Chapter

THE LIVING WORLD

01 TAlithdoner
I Ian and
t me am out

WHAT IS LIVING?
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
Defining
Non - Defining Characteristics
Characteristics
Metabolism,
Growth Cellular organisation
Reproduction Consciousness

Self - consciousness Defining feature of human beings.

NOMENCLATURE

• Obviously, nomenclature or naming is only possible when the organism is described correctly. This is identification.

International Code for Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN). International Code for Viral Nomenclature (ICVN).
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). International Code for Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB).

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

Two components
Generic name Specific epithet

• First word in a biological name represents the genus while the second component denotes the specific epithet.
• First word denoting the genus starts with a capital letter while the specific epithet starts with a small letter.
• Both words in a biological name, when handwritten, are separately underlined, or printed in italics to indicate their Latin origin.
• Name of the author appears after the specific epithet, i.e., at the end of the biological name and is written in an. abbreviated form, e.g., Mangifera
indica Linn. It indicates that this species was first described by Linnaeus.

Taxonomy
Kingdom

1 Characterisation 2 Identification Phylum or Division

3 Classification 4 Nomenclature Class • In case of plants, classes with few

• Systema Naturae was written by Linnaeus. Term characters are assigned to a higher
Order category called Division.
‘systematics’ was also given by ‘Carolus Linnaeus’.

Taxonomic catergories Family • The highest category in taxonomic

hierarchy is kingdom.
• Each category, rank or taxon (plural-taxa) referred to as a Genus
unit of classification.
• Species is lowest category. Species
 Common Name Biological Name Family Order Class/Division Phylum Kingdom
Man Home sapiens Hominidae Primata Mammalia Chordata Animalia
Housefly Musca domestica Muscidae Diptera Insecta Arthropoda Animalia
Organisms Mango Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae Sapindales Dicotyledonae Angiospermae Plantae

with their
Wheat Triticum aestivum Poaceae Poales Monocotyledonae Angiospermae Plantae
Dog Canis familiaris Canidae Carnivora Mammalia Chordata Animalia

Taxonomic Cat
Tiger
Felis catus
Panthera tigris
Felidae
Felidae
Carnivora
Carnivora
Mammalia
Mammalia
Chordata
Chordata
Animalia
Animalia

Categories Lion Panthera leo Felidae Carnivora Mammalia Chordata Animalia

Leopard Panthera pardus Felidae Carnivora Mammalia Chordata Animalia
Potato Solanum tuberosum Solanaceae Polymoniales Dicotyledonae Angiospermae Plantae
Brinjal Solanum melongena Solanaceae Polymoniales Dicotyledonae Angiospermae Plantae
Makoi Solanum nigrum Solanaceae Polymoniales Dicotyledonae Angiospermae Plantae

TAXONOMICAL AIDS 2. BOTANICAL GARDENS

I. HERBARIUM • These specialised gardens have collections of living plants for

reference.
• Herbarium is a store house of collected plant specimens that
• Ex-situ conservation
are dried, pressed and
preserved on sheets.
• Largest famous botanical garden of world is Royal Botanical
Garden, Kew (London),
England.
• The herbarium sheets carry a label providing information about
date and place of collection, English, local and botanical names,
• Indian Botanical Garden, Sitapur, Howrah.
family, collector’s name, etc.
• It serve as a quick referral system • National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow (India).

3. Museum 4. zoological Parks

• Museums have collections of preserved plant and animal
specimens for study and reference.
• Plant and animal specimens may also be preserved as dry
specimens.
• Insects are preserved in insect boxes after collecting, killing and
pinning.
• Larger animals are usually stuffed and preserved.
• Museums often have collections of animals skeletons.
• These are the places where wild animals are kept in
protected environments under human care and which
enable us to learn about their food habits and behaviour.
• All animals in a zoo are protected, as far as possible, the
conditions are similar to their natural habitats.
6. FLORA
• Flora contains the actual account of habitat and distribution of
plants of a given area.

5. KEY 7. MANUALS

• Key is the taxonomical aid used for identification of plants • They are useful in providing information for identification of
names of species found in an area.
and animals based on the similarities and dissimilarities.
• The keys are based on the contrasting characters generally
in a pair called couplet. 8. MONOGRAPHS
Each statement in the key is called a lead.
• They contain information on any one specific taxon.
Keys are generally analytical in nature .
Chapter
BIOLOGICAL
02 CLASSIFICATION
Number of species
o
1. 7 -1.8 million

• Aristotle used simple morphological characters to classify plants into trees, shrubs and herbs.
• He divided animals into two groups, one which had red blood (Enaima) and those that did not (Anaima).
• Two kingdom classification : Linnaeus divided all organisms into two kingdoms, Plantae & Animalia. cellway
Cell way
aTHREE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION SIX KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION
• Ernst Haeckel created a new kingdom Protista, having t
only unicellular eukaryotes.
• Carl Woese
eFOUR KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION • Three domains
1. Archaea: Archaebacteria
• Copeland (1956). 2. Bacteria: Eubacteria
• Copeland created a separate kingdom 'Monera' 3. Eukarya: Includes 4 eukaryotic kingdoms-
Plantae, Animalia, Protista and Fungi.
aFIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION
• By R.H. Whittaker
1. Plantae, 2. Animalia, 3. Protista, 4. Monera and 5. Fungi

WHITTAKER HAS USED 5 CRITERIA

1. Reproduction 3. Phylogenetic relationships
2. Cell structure 5. Body organisation 4. Mode of nutrition

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FIVE KINGDOMS

Five Kingdoms
Characters

Q
Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

a
Cell type Prokaryotic
Noncellulosic
Eukaryotic
I Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

Cell wall (Polysaccharide +

amino acid)
Present in some
O
Present (with chitin) Present (cellulose)
O
Absent

peptidoglycan
Nuclear Membrane Absent Present
u Present v Present u v
Present
Multicellular/ loose Tissue/organ/ organ
Body organisation Cellular Cellular Tissue/organ
tissue system
m
I
Autotrophic
(chemosynthetic and
Autotrophic aHeterotrophic
photosynthetic) and Heterotrophic Autotrophic

I
Mode of nutrition (Photosynthetic) and (Holozoic/
Heterotrophic (Saprophytic/ Parasitic) (Photosynthetic)
Heterotrophic Saprophytic etc.)
(Saprophytic
/parasitic)
KINGDOM MONERA (I) BACTERIA
Coccus - Spherical
• Prokaryotes. Archaebacteria & Eubacteria
E Bacillus - Rod-shaped
o
1. ARCHAEBACTERIA Vibrium - Comma shaped D
• Live in some of the most harsh habitats. Cell membrane Spirillum - Spiral.
• Halophiles : Inhabit salty areas.
• Reproduce mainly by fission
• Thermoacidophiles : Inhabit hot springs/deep sea water.
• Methanogens : In marshy areas and gut of ruminants.
• Under favourable conditions, they produce spore
e
Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria in having a different cell
wall structure or different cell membrane structure e Mandiversity
NUTRITION IN BACTERIA

2. EUBACTERIA
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
• 'True bacteria' Includes bacteria, cyanobacteria (BGA), and
mycoplasma. 1. Photoautotropic 1. Saprophytic
2. Chemoautotropic 2. Parasitic
3. Symbiotic

• Diseases caused by the heterotrophic bacteria.

Cholera Vibrio cholerae • Cyanobacteria of BGA = Blue green algae are unicellular,
colonial or filamentous.
Typhoid Salmonella typhi • Cyanobacteria have chlorophyll a similar to green plants.
• Nostoc & Anabaena are cyanobacteria that can fix atmospheric
Tetanus Clostridium tetani v nitrogen in specialised cells called heterocysts.

MYCOPLASMA :
Citrus canker Xanthomonas citri
e e • Mycoplasma are also called PPLO. Lack a cell wall, are the smallest
cells and can survive without oxygen. Triple
layer
Trembrane

KINGDOM PROTISTA
All single-celled eukaryotes. DINOFLAGELLATES
CHRYSOPHYTES
Includes diatoms & desmids (golden algae). • Cell wall has stiff cellulose plates. • Dinoflagellates
have 2 flagella : One lies longitudinally and the other
transversely rwpliu movement
• Red dinoflagellates (Gonyaulax) undergo such rapid
DIATOMS multiplication making the sea appear red (red tides).
• Toxins (SAXITOXIN) released by them may even kill
• Cell wall forms two thin overlapping shells that fit
other marine animals such as fishes.
together as in a soap box.
• Walls are embedded with silica
• Large amount of cell wall deposits is referred to as

Into
ngitgi.my
diatomaceous earth. EUGLENOIDS:
guilty e
Uses :
In polishing, Euglenoids possesses a protein rich layer called pellicle,
In filtration of oils & syrups. instead of cell wall fleibility
of
Diatoms are the chief 'producers' of oceans. They have two flagella, a short & a long one
Euglena acts as connecting link between plants and animals.
Autotrophic

Heterotrophic
 Slime Moulds PROTOZOANS

• Are saprophytic protists, without cell walls.

g Amoeboid
Fe.si a cellwall
slime moulds possess true walls. Pseudopodia e.g. Amoeba Entamoeba
spore Protozoan a
• Under favourable conditions, form an
aggregation called plasmodium that may grow Flagellated
Flagella e.g. Trypanosoma
& spread over several feet. protozoan
Parasite Moisteningsickness
• During unfavourable conditions, forms
fruiting bodies bearing spores at their tips. Ciliated
Protozoan
Cilia ae.g. Paramecium
• Spores are extremely resistant & survive transversebinary fission
for many years. They are dispersed by air
I
No locomotory organ
Sporozoan e.g. Plasmodium
currents.
Joe
KINGDOM FUNGI

Reproduction in Fungi
O
• With the exception of yeasts which are unicellular,
fungi are filamentous.
• Their bodies consist of long, slender thread-like Vegetative Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
structures called hyphae. Network of hyphae is known Means To
as mycelium.
Fragmentation Conidia zygol Oospores
O
• Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with
multinucleated cytoplasm are called coenocytic hyphae. Fissio n Zoospore Ascospores
• Cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin. Aseptatyphae n

WII so Budding
from
Sporangiospore Basidiospores

eSEXUAL CYCLE INVOLVES Class 1 - Phycomycetes

Fusion of protoplasms- plasmogamy. Kot • Mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic.

