110 Chapter 2: Natural Soil Deposits and Subsoil Exploration

where
cu 5 undrained shear strength of a clay
Ep
Np 5 1 1 ln ¢ ≤
3cu
Typical values of Np vary between 5 and 12, with an average of about 8.5. Ohya et al.
(1982) (see also Kulhawy and Mayne, 1990) correlated Ep with field standard penetration
numbers (N60 ) for sand and clay as follows:

Clay: Ep (kN>m2 ) 5 1930N 0.63

60 (2.59)
Sand: Ep (kN>m2 ) 5 908N 0.66
60 (2.60)

2.23 Dilatometer Test

The use of the flat-plate dilatometer test (DMT) is relatively recent (Marchetti, 1980;
Schmertmann, 1986). The equipment essentially consists of a flat plate measuring 220 mm
(length) 3 95 mm (width) 3 14 mm (thickness). A thin, flat, circular, expandable steel
membrane having a diameter of 60 mm is located flush at the center on one side of the plate
(Figure 2.34a). Figure 2.35 shows two flat-plate dilatometers with other instruments for
conducting a test in the field. The dilatometer probe is inserted into the ground with a cone
penetrometer testing rig (Figure 2.34b). Gas and electric lines extend from the surface control
box, through the penetrometer rod, and into the blade. At the required depth, high-pressure
nitrogen gas is used to inflate the membrane. Two pressure readings are taken:

1. The pressure A required to “lift off” the membrane.

2. The pressure B at which the membrane expands 1.1 mm into the surrounding soil

60
mm

Figure 2.34 (a) Schematic diagram of a

95 mm
flat-plate dilatometer; (b) dilatometer probe
(a) (b) inserted into ground
 2.23 Dilatometer Test 111

Figure 2.35 Dilatometer and other equipment (Courtesy of N. Sivakugan, James Cook University,
Australia)

The A and B readings are corrected as follows (Schmertmann, 1986):

Contact stress, po 5 1.05(A 1 DA 2 Zm ) 2 0.05(B 2 DB 2 Zm ) (2.61)

Expansion stress, p1 5 B 2 Zm 2 DB (2.62)

where
DA 5 vacuum pressure required to keep the membrane in contact with its seating
DB 5 air pressure required inside the membrane to deflect it outward to a center expan-
sion of 1.1 mm
Zm 5 gauge pressure deviation from zero when vented to atmospheric pressure
The test is normally conducted at depths 200 to 300 mm apart. The result of a given test is
used to determine three parameters:
p1 2 po
1. Material index, ID 5
po 2 uo
po 2 uo
2. Horizontal stress index, KD 5
sor
3. Dilatometer modulus, ED (kN>m2 ) 5 34.7(p1 kN>m2 2 po kN>m2 )
112 Chapter 2: Natural Soil Deposits and Subsoil Exploration

where
uo 5 pore water pressure
sor 5 in situ vertical effective stress

Figure 2.36 shows the results of a dilatometer test conducted in Bangkok soft clay
and reported by Shibuya and Hanh (2001). Based on his initial tests, Marchetti (1980) pro-
vided the following correlations.

KD 0.47
Ko 5 ¢ ≤ 2 0.6 (2.63)
1.5

OCR 5 (0.5KD ) 1.56 (2.64)

cu
5 0.22 (for normally consolidated clay) (2.65)
sor

pO , p1 (kN/m2) ID KD ED (kN/m2)
0 300 600 0 0.3 0.6 0 3 6 0 2,000 4,000 5,000
0

6
Depth (m)

p1
10 pO

12

14

Figure 2.36 A dilatometer test result conducted on soft Bangkok clay (Redrawn from Shibuya
and Hanh, 2001)
 2.24 Coring of Rocks 113

cu cu
¢ ≤ 5 ¢ ≤ (0.5KD ) 1.25 (2.66)
sor OC sor NC
Es 5 (1 2 m2s )ED (2.67)

where
Ko 5 coefficient of at-rest earth pressure
OCR 5 overconsolidation ratio
OC 5 overconsolidated soil
NC 5 normally consolidated soil
Es 5 modulus of elasticity
Other relevant correlations using the results of dilatometer tests are as follows:
• For undrained cohesion in clay (Kamei and Iwasaki, 1995):

cu 5 0.35 s0r (0.47KD ) 1.14 (2.68)

