, no strength is a match for mine [...]

BEOWULF'S FUNERAL
A huge heap of wood was ready,

Hung around with helmets, and battle

As Beowulf had asked. The bearers brought

Their beloved lord, their glorious king,

And weeping laid him high on the wood

Then the warriors began to kindle that greatest

Of funeral fires; smoke rose

Above the flames, black and thick,

And while the wind blew and the fire

Roared they wept, and Beowulf's body

Crumbled and was gone [...]

(RAFFEL, Burton. Beowulf. New York: Signet Classics, 2008, p.8,25,127)

By reading just some lines of the epic poem, we can identify the anthropological, mystical,
religious, societal, and cultural systems the Germanic Tribes took to the British Isles, as well as
virtues every warrior should possess in order to achieve glory and fame.

OLD ENGLISH

Let’s wander through the beginning of English Language.

LEARNING CHECK

1. THE FOLLOWING TEXT IS A MODERN TRANSLATION OF THE FIRST

LINES OF THE ELEGIAC POEM THE SEAFEARER:

TRUE IS THE TALE THAT I TELL OF MY TRAVELS,

SING OF MY SEA-FARING SORROWS AND WOES;
HUNGER AND HARDSHIP’S HEAVIEST BURDENS,
TEMPEST AND TERRIBLE TOIL OF THE DEEP.
THE HIGHLIGHTED ELEMENTS IN BOLD EXEMPLIFY A TYPICAL
TECHNIQUE EMPLOYED BY OLD-ENGLISH POETS. WHICH ONE?

A) Kennings

B) Metaphors

C) Assonance

D) Alliteration

E) Rhyming

2. READ THE TEXT BELOW:

THE ANGLO-SAXON TRADITIONS HAVE A SPECIAL WORD FOR A

COMPOUND EXPRESSION WITH A METAPHORICAL MEANING. SO, AS
YOU ARE RE SITTING BY THE FIRE ONE NIGHT, ENJOYING AN
ANTHOLOGY OF ANGLO-SAXON POETRY, YOU MIGHT COME ACROSS
POEMS ABOUT BRAVE MEN ABOARD A WAVE-FLOATER (I.E., A SHIP).
THESE SPECIAL WORDS WERE OFTEN USED TO DESCRIBE EVERYDAY
PEOPLE, ANIMALS, AND OBJECTS.

(ADAPTED FROM: HTTPS://EXAMPLES.YOURDICTIONARY.COM/)

THE TEXT MENTIONS AN IMPORTANT LINGUISTIC RESOURCE USED BY

ANGLO-SAXON POETS IN THEIR ORAL COMPOSITIONS. WHICH ONE?

A) Synecdoches

B) Zeugmas

C) Anaphoras

D) Kennings

E) Alliterations
GABARITO

1. The following text is a modern translation of the first lines of the elegiac poem The
Seafearer:

True is the tale that I tell of my travels,

Sing of my sea-faring sorrows and woes;
Hunger and hardship’s heaviest burdens,
Tempest and terrible toil of the deep.

The highlighted elements in bold exemplify a typical technique employed by Old-English

poets. Which one?

Option "D " is correct.

By definition, “alliteration” is the use, especially in poetry, of the same sound or sounds,
especially consonants, at the beginning of several words that are close together.

2. Read the text below:

The Anglo-Saxon traditions have a special word for A COMPOUND EXPRESSION with a
METAPHORICAL MEANING. So, as you are re sitting by the fire one night, enjoying an
anthology of Anglo-Saxon poetry, you might come across poems about brave men
aboard a WAVE-FLOATER (i.e., a ship). These special words were often used to describe
everyday people, animals, and objects.

(Adapted from: https://examples.yourdictionary.com/)

The text mentions an important linguistic resource used by Anglo-Saxon poets in their
oral compositions. Which one?

Option "D " is correct.

Kennings are compound words which are used as metaphors.

CONCLUSION

FINAL ISSUES
We have explored the historical, social, and linguistic elements which served as the
fundamentals of the cultural roots of Great Britain and the English Language.

As we have seen, three important peoples are responsible for the development of an
intercultural perspective concerning the British: the former British-Celts, the Romans, and the
Germanic tribes under the names of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. Moreover, we have also
learned that it was due to the establishment of the Anglo-Saxon power on the island that a
specific Germanic dialect developed – Old English, which became the common language in
each kingdom and, centuries later, gained international status as the world’s lingua franca.

Additionally, we were able to understand the importance of Christianity both as a religious and
literary institution. Thanks to devoted Church scholars, a specific writing system based on the
Latin and Runic alphabet was devised – The Old English Latin Alphabet, which paved the way
for the registers of several traditional oral narratives and poems present in the everyday lives of
the Germanic tribes.

In closing, we hope that upon studying the aforementioned elements, you have been able to
understand what the cultural roots of Great Britain and the English Language are based on.

UNIT RATING:
REFERENCES
BAUGH, A. C.; CABLE, T. A History of the English Language. Routledge, 2002.

BLOCKMANS, W.; HOPPENBROUWERS, P. Introduction to Medieval Europe (300-1500).

Routledge, 2018.

BORGES, J. L. A course on English literature. New Direction Books, 2002.

CARTER, R.; MCRAE, J. The Routledge History of Literature in English: Britain and Ireland.
Routledge, 1997.

CRYSTAL, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. CUP, 1996.

DA SILVA, A. M. Literatura Inglesa para Brasileiros. Ciência Moderna, 2006.

FINCH, R. D. The Saga of the Volsungs. Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., 1965.

GAILMAN, N. Norse Mythology. W. W. Norton & Company, 2017.

GREENBLATT, S.; ABRAMS, M. H. The Norton Anthology of English Literature – Volume I.

W. W. Norton & Company, 2006.

MATSON, G.; ROBERTS, J. Celtic Mythology A to Z. Chelsea House Publisher, 2010.

MCDOWALL, D. An Illustrated History of Britain. Longman, 1989.

MORGAN, Kenneth O. The Oxford Illustrated History of Britain. Oxford University Press,
2000.

RAFFEL, B. Poems and Prose from the Old English. Yale University, 1998.

RAFFEL, B. Beowulf. Signet Classics, 2008.

ST. BEDE. The Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation. Translated by Lionel Cecil Jane.
Cosimo Classics, 2007, p. 22.

TREVELYAN, G. M. História Concisa da Inglaterra. Publicações Europa-América, 1991.

GO FURTHER
The Dream of the Rood is a beautiful poem written in Old English. You can read its
contemporary English version by checking the Old English Poetry website.

The legend of the Holy Grail is one of the most enduring in Western European literature and art.
Find out more about it by checking The British Library Online Gallery – Mythical Quest.

The Poetry Foundation has devised modern versions of Old English poems and narratives.
You can read a modern version of the Anglo-Saxon Epic Beowulf, by accessing its website.

The History of England is a fascinating subject. The English Heritage Website offers a handful
of information on it. If you wish to explore more details, just check their website.

Confessio is a nice website on Saint Patrick’s Confessions.

CONTENT AUTHOR
Fellipe Fernandes Cavallero da Silva

 CURRÍCULO LATTES