Fusion of two nuclei- karyogamy. Jdikaryon
Meiosis in zygote results in haploid spores.
dikaryonstageX
• Asexual reproduction occurs through
fungi a zoospores (motile), aplanospores (non-motile).
• In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells immediately results in
1
Spores are endogenously produced in
O
diploid cells (2n).
Texation Phykyates
• In other fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes), an intervening
sporangium. esporangiospores

dikaryotic stage (n + n, i.e., two nuclei per cell) occurs; such a condition spore agooosporesexual
• Examples : Mucor Rhizopus albugo
is called a dikaryon and the phase is called dikaryophase of fungus.
• The fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, • Rhizopus : White spots seen on mustard
leading to formation of haploid spores. leaves are due to a parasitic fungus (Albugo).

Members of phycomycetes are found :

1. In aquatic habitats
2. On decaying wood in moist and damp places
3. As obligate parasites on plants.
 Class 2 - ASCOMYCETES CLASS 3 -BASIDIOMYCETES:
Ascus e septate t branched
• Known as sac-fungi ascomycetes are mostly multicellular, e.g., • Basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket fungi or puffballs.

É
a
Penicillium unicellular, e.g., yeast (Saccharomyces).
• 'Mycelium is branched and septate
• Grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living plant bodies as

Ei
parasites, e.g., rusts and smuts. The mycelium is branched and
O
• Asexual spores are conidia produced exogenously on the special septate.
mycelium called conidiophores. Conidia on germination produce
mycelium.
o
• Asexual spores are generally not found, vegetative
reproduction by fragmentation is common.
• Sexual spores are called ascospores are produced

f
• Sex organs are absent.
endogenously Asay Fruitingbody Ascocarp stages
• Basidiospores are exogenously produced on the basidium
• Examples : Aspergillus, Claviceps and Neurospora. Morels ,basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps.
(Morchella) and truffles are edible Yeast (Saccharomyces, • Examples : Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut), Puccinia (rust
cerevisiae) called Baker's yeast and Brewer's yeast fungus).

CLASS 4 -DEUTEROMYCETES e

Imperfect fungi (sexual reproduction is absent).

Asexual spores known as conidia. The mycelium is septate and branched.
Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.

VIRUSES. VIROIDS & LICHENS proteinX

VIROIDS
• In 1971, T.0. Diener discovered that viroids are smaller
Virus
than viruses and caused potato spindle tuber disease.
The viruses are non-cellular organisms that are
characterised by having an inert crystalline structure
O
• RNA of the viroid was of low molecular weight.

outside the living cell. Prions GJacobdisease

Viruses are obligate intercellular parasites. • Prions are the infectious proteinaceous agents. Prions lack
Their protein coat called capsid is made of small x genetic material & contains only proteins molecule.
subunits called capsomeres.
Ivanowsky discovered virus. D.J. Ivanowsky (1892) Lichens
recognised mosaic disease of tobacco.
M.W. Beijerinek extracted infectious living fluid and
called it as Contagium vivum fluidum. Lichens (SO 2Pollution indicators)
W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that viruses could be
crystallised and are inert outside their specific
host cell. Higher
Algae (Phycobiont)
O O
Fungi (Mycoboint)

blankets
No virus contains both RNA and DNA.
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
(i) ssRNA : TMV, HIV (Retrovirus).
TMV has a coiled RNA strand.
(ii) ssDNA : Φ x 174 Bacteriophage. Prepare food Absorb mineral, nutrient, H2O
The genetic material is infectious. and provide shelter
 PLANT KINGDOM
Chapter

03
INTRODUCTION
Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

1. Artificial system of classifications 2. Natural System of Classification

• Based mainly on vegetative characters or on the androecium structure given
by Linnaeus).
• Based on natural affinities among the organisms and consider, not only the
• Genera Plantarum was written by Linnaeus.
external features, but also internal features, like ultra-structure, anatomy,
3. phylogenetic system of classification embryology and phytochemistry.
• It was given by Bentham and Hooker.
• Based on evolutionary relationships between
the various organisms.

Numerical taxonomy
CYTOTAXONOMY
• It is based on all observable characteristics. Number and codes are • Based on cytological information like chromosome number,
assigned to all the characters and the data are then processed. structure and behaviour.

Karyotaxonomy Chemotaxonomy
• Based on nucleus and banding patterns of chromosomes. • Uses the chemical constituents of the plant.

ALGAE
Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic organisms.

form and size of algae is highly variable. Ranges from unicellular forms like Chlamydomonas, to colonial forms like Volvox and to the filamentous forms like Ulothrix
and Spirogyra.

Class 1 - Chlorophyceae
Reproduction (R) in Algae
• Green algae may be unicellular, colonial or filamentous.
Usually green due to chlorophyll a and b.
Vegetative R. Asexual R. Sexual R.
• Chloroplasts may be discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon-
shaped in different species.
By fragmentation By Zoospores
• Have one or more storage bodies called pyrenoids- Pyrenoids contain protein
Isogamous Anisogamous Oogamous besides starch.

eg. Some species of eg. Volvox and • Vegetative reproduction usually takes place by fragmentation .
Chlamydomonas Fucus
• Sexual reproduction shows considerable variation and may be isogamous,
anisogamous or oogamous.
Flagellated gametes Non - flagellated
gemetes
• Commonly found green algae are : Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra
and Chara.

Eg., Ulothrix Eg., Spirogyra

• Chlorella and Spirulina are unicellular algae, rich in proteins and are used as
food supplements even by space travelers.
 Class 2- Phaeophyceae
1. Brown algae show great variation in size and form range from simple
branched filamentous forms (Ectocarpus) to profusely branched forms as
represented by kelps.
2. Possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids and xanthophylls.
3. Vary in colour from olive green to various shades of brown depending upon
the amount of the xanthophyll pigment, fucoxanthin present in them.
4. Food is stored as complex carbohydrates, which may be in the form of
laminarin or mannitol.
5. Vegetative cells have a cellulosic wall usually covered on outside by a
gelatinous coating of algin.
CLASS 3 - RHODOPHYCEAE
• Commonly called red algae because of predominance of the red
pigment, r-phycoerythrin in their body.
• Food is stored as floridean starch very similar to amylopectin,
and glycogen in structure.
• Red algae usually reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation.
BRYOPHYTES
• Non-vascular terrestrial plants
• Require water for fertilisation.
• Plant body of bryophytes is more differentiated than that of algae.
Thallus-like and prostrate or erect, and attached to the substratum
by unicellular or multicellular rhizoids.
• Lack true roots, stem or leaves.
• Main plant body of the bryophyte is haploid produces gametes, hence
is called a gametophyte.
LIVERWORTS
• Plant body of a liverwort is thalloid, e,g., Marchantia.
• Thallus is dorsi-ventral and closely appressed to the substrate.
• Asexual reproduction takes place by fragmentation or by the formation
of specialised structures called gemmae.
• Gemmae are green, multi-cellular, asexual buds.
• E.g.: Marchantia, Riccia.
6. Plant body is usually attached to the substratum by a
holdfast, and has a stalk, the stipe and leaf like photosynthetic
organ — the frond.
7. Common forms are Ectocarpus, Macrocystis, Dictyota,
Laminaria (Kelp), Sargassum and Fucus (Rock weed)
8. Alginic acid is obtained from brown algae like Fucus and
Laminaria.
• Reproduce asexually by non-motile spores sexually by non-
motile gametes.
• Sexual reproduction is oogamous Polysiphonia, Porphyra,
Gracilaria, Gelidium are examples.
• Agar obtained from Gelidium & Gracilaria
• Sex organs in bryophytes are multicellular. Male sex organ called
antheridium. They produce biflagellate antherozoids.
• Female sex organ called archegonium is flask- shaped and produces
a single egg
• Sphagnum, a moss, provide peat that have long been used as fuel.
Also has water holding capacity for trans-shipment of living
material.
• Bryophytes are divided into liverworts and mosses.
MOSSES
• Predominant stage of the life cycle of a moss is the gametophyte
which consists of two stages. First stage is the protonema stage,
which develops direct(y from a spore. It is a creeping, green,
branched and frequently filamentous stage.
• The second stage is the leafy stage.
• Vegetative reproduction in mosses is by fragmentation and
budding in the secondary protonema.
• The sporophyte in mosses is more elaborate than that in
liverworts.
• Examples of mosses are Funaria, Polytrichum and Sphagnum.
 PTERIDOPHYTES
VESCULAR PLANTS

1. Pteridophytes include horsetails and ferns.
2. In pteridophytes, the main plant body is a sporophyte
which is differentiated into true root, stem and leaves.
3. Leaves in pteridophyta are small (microphylls) as in
Selaginella or large (macrophylls) as in ferns.
4. Sporophytes bear sporangia In some cases sporophylls
may form distinct compact structures called strobili or
cones (Selaginella, Equisetum)
5. In majority of the pteridophytes all the spores are of similar kinds;
such plants are called homosporous.
6. Genera like Selaginella, Salvinia Marsilea and Azolla which produce
two kinds of spores, macro (large) and micro (small) spores, are known
as heterosporous.
The pteridophytes are further classified into four classes:
1. Psilopsida : e.g., Psilotum
2. Lycopsida : e.g., Selaginella and Lycopodium
3. Sphenopsida : e.g., Equisetum (Horsetail)
4. Pteropsida : e.g., Pteris, Dryopteris and Adiantum.