• For soil friction angle (ML and SP-SM soils) (Ricceri et al., 2002):

KD
f r 5 31 1 (2.69a)
0.236 1 0.066KD

r 5 28 1 14.6 logKD 2 2.1(logKD ) 2

fult (2.69b)

Schmertmann (1986) also provided a correlation between the material index (ID )
and the dilatometer modulus (ED ) for a determination of the nature of the soil and its unit
weight (g). This relationship is shown in Figure 2.37.

2.24 Coring of Rocks

When a rock layer is encountered during a drilling operation, rock coring may be neces-
sary. To core rocks, a core barrel is attached to a drilling rod. A coring bit is attached to
the bottom of the barrel (Fig. 2.38). The cutting elements may be diamond, tungsten, car-
bide, and so on. Table 2.10 summarizes the various types of core barrel and their sizes, as
well as the compatible drill rods commonly used for exploring foundations. The coring is
advanced by rotary drilling. Water is circulated through the drilling rod during coring, and
the cutting is washed out.
114 Chapter 2: Natural Soil Deposits and Subsoil Exploration

200
Clay Silt Sand
id
rig
Silty Clayey Sandy Silty ry
Ve .15)
(2
100
gid
Ri 0)
0
ns
e (2.
de
50 e ry 0)
V 2.1
( id ity
rig
d ium 0)
nse Me (1.9
Dilatometer modulus, ED (MN/m2)

De 5)
9
(1. ty
rd idi
20 Ha 5) ty w rig
(2.
0
de nsi Lo 1.80)
m (
cy diu .80)
ten e
sis M (1
c on )
10 gh 1.90 ose
Hi ( ity Lo 0)
cy ens (1.
7
ten ow d 0)
n sis L
(1.
7
c o
m )
diu (1.80
5 Me sib
le
cy p res
ten m )
n sis Co (1.60
o
wc 0)*
Lo (1.7
Figure 2.37 Chart for determination
2 ft of soil description and unit weight
So )*
60
(1. (After Schmertmann, 1986)
1.2 (Note: 1 t>m3 5 9.81 kN>m3)
0.35 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.8 3.3
1.0 (Schmertmann, J. H. (1986). “Suggested
(␥) – Approximate soil unit weight in
Mud/Peat t/m3 shown in parentheses method for performing the flat dilatometer
(1.50) * – If PI > 50, then ␥ in these regions is test,” Geotechnical Testing Journal,
overestimated by about 0.10 t/m3 ASTM, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 93-101, Fig. 2.
0.5
10 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 Copyright ASTM INTERNATIONAL.
Material index, ID Reprinted with permission.)

Table 2.10 Standard Size and Designation of Casing, Core Barrel, and Compatible Drill Rod
Outside Outside
Casing and diameter of diameter of Diameter of Diameter of
core barrel core barrel bit Drill rod drill rod borehole core sample
designation (mm) designation (mm) (mm) (mm)

EX 36.51 E 33.34 38.1 22.23

AX 47.63 A 41.28 50.8 28.58
BX 58.74 B 47.63 63.5 41.28
NX 74.61 N 60.33 76.2 53.98

Two types of core barrel are available: the single-tube core barrel (Figure 2.38a)
and the double-tube core barrel (Figure 2.38b). Rock cores obtained by single-tube
core barrels can be highly disturbed and fractured because of torsion. Rock cores
smaller than the BX size tend to fracture during the coring process. Figure 2.39 shows