GYMNOSPERMS ANGIOSPERMS
Differences • Gymnosperms are naked seeded plants Smallest angiosperm : Wolffia
between Bryophytes and Pteridophytes Double fertilisation occurs in these
• Giant redwood tree Sequoia is one of tallest plants.
tree species
Bryophytes Pteridophytes
• All gymnosperms are heterosporous; they
produce haploid microspores and megaspores.

1. Main plant body is gametophyte (haploid). 1. Main plant body is sporophyte (diploid). E.g.: (a) Cycas (b) Pinus (c) Ginkgo (d) Cedrus.

2. Gametophytic phase is longer than 2. Sporophytic phase is longer than

sporophyte. gametophyte.
PLANT LIFE CYCLES & ALTERNATION OF
CENERATIONS
3. Sporophyte is dependent on 3. Both sporophyte and gametophyte are
gametophyte. independent.

4. True stem, leaves & roots are not

4. True stem, leaves and roots are found.
found.

5. Instead of root, rhizoids occurs. 5. True roots are present. (a) Haplontic (b) Diplontic (c) Haplodiplontic

6. Non-vascular plants 6. Vascular plants

Chapter

04 ANIMAL KINGDOM
I
BODY TEMPERATURE
BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION
• Poikilothermic or cold blooded eg. invertebrates, fishes,
amphibians (frog) and reptiles.
LEVELS OF ORGANISATION
• Homioithermic or warm blooded animals
e.g., Birds and mammals.

tingle
opening Mouths
Digestive system is incomplete. Coelentrates
and Platyhelminthes
Celluar Level Tissue level Organ level Organ system level Digestive tract has 2 opening mouth and anus,
eg.: Aschelminthes to chordates Complete
MuscularPharynx
Porifera Coelentrata Platyhelminthes Aschelminthes
Ctenophora Arthropoda aCIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Annelida
Mollusca • Open type: Arthropoda, Mollusca and hemichordate.
Echinodermata • Closed type: Eg.: Annelida & chordata
Hemichordata
Chordata

GERM LAYERS COELOM / BODY CAVITY

wall
• Diploblastic: cells are arranged in two embryonic layers, an external
ectoderm and an internal endoderm,
Taggart
• Acoelomate: animals in which the body cavity is absent. Eg. Porifer,

Io
E.g.: Porifer, coelenterates. An undifferentiated layer, mesoglea, is present
in between the ectoderm and the endoderm in Coelentrates.
ctenophore at
Coelentrates, Ctenophores and Platyhelminthes.
• Pseudocoelomate: the body cavity is not lined by mesoderm, instead,
the mesoderm is present as scattered pouches between the ectoderm
• Triploblastic: animals in which the developing embryo has a third germinal
layer, mesoderm, in between the ectoderm and endoderm, O
and endoderm. E.g. Aschelminthes.

(Platyhelminthes to Chordates).
COELOMATE

SYMMETRY • Body cavity , which is lined by mesoderm

• E.g., Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs, Echinoderms, Hemichordates and
Chordates.
me

Ime
Asymmetrical Radial Symmetry Bilateral Symmetry

Porifera Coelentrata Platyhelminthes

(sponges) Ctenophora Aschelminthes
Echinodermata Annelida, Arthropada
(in adult body) Mollusca, Echinodermata
(in larval stage)
Hemichordata, Chordata
Body division

SEGMENTATION
CMILIE Arthropoda Mollusca Hemichordata
• Metamerism, eg. annelida, arthropoda and chordata.
entggestergal
Notochord
internal
3 parts 3 parts 3 parts
• Notochord is a mesodermally derived rod-like structure formed on the dorsal

I
1. Head 1. Head 1. Proboscis
side during embryonic development in some animals. 2. Thorax 2. Muscular foot 2. Collar
• Animals with notochord are called chordates and those animals which do not 3. Abdomen 3. Visceral hump 3. Trunk
form this structure are called non-chordates, e.g., Porifera to Echinoderms.
 Levels of
Symmetry Coelom Phylum
Kingdom organisation
Cellular level Asymmetry Acoelomate
o
Porifera

I
Animalia
(Multicellular)
Tissue or

0
Organ or
Radial
0
Acoelomate

Acoelomate
Cnidaria

Ctenophora
Platyhelminthes
Organ system
Bilateral Pseudococlomates Aschelminthes
Level
Coelomates Annelida
Arthropoda
Mollusca
Echinodermata radial
Trip Hemichordata
Chorclata

PHYLUM [1] PORIFERA PHYLUM

wargame
[2] COELENTERATA (CNIDARIA)
• Sponges Generally marine, few are fresh water
mostly asymmetrical. • All are aquatic. In
• Water enters through (ostia) and moves out through osculum • Name is derived from the endoblasts
• Choanoeytes or collar cells line the spongocoel and the canals. Hypnotism
• Contain the stinging capsules or nematocytes
• Digestion is intracellular.
flagella • A single opening, mouth on hypostome
• Sexes are not separate. Hermaphrodite
• Reproduce asexually by fragmentation. gemmyCindy I
e.g., corals have a skeleton composed of calcium carbonate.
• Cnidarians exhibit two basic body forms called polyp and medusa.
• Fertilisation is internal and development is indirect Scypha (Sycon),
• Those cnidarians which exist in both form (Polyp and Medusa) exhibit
Fresh water sponge (Spongilla) & Bath sponge (Euspongilla).
Tuspomalaw Atalteration of generation (metagenesis). Eg. Obelia e
E.g.. Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia), Sea anemone (Adamsia), Sea-pen
(Pennatula), Sea-fan (Gorgonia) and Brain coral (Meandrina).
PHYLUM - [3] CTENOPHORA
• Commonly known as sea walnuts or comb jellies are

f
exclusively marine.
• The body bears eight external rows of ciliated comb Lazy e
PHYLUM [4] PLATYHEIMINTHES
plates, which help in locomotion.
• Bioluminescence (the property of a living organism to emit light) is • Flatworms.
well-marked in ctenophores. • Flame cells or protonephridia help in osmoregulation and excretion.
• Reproduction takes place only by sexual means. • Sexes are not separate. Schistosoma
Fertilisation is external with indirect development. e.g., Pleurobrachia, • Fertilisation is internal and development is through many larval
Ctenoplana. stages.
Parasitize
• Planaria possess high regeneration capacity.
Eg.: Tapeworm (Taenia), Liver fluke (Fasciola), Planaria.
PHYLUM [5] ASCHELMINTHES dugesine
Pseudowelomatew
• Roundworms. sound
A
• Alimentary canal is complete with a well -developed muscular pharynx.
Asexually
• Sexes are separate (dioecious), Often females are longer than males.

of
• Fertilisation is internal and development may be direct e.g., Common Polyp
round worm (Ascaris), Filaria worm (Wuchereria), Hookworm
Medusa
(Ancylostoma).
Sexually

PHYLUM - [6] ANNELIDA U a

É
É
closed Annulus Crime
circusy Sessile Free – swimming
• Metamerically segmented animals.
Cylindrical Umbrella – shaped
Possess longitudinal and circular muscles which help in locomotion .

tie
• Nereis is dioecious whereas earthworms and leeches are monoecious.
Eg. Hydra, Adamsia Eg. Aurelia
Eg.: leech (Hirudinaria), Nereis and Earthworm.
Tete again
Parapodia xx
 setae

limulus
Booggin
PHYLUM [7] ARTHROPODA Respiration
as Censtacean
Booklungs arachnids
trachea insect
• Largest phylum. Examples : Prawn, Scorpion, Spider
• Body of arthropods is covered by chitinous exoskeleton. Economically important insects :
• Body consists of head, thorax and abdomen. Apis (Honey bee), Bombyx (Silkworm), Laccifer (Lac insect).
Vectors : Anopheles, Culex and
me
• They have jointed appendages.
• Circulatory system is of open type. Aedes (Mosquitoes)
• Statocysts or balance organs are present. Gregarious pest : Locusta (Locust).
Living fossil : Limulus (king crab)
• Excretion takes place through malpighian tubules. insect O e
• Mostly dioecious, fertilization internal, development may be 3 direct
or indirect. crustacean
Antennaryglandlgrengland Aquatic
coxaegland Arachnids

PHYLUM [8] MOLLUSCA PHYLUM {9} ECHINODERMATA

dephalopod
nosed
• Second largest animal phylum.
• Body is covered by a calcareous shell. • Have an endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles, exclusively marine
• A soft and spongy layer of skin forms a mantle over the • Adult echinoderms are radially symmetrical but larvae are
visceral hump. ctenidia bilaterally symmetrical digestive system is complete.
• Feather like gills are present. repirationtencretion • Most distinctive feature of echinoderms is the present of water
ambulacrasystem Reeplow excretion
radula. O
• Mouth contains a file like rasping organ for feeding called vascular system.
• Excretory system is absent. Sexes are separate. prey
Eg.: Apple snail (Pita), Pearl oyster (Pinctada), Cuttlefish Eg.: Star fish (Asterias), Sea urchin (Echinus), Sea lily (Antedon), Sea
(Sepia), Squid (Loligo), Devil fish (Octopus), Sea-hare cucumber (Cucumaria) & Brittle star (Ophiura).
(Aplysła), Tusk shell (Dentalium) & Chiton (Chaetopleura).
anilisation entered dint

CHORDATA IS DIVIDED INTO

Itt
PHYLUM {10} HEMICHORDATE onion
81andtail
cord
Nerve THREE SUBPHYLA: Post
man
• Excretory organ is proboscis gland. ceasamation enemy
• Urochordata , Cephalochordate and Vertebrata.
E.g.: Balanoglossus
Gongmitentralene • Urochordata and cephalochordate are often referred to as
Saccoglossus and notochord protochordates and are exclusively marine.
circulate
indirect Dorsatnoweard
open
• In Urochordata, notochord is present only in larval tail, while
in Cephalochordata, it extends from head to tail region and is
persistent throughout their life.
Chordata (phylum)
• Urochordata : Ascidia (Ascidians), Salpa, Doliolum
Subphylum
Cephalochordata : Branchiostoma (Amphioxus or Lancelet).

I. Urochordatagym II. Cephalochordata III. Vertebrata

Division
Vertebrata
Agnatha (lacks jaw) Gnathostomata (bears jaw)
Super class
Cyclostomata
tonefishesx
Class
I. Cyclostomata
Pisces (bear fins) Tetrapoda (bear limbs) are ectoparasites on some fishes
Class Class 6 – 15 pairs of gill slits.
1. Chondrichthyes 1. Amphibia • Cyclostomes have a sucking and circular mouth without
2. Osteichthyes 2. Reptilia jaws.
3. Aves • Body is devoid of scales and paired fins

umigaF
4. Mammalia eg.: Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine (Hagfish).
 CLASS – 1 CHONDRICHTHYES OR
CARTILAGENOUS FISHES CLASS - 2 OSTEICHTHYES OR BONY FISHES

Marine fresht aquatic

• Marine animals have cartilagenous endoskeleton.
• Notochord is persistent throughout life. • Bony endoskeleton.
• Mouth is mostly terminal.
Mouth is located ventrally.
• Four pairs of gills which are covered by an operculum.
• Gill slits are separate and without operculum Skin is tough, • Skin is covered with cycloid/ctenoid scales.
containing minute placoid scales teeth
Absence of air bladder. continuously swim • Air bladder is present.
Some of them have electric organs. e.g., • Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is usually external.

annex
• Torpedo or Rays and some possess poison sting (e.g.,
Trygon). Males pelvic fins bear claspers.
stingray
• Mostly oviparous and development is direct.
Eg. : Marine - Exocoetus (Flying fish), Hippocampus (Sea
horse)
• Internal fertilization and many of them are viviparous.
Fresh water: Labeo (Rohu),
Examples: Scoliodon (Dog fish) Pristis (Saw fish) Carcharodon Catla (Katla), Clarias (Magur)
(Great white shark) Trygon (Sting ray), Torpedo (Electric Aquarium : Betta (Fighting fish),
Pterophyllum (Angel fish).
ray)

Coldblooded tympanum
4chambered
CLASS AMPHIBIA lungegillsskintemp
III in wing
CLASS – AVES forelimbs meant

external n
• Body is divisible into head and trunk. tympanum

g'Itisemal oviparous Tided

• Tail may be present in some. a Internal oviparous
eyelidsw Eg.: Crow (Corvus), Pigeon (Columba), Parrot (Psittacula),
• Amphibian skin is moist.
Ostrich (Struthio), Peacock (Pavo), Penguin (Aptenodytes),
E.g., Toad (Bufo), Frog (Rana), Tree frog (Hyla), Limbless amphibia
Vulture (Neophron).
(Ichthyophis). salamandra Skin is dry without glands except the oil gland at the base of
Heart 3chambered the tail
Grignard
entg.at
ammaygland
CLASS – MAMMALIA warm blooded
Echidnaornithorhyn
Wave
Viviparous : Macropus (Kangaroo), Pteropus (Flying fox), Camelusand
(Camel), Macaca (Monkey), Rattus (Rat), Canis (Dog), Felis (Cat), aFalse fishes
Elephas (Elephant), Equus (Horse). 1. Jelly fishes Aurelia Cmedusa Coelentratae
Panthera tigris (Tiger), Panthera leo (Lion). Ychambered
Aquatic mammals :
Delphinus (Common dolphin)
Heart
I
2. Cray fish
3. Silver fish
Astacus
a Lepisma
eArthropoda
eArthropoda
Balaenoptera (Blue whale)
y
4. Cuttle fish
5. Devil fish
Sepia
Octopus
Mollusca
Mollusca

CLASS – REPTILIA
tympanum

3
scale
skin
dayconified
chamberedHeartCrocodile
I
6. Razor fish
7. Shell fish g
Solen Mollusca
Mollusca
a
Cold blooded
Eg.: Turtle (Chelone), Tortoise (Testudo), Tree lizard Insane o
8. Star fish
o
Asterias e Echinodermata
eCyclostomata
O
9. Hagfish Myxine
oviparous
(Chameleon), Garden lizard (Calotes), Crocodile (Crocodilus),
Alligator (Alligator). Wall lizard (Hemidactylus), Poisonous
snakes-Cobra (Naja). Krait (Bangarus), Viper (Vipera).
Snake
O
10. Whale fish Balaenoptera e Mammal
GET
Nonpoisonous Ryther skinCait
Ecdysis
Chapter
MORPHOLOGY OF
05 FLOWERING PLANTS
Smallest angiosperm is Wolffia.
THE ROOT
Tallest angiosperm is Eucalyptus ragnans Roots

Annuals : Life cycle is completed in

single year. Tap root Fibrous root Adventitious
system system roots
Annuals and biennials are monocarpic plants
Biennials : Life cycle is completed in two seasons. eg. Dicots eg. Monocots eg. Grass, Monstera,
(Mustard) (Wheat) Banyan

REGIONS OF ROOT
MODIFICATIONS OF ROOT
MODIFICATIONS OF ROOT
Region of Region of Region of
meristematic elongation maturation
activity Storage Support Respiration

Tap root Adventitious Prop root Stilt root

Thin walled Responsible for Root hairs arises
root
and repeatedly growth of root in from
eg- Carrot, eg- Banyan eg-Maize ,
dividing cells length this zone Turnip sugarcane
eg- Sweet potato,
Asparagus Pneumatophores

THE STEM eg- Rhizophora

The stem is the ascending part of the axis bearing branches,

leaves, flowers and fruits. It develops from a plumule of the
embryo of the germinating seed. MODIFICATIONS OF STEM
Stem bears buds, which may be terminal or axillary.
The stem bears nodes and internodes. Modifications of stem
Storage eg- Zaminkand, Ginger, Turmeric, Potato, Colocasia
(underground)
THE LEAF
Support Stem tendrils eg-Gourds (cucumber, pumpkin,
Parts of Leaf (Climbing) watermelon) and Grapevines

Protection Thorns eg-Citrus, Bougainvillea

1. Leaf base 2. Petiole 3. Lamina/Leaf blade Opuntia (flattened)
Photosynthesis
Euphorbia (cylindrical)
Sheath covered Pulvinus leaf Hold the blade Green expanded
leaf base base towards light part Vegetative
Propagation RUNNER → Grass & Strawberry
STOLON → Mint & Jasmine
Have midrib
eg- Monocots eg- Leguminous OFFSET → Pistia & Eichhornia
(middle prominent vein)
plants
SUCKER → Banana, Pineapple & Chrysanthemum

The leaf base may become swollen, which is called the pulvinus. E.g.:
Pea, legumes and Trifolium.
 VENATION PHYLLOTAXY
Phyllotaxy
When the Veinlets form a network, the venation
E.g., Mango
is termed as reticulate
When the veins run parallel to each other within
E.g., Banana 1. Alternate 2. Opposite 3. Whorled
a lamina, the venation is termed as parallel.
(code-CMS)

eg. - China rose eg- Alstonia

TYPES OF LEAVES - Mustard
eg- Guava
- Calotropis
- Sun flower
Types of leaves

Simple leaf Compound leaf THE INFLORESCENCE

Racemose type : The flowers are borne laterally in an
acropetal succession.
Pinnately compound Palmately compound
leaf leaf In cymose type of inflorescence the main axis
terminates in a flower.
The flowers are borne in a basipetal order.
e.g - Neem e.g - Silk cotton

MODIFICATIONS OF LEAVES
SYMMETRY OF FLOWER
Modifications of Leaves

→ Climbing or support → Tendrils → eg. Pea Actinomorphic Zygomorphic Asymmetric

(Radial sym.) (Bilateral sym) (Irregular)
Defence or protection → Spines → eg. Cacti

Storage → Fleshy leaves eg- Garlic, Onion eg -Datura eg -Pea eg -Canna

-Chilli -Bean
Photosynthesis → Expanded petiole → eg- Australian acacia -Mustard -Cassia
-Gulmohur
Pitcher/flap → Insectivorous plants → eg- Pitcher plant,
Venus-fly trap

FLOWER
Flower

Acessory organs Reproductive organs

Calyx Corolla Androecium Gynoecium

Sepals Petals Stamens Carpels/ pistils

In some flowers like lily, the calyx and corolla are not
distinct and are termed as perianth.
 TYPES OF FLOWER ON THE BASIS OF POSITION OF AESTIVATION
CALYX, COROLLA AND ANDROECIUM IN RESPECT OF
OVARY ON THALAMUS
Aestivation
Flower

Valvate Twisted Imbricate Vexillary

Hypogynous or Papilionaceous
Perigynous Epigynous
eg - Cassia
eg- Calotropis -Gulmohar
eg -China rose
Ovary eg -Pea
Ovary superior Ovary inferior -Lady's finger
half-inferior - Bean
-Cotton

eg -Mustard eg -Plum eg -Guava

-China rose -Brinjal - Rose -Peach -Cucumber
-Ray florets of
sunflower

ANDROECIUM

Remains free May be united

Polyandrous

Monoadelphous Diadelphous Polyadelphous Valvate Twisted

eg- China rose eg-Pea eg-Citrus

• A sterile stamen is called staminode.

• When stamens are attached to the petals, they are epipetalous as in
brinjal, or epiphyllous when attached to the perianth as in the flower of lily.

GYNOECIUM
lmbricate Vexillary

Single carpel More than one carpel

Monocarpellary • When more than one carpels are present,

Multicarpellary they may be free ( as in lotus and rose) are
eg-Mango called apocarpous.

They are termed syncarpous when

Syncarpous Apocarpous
carpels are fused, as in mustard,
(carpels fused)
tomato and Papaver.
eg -Rose
eg - Papaver
-Michelia
-Mustard -
-Lotus
-Tomato
 PLACENTATION Marginal

Placentation
Marginal → Pea
Axile
→ Axile → Tomato, Lemon, China
rose
→ Parietal → Mustard, Argemone
Perietal

→ Free - central → Dianthus, Primrose

→ Basal → Sunflower, Marigold

Free
central

THE FRUIT Basal

It is called a parthenocarpic fruit e.g., Banana.

Fruit is formed without fertilisation of the ovary.
Fruit

Pericarp (fruit wall) Seed In mango and coconut, the fruit is known
as a drupe.
Dry (e.g- Groundunt & Fleshyb(e.g- Guava, mango Seed coat Embryo
mustard) & orange)
Outer layer Inner layer They develop from monocarpellary
superior ovaries and are one seeded.
Epicarp Mesocarp Endocarp Testa Tegmen

In coconut which is also a drupe, the

Embryonal axis Cotyledons
mesocarp is fibrous.

Radicle Plumule One Two

(in monocot) (in dicot)

e.g. Wheat,
Maize
e.g. Gram, Pea
STRUCTURE OF A
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS SEED

Monocotyledonous seeds are endospermic but some as

THE SEED in orchids are non-endospermic.
The endosperm is bulky and stores food. The outer
covering of endosperm separates the embryo by a
STRUCTURE OF A DICOTYLEDONOUS SEED proteinous layer called aleurone layer.

Outermost covering of a seed is the seed coat. The embryo is small and situated in a groove at one
end of the endosperm. It consists of one large and
The outer layer is testa and the inner tegmen. shield shaped cotyledon known as scutellum and a
The hilum is a scar on the seed coat through which the short axis with a plumule and a radicle.
developing seeds were attached to the fruit..
In some seeds such as castor the endosperm The plumule and radicle are enclosed in sheaths which
formed as a result of double fertilisation. are called coleoptile and coleorhiza respectively.
 DESCRIPTION OF SOME IMPORTANT FAMILIES

FABACEAE SOLANACEAE
Inflorescence : Racemose
Floral Formula : % K (5) C 1+2+(2) A (9)+1 G (1) Floral Formula : K (5) C (5) A (5) G (2)

VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS

• Trees, shrubs, herbs; root with root nodules
• Stem: Erect or climber
• Leaves: Alternate, pinnately compound or simple; leaf base,
pulvinate; stipulate; venation reticulate.
• Economic importance : Many plants belonging to the family
are sources of pulses (gram, arhar, sem, moong, soyabean;
edible oil (soyabean, groundnut); dye (Indigofera); fibres
(sunhemp); fodder (Sesbania, Trifolium), ornamentals (Lupin,
sweet pea); medicine (muliathi), Pisum sativum (pea)
• Plants mostly herbs, shrubs and rarely small trees
• Stem: Herbaceous rarely woody, aerial; erect, cylindrical, branched,
solid or hollow, hairy or glabrous, underground stem in potato
(Solanum tuberosum)
• Leaves : Alternate, simple, rarely pinnately compound, exstipulate;
venation reticulate.
• Economic Importance: Many plants belonging to this family are
source of food (tomato, brinjal, potato), spice (chilli); medicine
(belladonna, ashwagandha); fumigatory (tobacco); ornamentals
(Petunia). Solanum nigrum (makoi), Ashwagandha : Withania somnifera

LILIACEAE

Floral Formula : Br P A G
(3+3) 3+3 (3)

VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS

• Perennial herbs with underground

bulbs/corms/rhizomes.
• leaves: Mostly basal, alternate, linear, exstipulate
with parallel venation.
• Economic Importance: Many plants belonging to this
family are good ornamentals (tulip, Gloriosa), source of
medicine (Aloe), vegetables (Asparagus), and colchicine
(Colchicum autumnale). Allium cepa (onion)
Chapter
ANATOMY OF
06
FLOWERING PLANTS
COLLENCHYMA
THE TISSUES
• Cells are much thickened at the corners due to deposition of
cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
• Intercellular spaces are absent.
• They provide mechanical support to the growing parts of the
plant such as young stem and petiole of a leaf.

cambium

SCLERENCHYMA
Sclereids

D=dead; L=living
• Sclerenchyma consists of long, narrow cells with thick and lignified
cell walls having a few or numerous pits.Usually dead and without
protoplasts.
• May be either fibres or sclereids.
• Fibres are thick-walled, elongated and pointed cells.
• Sclereids are spherical, oval or cylindrical, highly thickened
dead cells with very narrow cavities.
MERISTEMATIC TISSUES • Commonly found in the fruit walls of nuts; pulp of fruits like
guava, pear and sapota; seed coats of legumes and leaves of
Two types of meristems : Primary & secondary. tea.
Primary Meristem
Two types : Apical meristem & intercalary meristem.

Apical Meristem
COMPLEX TISSUES
Occur at the tips of roots and shoots.
Xylem and phloem constitute the complex tissues in plants.
Intercalary Meristem
Xylem
• Occurs between mature tissues.
• They occur in grasses (monocot) and regenerate parts
removed by grazing herbivores. • Conducting tissue for water and minerals from roots to the stem
and leaves. It also provides mechanical strength to the plant parts.

Secondary/Lateral Meristems • Four different kinds of elements, namely, tracheids, vessels, xylem
• Fascicular vascular cambium, interfascicular cambium and cork fibers and xylem parenchyma.
cambium are examples of lateral meristems.
• Pteridophytes & Gymnosperms lack vessels in their xylem.

PERMANENT TISSUES
TRACHEIDS
• Parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
PARENCHYMA • Tracheids are elongated or tube like with thick and lignified walls
• Cells are generally isodiametric. and tapering ends.
• Their walls are thin and made up of cellulose.
• Performs various functions like photosynthesis, storage, secretion. • Dead and are without protoplasm.
 VESSELS
• Vessel is a long cylindrical tube-like structure made up of many cells
called vessel members, each with lignified walls.
• Vessel cells are also devoid of protoplasm.
• Vessel members are interconnected through perforations in their
common walls.
• Presence of vessels is a characteristic feature of angiosperms.
XYLEM FIBRES
• Highly thickened walls and obliterated central lumens.
• Cells are narrow and pointed at the ends and have bordered pits,
either septate or aseptate.
XYLEM PARENCHYMA
• Xylem parcenchyma cells are living and thin-walled, are made up
of cellulose.
• Store food materials in the form of starch or fat, and other
substances like tannins.
• Radial conduction of water takes place by the ray parenchymatous
cells.
• Primary xylem is of two types, protoxylem and metaxylem. First formed
primary xylem elements are called protoxylem the later formed primary xylem is
called metaxylem.
• In stems, the protoxylem lies towards the centre and the metaxylem lies
towards the periphery. This type of primary xylem is called endarch.
• In roots, the protoxylem lies towards periphery and metaxylem lies
towards the centre. Such arrangement of primary xylem is called
exarch.
PHLOEM FIBRES
• These are generally absent in the primary phloem but are found in the
secondary phloem.
• The first formed primary phloem consists of narrow sieve tubes and is
referred to as protophloem and the later formed phloem has bigger sieve
tubes and is referred to as metaphloem.
THE TISSUE SYSTEM
PHLOEM (BAST)
• Phloem transports food materials, usually from leaves to other parts
of the plant.
• Phloem in angiosperms is composed of sieve tube elements, companion cells,
phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres.
• Gymnosperms have albuminous cells. They lack sieve tubes and companion
cells.
SEIVE TUBE
• Sieve tube elements are also long, tube-like structures, arranged
longitudinally and are associated with the companion cells.
• Their end walls are perforated in a sieve-like manner to form the
sieve plates.
• A mature sieve element possesses a peripheral cytoplasm and a large
vacuole but lacks a nucleus.
• Functions of sieve tubes are controlled by the nucleus of companion
cells.
COMPANION CELLS
• Companion cells are specialised parenchyrmatous cells, which are closely
associated with sieve tube elements.
• Sieve tube elements and companion cells are connected by pit fields
present between their common longitudinal walls.
PHLOEM PARENCHYMA
• Phloem parenchyma is made up of elongated, tapering cylinclrical cells
which have dense cytoplasm and nucleus.
• The cell wall is composed of cellulose and has pits.
• Phloem parenchyma stores food and other material other substances
like resins, latex and mucilage.
• Phloem parenchyma is absent in most of the monocotyledons.
EPIDERMAL TISSUE SYSTEM
1. EPIDERMIS
• Epidermis is the outermost layer of the primary plant body. Epidermis is
usually single layered.
• Epidermal cells are parenchymatous.
• Outside of the epidermis is often covered with a waxy thick layer called
the cuticle which prevents the loss of water.
 2. STOMATA

• Stomata are structures present in the epidermis of leaves.
• Regulate the process of transpiration and gaseous exchange.
• Composed of two bean shaped cells known as guard cell.
• In grasses, the guard cells are dumbbell shaped.
• Sometimes, a few epidermal cells, in the vicinity of the guard cells
become specialised in their shape and size and are known as
subsidiary cells.
• Stomatal aperture, guard cells and the surrounding subsidiary
cells are together called stomatal apparatus.

3. Epidermal Appendages Ground Tissue System

Root hairs • Consists of parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma
• Unicellular elongations of the epidermal cells.
• Helps in absorption of water and minerals from soil • Parenchymatous cells are usually present in cortex,
pericycle, pith and medullary rays.
Trichome
s
• Usually multicellular
• Prevent water loss due to transpiration.

Vascular Tissue System

• In dicotyledonous stems, cambium is present between phloem and xylem
and are called open vascular bundles.
• In the monocotyledons, the vascular bundles have no cambium present in
them and are referred to as closed.
• When xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are arranged in an
alternate manner on different radii, the arrangement is called radial
such as in roots.
• In conjoint type of vascular bundles, the xylem and phloem are
situated at the same radius of vascular bundles. Such vascular bundles
are common in stems and leaves.
• The conjoint vascular bundles usually have the phloem located
only on the outer side of xylem.

Dicotyledonous Root
• Vascular bundles are radial type of arranged in a ring.
• Usually two to four xylem and phloem patches.
• Pericycle, vascular bundles and pith constitute the stele.

Monocotyledonous Root
• It has epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, vascular bundles and
pith.
2 or 4 Vascular Tissue System (T.S.)

• Cortex consists of several layers of thin-walled. parenchyma cells with

intercellular spaces.
• Innermost layer of the cortex is called endodermis.
• Endodermal cells have a deposition of water impermeable, waxy material,
suberin, in the form of casparian strips.
• Xylem bundles: There are usually more than six (polyarch) in the
• Endodermis lies a few layers of thick-walled parenchyomatous cells monocot root. Phloem parenchyma is absent.
referred to as pericycle. Initiation of lateral roots and vascular cambium
during the secondary growth takes place in these cells. • Pith is large and well developed.
• Pith is small or inconspicuous.
• Monocotyledonous roots do not undergo any secondary growth.
• Parenchymatous cells which lie between the xylem and the phloem are
called conjuctive tissue.
 DICOTYLEDONOUS STEM
ISOBILATERAL (MONOCOTYLEDONOUS)
LEAF
• Mesophyll is not differentiated.

• In grasses, certain adaxial epidermal cells along the veins modify

themselves into large, empty, colourless cells. These are called
Sclerenchymatous
bulliform cells.
Sclerenchymatous

SECONDARY GROWTH

VASCULAR CAMBIUM

• The meristematic layer that is responsible for cutting off vascular

tissues, xylem and pholem, is called vascular cambium.

• In the young stem it is present in patches as a single layer between

the xylem and phloem. Later it forms a complete ring.
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STEM
Formation of cambial ring
Monocot stem
• Dicot stems, the cells of cambium present between primary xylem
1. Hypodermis is sclerenchymatous. and primary phloem is the intrafascicular cambium.
2. Pith is absent.
• Cells of medullary rays, adjoining these intrafascicular cambium
3. Phloem parenchyma is absent. become meristematic and form the interfascicular cambium. Thus, a
4. Vascular bundles are scattered. continuous ring of cambium is formed.

5. Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and closed.

6. Secondary growth is absent.
7. Bundle sheath is present.
ACTIVITY OF THE CAMBIAL RING
8. Medullary rays are absent.

• Cambial ring becomes active and begins to cut off (to form) new cells,
both towards the inner and the outer sides.

DORSIVENTRAL (DICOTYLEDONOUS) LEAF • Cells cut off towards pith, mature into secondary xylem and towards
periphery mature into secondary phloem.

• Cambium is generally more active on the inner side than on the outer.

• As a result, the amount of secondary xylem produced is more than

secondary phloem and soon forms a compact mass.

• Correct sequence of layers in stem is as follows from outer to inner

side : 1° Phloem -2° phloem - Cambium -2° Xylem -1° xylem - pith.
 CORK CAMBIUM/PHELLOGEN

• Cork cambium cut off cells on both sides. Outer cells differentiate into Cork or
Phellem.
• Inner cells differentiate into secondary cortex or Phelloderm.
• Cork is impervious to water due to suberin deposition in the cell wall. Cells of
secondary cortex are parenchymatous.

• Phellogen, phellem, and phelloderm are collectively known as periderm.

SECONDARY GROWTH IN ROOTS

• Secondary growth occurs in gymnosperms, dicot roots and stems.

• Dicot root, the vascular cambium is completely secondary in origin.

Stele = VPP = Vascular tissue + Pericycle + Pitr

Ground tissue = CPP = Cortex + Pericycle + Pith
water
Bark = SPP = Secondary Phloem + Periderm
Periderm. = PPP = Phellem + Phellogen + Phelloderm
= Cork + Cork cambium +2 cortex
Chapter
STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION
07 IN ANIMALS
Four types: 1 Epithelial 2 Connective 3 Muscular 4 Neural

ANIMAL Cuboidal or columnar

TISSUES epithelium

Epithelial 2. Connective 3 . Muscular 4. Neural

tightlypacked interweeueerspaut
Ciliated epithelium Glandular
jEÉ
É
epithelium
Simple epithelium Compound epithelium

Time
Eg., Bronchioles,
Fallopian tubes
Squamous Eg. Wall of blood vessels,
Air sacs of lungs

É
epithelium
Unicellular Multicellular
to
Cuboidal Eg. Ducts of glands,
Tabular parts of nephron of kIdney secretion
epithelium
Isomtion
MEI a pet Eg., Goblet cells of Eg., Salivary gland
Columnar Eg. Lining of stomach and intestine
epithelium alimentary canal

COMPOUND EPITHELIUM CONNECTIVE TISSUE (C.T.)

They cover the dry surface of the skin, the moist surface of Widely dif Finke
Connective tissue (C.T.)
Most abundant
buccal cavity, pharynx, inner lining of ducts of salivary glands and
of pancreatic ducts. Loose C.T. Dense C.T.
a
Specialised C.T.

Junction
transf Areolar Tissue Adipose Tissue

Tasterage
Cartilage Bone Blood

Beneath the Beneath

Tight Adhering Gap junction skin the skin
junction junction
Dense regularParallel Dense irregular
Yisudnientation
Tendons Ligament E.g., Skin
Stop substances Cementing Facilitate cell to cell
from leaking neighbouring cells communication Muscle to bone Bone to bone
BB

1. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Areolar tissue serves as a support framework for epithelium. It contains
fibroblasts, macrophages and mast cells. serotonin

Hai
Adipose tissue is another type of loose connective tissue located mainly beneath
O
the skin and store fats.

To it
O
 2. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
• Fibres and fibroblasts are compactly packed in the dense connective tissues.
• In the dense regular connective tissues, the collagen fibres are present in rows between many parallel bundles of fibres.
• Tendons, which attach skeletal muscles to bones and ligaments which attach one bone to another are examples of this tissue.
• Dense irregular connective tissue has fibroblasts and many fibres (mostly collagen) that are oriented differently.

3. SPECIALISED CONNECTIVE TISSUES MUSCULAR TISSUES NEURAL TISSUES

• Cartilage, bones and blood are various types of Nya excitable

specialised connective tissues.

• The intercellular material of cartilage is solid and

pliable and resists compression. Cells of this tissue
(chondrocytes) are enclosed in small cavities within Osmooth
sidetal
the matrix secreted by them.
yellowfibre Boye calcium while
Igniting
solid Pliable Utd nonpliable Aylin
stvolume
route
Cuomo a osteoate
Ilmunae 1 a Isaura lostercyte
x lamella Ocardiac
COCKROACH e Periplanete MORPHOLOGY
america
Animalia • Periplaneta americana have wings that extend beyond the tip of the abdomen
Phylum Arthropoda.
Inseca
Nocturnal omnivores
I in males.

• The body of the cockroach is segmented and divisible into three distinct
regions-head, thorax and abdomen.
Sense organs of cockroach
0
• The entire body is covered by a hard chitinous exoskeleton (brown in colour).
1. Antennae 3. Maxillary palps 5. Anal cerci

10Iegment
I dorsal
• In each segment, exoskeleton has hardened plates called sclerites (tergites
dorsally and sternites ventrally) that are joined to each other by a thin and
e flexible articular membrane (arthrodial membrane).
2. Eyes (Compound) 4. Labial palps
sooo henagondommatidia
Taterally purity

HEAD MOUTH PARTS OF COCKROACH

Head is triangular. Cofused 91 Biting chewing e
Grinding Labrum (Upper lip)
O
Flexible neck. Prothorax region
a Mandible
To Mandible
The head capsule bears a pair of compound eyes. A pair of

É
Incising region Hypopharynx
thread like antennae arise from membranous sockets lying in (tongue)
front of eyes. Maxilla Maxilla
o o
Labium (lower lip)
Antennae have sensory receptors that help in monitoring the
environment.

Thorax
Thorax consists of three parts : prothorax, mesothorax & metathorax. The head is connected with thorax by a short extension of the prothorax known
as the neck.
Each thoracic segment bears a pair of walking legs.
The first pair of wings arises from mesothorax and the second pair from metathorax.
Forewings (mesothoracic) called tegmina or elytra are opaque dark and leathery and cover the hind wings when at rest.
The hind wings are transparent, membranous and are used in flight.
Metathoran
 ABDOMEN ANATOMY
The abdomen in both males and females consists of 10 segments.
Males bear a pair of short, thread like anal styles 9th sternum which are absent in DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
females. Alimentary Canal of cockroach
In both sexes, the 10th segment bears a pair of jointed filamentous structures called
anal cerci. Mouth

F Pharynx
BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM O
É d R Oesophagus
dorsaltube E
Ifta
Respiratory System
fairwaymuscles G
U Crop (for storing food)
T
Gizzard (for grinding)
Respiratory system consists of a network of trachea, that open through 10 pairs of
small holes called spiracles.

tdd exchanges
M Hepatic or gastric caeca (At the

qq.y.gg
junction of foregut and midgut)
Excretory System I
D
Excretion is performed by Malpighian tubules. G Malpighian tubules
U (At the junction of midgut and

I
mephridingbitelongnd
T
Nervous System hindgut)

E it
Three ganglia lie in the thorax, and six in the abdomen.
In the head region, the brain is represented by supra-oesophageal ganglion which H
supplies nerves to antennae and compound eyes. I Ileum
N
D
Sense organs G Colon
U
Antennae, eyes, maxillary palps, labial palps, anal cerci, etc. T Rectumn Anus
The compound eyes are situated at the dorsal surface of the head.
Each eye consists of about 2000 hexagonal ommatidia. mosaicvision

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Compare
Cockroaches are dioecious.
Male reproductive system consists of a pair of testes lying one on each lateral side in the 4th-6th abdominal segments.
O
A characteristic mushroom shaped gland or utricular gland is present in the 6th-7th abdominal segments which functions as
an accessory reproductive gland.
clean as spermatophore
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
In females, the 7th sternum is boat shaped and together with the 8th and 9th sterna forms a brood or genital pouch whose anterior part
contains female gonopore, spermathecal pores and collaterial glands.
The female reproductive system consists of two large ovaries, lying laterally in the 2nd-6th abdominal segments.
O
A pair of spermatheca is present in the 6th segment which opens into the genital chamber.
Sperms are transferred through spermatophores.
Their fertilised eggs are encased in capsules called oothecae.
On an average, females produce 9-10 oothecae, each containing 14-16 eggs. The nymphs look very much like adults.
The development of P. americana is paurometabolous, meaning there is development through nymphal stage.
The nymph grows by moulting about 13 times to reach the adult form. Tingpads
Chapter

08 CELL THE UNIT OF LIFE

Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell

Cell was discovered by Robert Hooke.
Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first saw and described a live
cell.
Matthias Schleiden examined a large number of
plants.
Theodore Schwann studied different types of
animal cells and reported that cells had a thin
outer layer which is today known as the
'plasma membrane'.
theory.
Rudolf Virchow (Omnis cellula-e cellula).
Cell theory as understood today is:
i) All living organisms are composed of cells and
products of cells.
ii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
PROKARYOTIC CELLS

AN OVERVIEW OF CELL Bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma and PPLO

Cytoplasm is the main arena of cellular activities in
both the plant and animal cells.
Mycoplasmas, smallest cells are only 0.3μm in
length while bacteria could be 3 to 5μm.
Largest isolated single cell is the egg of an ostrich
(15 cm).
Human red blood cells are about 7.0 μm in
diameter.
Nerve cells are longest cells.
RBCs are round & biconcave.
(Pleuro Pneumonia like organisms).
Cell wall surrounding the cell membrane except in
mycoplasma.
No well defined nucleus.
Genetic material is basically naked.
Small circular DNA outside the genomic DNA (Plasmids.)
No organelles, like the ones in eukaryotes, except
forribosomes.
Something unique in the form of inclusions.

CELL ENVELOPE AND ITS

MODIFICATIONS
Three layered structure outermost glycocalyx
followed by the cell wall and then the plasma
membrane. Function together as a single
protective unit.
Help in cell wall formation, DNA replication
respiration,respiration secretion processes.
Cyanobacteria, have other membranous
extensions into the cytoplasm called
chromatophores which contain pigments.

Those that take up the gram stain are Gram
positive and the others that do not are called
Gram negative bacteria.
Glycocalyx Could be a loose sheath called the
slime layer in some, in others it may be thick and
tough, called the capsule.
Cell wall determines the shape of the cell and
provides a strong structural support to cell.
Plasma membrane is selectively-permeable in
nature.
Mesosome formed by extensions of
plasma membrane in the form of vesicles,
tubules and lamellae.

FLAGELLA

Filamentous extensions from their cell wall.

Pili and Fimbriae are also surface structures of the
bacteria but do not play a role in motility.
Pili made of a special protein Pilin.
Fimbriae are small bristle like fibres.
Help attach the bacteria to rocks in streams and
also to the host tissues.
 RIBOSOMES
15 nm by 20 nm in size made of two subunits 50S and 30S
units which when present together form 70S.
Site of protein synthesis.
Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA and form
a chain called polyribosome or polysome.
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Extensive compartmentalisation, presence of
membrane bound organelles.
Organised nucleus with a nuclear envelope. Variety of
complex locomotory and cytoskeletal structures.
Plant and animal cell are different as the former
possess cell wall, plastids and a large central vacuole
which are absent in animal cells.
CELL WALL
A non-living rigid structure forms an outer covering
for the plasma membrane.
Gives shape to the cell and protects the cell from
mechanical damage and infection, it also helps in cell-
to-cell interaction provides barrier to undesirable
macromolecules.
Algae made of cellulose, galactans, mannans and
minerals like calcium carbonate, in other plants it
consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins & proteins.
Young plant cell, the primary wall is capable of
growth, secondary wall is formed on the inner
(towards membrane) side of the cell.
Middle lamella is a layer mainly of calcium pectate
which holds or glues the different neighbouring cells
together.
Cell wall and middle lamella may be traversed by
plasmodesmata to connect the cytoplasm of
neighbouring cells.
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
INCLUSION BODIES
Reserve material are stored in the cytoplasm in the
form of inclusion bodies.
Not bounded by any membrane system
Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and purple and
green photosynthetic bacteria.
CELL MEMBRANE
Lipids are arranged in a bilayer.
Polar head towards the outer sides hydrophobic tails
towards the inner part.
The membrane of the erythrocyte has approximately 52 per
cent protein and
40 per cent lipids.
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
Proposed by Singer and Nicolson.
Peripheral proteins lie on the surface of membrane
while the integral proteins are partially or totally
buried in the membrane.
Quasi-fluid nature of lipid enables lateral movement of
proteins within the overall bilayer.
Fluid nature of the membrane; cell growth formation of
intercellular junctions, secretion, endocytosis, cell division
etc.
Important functions of the plasma membrane is the
transport of the molecules across it.
Movement of water by diffusion is called osmosis.
(i) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Network or reticulum of tiny tubular structures
scattered in the cytoplasm.
Divides the intracellular space into two, luminal &
extra luminal compartments.
Endoplasmic reticulum bearing ribosomes on their
surface is called rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER).
In the absence of ribosomes they appear smooth and
are called smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
RER involved in protein synthesis and secretion.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum, major site for synthesis
of lipid and steroids (lipid – like steroidal hormones).
(II). GOLGI APPARATUS
Camillo Golgi first observed densely stained
reticular structures near the nucleus.
Many flat, membranous disc-shaped sacs/bag or
cisternae of 0.5μm to 1.0μm diameter.
Stacked parallel to each other.
Concentrically arranged near the nucleus with
distinct convex cis or the forming face and
concave trans or the maturing face.
Function of packaging materials to be delivered
either to the intra-cellular targets or secreted
outside the cell.
Packed in the form of vesicles from the ER fuse with
the cis face of the golgi apparatus and move towards
the maturing face.
Proteins modified in the cisternae of the golgi
apparatus before they are released from trans
face.
Important site of formation of glycoproteins and
glycolipids.
(5) PLASTIDS
Found in all plant cells and in euglenoids.
Bear some specific pigments, imparting specific
colours to the plants.
Classified into chloroplasts, chromoplasts and
leucoplasts.
(III). LYSOSOMES
Formed by the process of packaging in the
golgi apparatus.
Rich in almost all types of hydrolytic enzymes
optimally active at the acidic pH.
Capable of digesting the macromolecules like
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic
acids
(IV). VACUOLES
Membrane-bound space found in the cytoplasm,
bound by a single membrane called tonoplast.
Vacuoles can occupy up to 90 per cent of the
volume of the cell.
Contains water, dissolved substances, sap,
excretory product and other materials not
useful for the cell.
Transport of a number of ions and other
materials against concentration gradients into
the vacuole.
In Amoeba, contractile vacuole is important for
excretion & osmoregulation.
In protists, food vacuoles are formed by
engulfing the food particles.
(4) MITOCHONDRIA
Absent in mammalian RBCs and prokaryotes.
Sausage-shaped or cylindrical having a diameter of
0.2 -1.0 μm (average 0.5 μm) and length 1.0 – 4.1 μm
Double membrane-bound structure
distinctly two aqueous compartments, the outer
compartment and the inner compartment.
Inner compartment is called the matrix.
Inner membrane forms a number of infoldings called
the cristae (sing.: crista) towards the matrix.
Sites of aerobic respiration or Kreb's cycle.
'Power houses' of the cell.
Single circular DNA molecule, few RNA molecules,
ribosomes (70S).
Divide by fission.
 CHLOROPLASTS

Lens-shaped, oval, spherical, discoid or even ribbon-like

organelles having variable length (5-10Pm) and width (2-
4Pm).
1 per cell of the Chlamydomonas, 20-40 per cell in the
mesophyll.
Double membrane bound., the inner chloroplast membrane is
relatively less permeable.
Space limited by the inner membrane of the chloroplast is
called the stroma.
Number of organised flattened disc like membranous sacs
called the thylakoids,

oil & fat protein Thylakoids are arranged in stacks like the piles of coins
called grana.

Flat membranous tubules called the stroma lamellae

connecting the thylakoids of the different grana.
(6) RIBOSOMES Membrane of the thylakoids enclose a space called a lumen.

Granular structures first observed as dense particles by small, double-stranded circular DNA molecules and
George Palade (1953). ribosomes.

Composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S prokaryotic ribosomes are
70S.
'S' stands for the Svedberg unit or sedimentation
coefficient.
Two subunits of 70S ribosome are 50S (larger subunit)
30S (smaller subunit).
Two subunits of 80S ribosome are 60S (larger subunit) &
40S (smaller subunit).
Ribosomes of the chloroplasts are smaller (70S) than the
cytoplasmic ribosomes (80S).
Mitochondria and chloroplast are semi-autonomous
organelles because
Possess their own nucleic acid (DNA molecule).
Can form some of the required protein.
Do not arise de novo.
membrane similar to those of bacteria.

Ribosomes are site of protein synthesis so they are called

protein factories.
(8) CILIA AND FLAGELLA

(7) CYTOSKELETON Hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane.

Network of filamentous proteinaceous structures present
in the cytoplasm is collectively referred to as the
cytoskeleton.
Mechanical support, motility, maintenance of the shape of
the cell.
Cilia are small structures which work like oars.
Flagella are comparatively longer and responsible for cell
movement.
Core called the axoneme, possesses a number of microtubules
running parallel to the long axis.
Axoneme usually has nine pairs of doublets of radially
arranged peripheral
microtubules, and a pair of centrally located microtubules.
9+2 array.
Both the cilium and flagellum emerge from centriole like
structure called the basal bodies.
 (9) CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES

Two cylindrical structures called centrioles. They are

surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar materials.
Centrioles in a centrosome lie perpendicular to each
other in which each has an organisation like the
cartwheel.
Nine evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin.
Each of the peripheral fibril (microtubule) is a
triplet. The adjacent triplets are also linked.
The central part of the centriole is also
proteinaceous and called the hub, which is
connected with tubules of the peripheral triplets
by radial spokes made of protein.
The centrioles form spindle fibres that give rise to
spindle apparatus

10) MICROBODIES
Membrane bound minute vesicles called
microbodies.

11) NUCLEUS

First described by Robert Brown

structure
Stained by the basic dyes was given the
name chromatin by flemming.
Normally, there is only one nucleus per cell.
Some mature cells even lack nucleus, e.g., Chromatin contains DNA and some basic proteins called histones
erythrocytes of many mammals and sieve some non-histone proteins and also RNA.
tube cells of vascular plants. These cells
are enucleated or anucleated. Every chromosome essentially has a primary constriction or the
centromere on the sides of which disc shaped structures called
The interphase nucleus has highly extended kinetochores are present.
and elaborate nucleoprotein fibres called
chromatin, nuclear matrix and one or more
spherical bodies called nucleoli.
Two parallel membranes with a space between
(10 to 50 nm ) called the perinuclear space.

Nuclear envelope is interrupted by minute

pores, which are formed by the fusion of its
two membranes.
Nuclear pores are the passages through
which movement of RNA and protein
molecules takes place in both directions
between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

Nucleoplasm contains nucleolus and

chromatin.
Content of nucleolus is continuous with
the rest of the nucleoplasm it is not a
membrane bound structure.

Nucleolus is a site for active ribosomal

RNA (r-RNA) synthesis.
Few chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions at a constant location. This gives the appearance of a
small fragment called the satellite.
Chapter

09 BIOMOLECULES
organic compound

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
t PRIMARY AND SECONDARY METABOLITES

o
E
me

o
a o
Joy o
I Is

BIOMACROMOLECULES and BIOMiCROMOLECULES

Except lipid, other macromolecules are formed by polymerization or condensation of monomers hence these are called polymers.
o
BIOMOLECULES substitution

Q
Micromolecules Macromolecules

Mwt. ranging from 18 to Mwt. in range of 10,000

O
800 Da. Da or above.
Present in acid soluble Present in acid insoluble

ga ÉÉ Éw
pool pool
smasmic
Many types 4 types
eg. eg.
Glucose
Ribose
Protein
Nucleic acid a
Amino acids Polysaccharide

I
Nitrogen bases Lipid (exception)
Nucleosides phospholipid e
Nucleotides visits qggdaeton e
Caitlin

Guan

ane o

Lipids are not strictly macromolecules.

 CARBOHYDRATES AMINO ACIDS
Homopolysaccharides Glucose A's in
Substituted methanes.
g
Starch : Starch forms helical secondary structures.
starch can hold I₂ molecules the tut
positions.
I
These are four substituent groups occupying the four valency

O
Glycogen : commonly called animal starch because its structure
similar to amylopectin.
ta These are hydrogen, carboxyl group, amino group and a variable
group.
a
In a polysaccharide chain (say glycogen}, the right end is called the
reducing end and the left end is called the non-reducing end. It has Based on the nature of R group there are many amino acids. However,

Inas
branches. those which occur in proteins are only of twenty types.

Cellulose does not contain complex helices and cannot hold I₂
Chitin - Homopolymer of N Acetyl Glucosamine
Inulin - Polymer of Fructose
Eyeliner
LIPIDS
Water insoluble
They could be simple fatty acids. A fatty acid has a carboxyl group
attached to a R group.
The R group could be a methyl (–CH₃), or ethyl (–C₂H₅) or higher
number of –CH₂ groups (1 carbon to 19 carbons).
Palmitic acid has 16 carbons including carboxyl carbon.
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds in their
carbon chain.
Arachidonic acid has 20 carbon atoms including the carboxyl
carbon.
Simple lipid is glycerol which is trihydroxy propane.
Many lipids have both glycerol and fatty acids.
FI
The R group in these proteinaceous amino acids could be a hydrogen
O
(the amino acid is called glycine), a methyl group (alanine), hydroxy
methyl (serine).
1. Acidic amino acids – Glutamic acid (glutamate), Aspartic acid
(aspartate).
2. Basic amino acids – Histidine, Arginine and Lysine.
3. Neutral amino acids – Valine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Alanine and Glycine.
4. Alcoholic amino acids – Threonine and Serine.
5. Aromatic amino acids – Tryptophan, Tyrosine and Phenylalanine.
6. Sulphur containing amino acid – Cysteine and Methionine.
e ion
getchargeo
Zwitter
O O

É
Fats and oils are differentiated on basis of melting point.
Here the fatty acids are found esterified with glycerol. They can be
then monoglycerides, diglycerides and triglycerides.
Phospholipids : They are found in cell membrane.
Lecithin

PROTEIN SECONDARY STRUCTURE (PEPTIDE BOND +

Pautz
H-BOND)
A protein is a heteropolymer e E Mishit
Proteins, only right handed helices are observed.
Other regions of the protein thread are folded into other forms in
STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS what is called the secondary structure.

onlypeptide
PRIMARY STRUCTURE linear
p C TERTIARY STRUCTURE
The first aminoacid is also called as N-terminal amino acid. enymeng
I
The last amino acid is called the C-terminal amino acid.
0
(Peptide + H Bond + Disulphide Bond)
Nobleman
PROTEIN FUNCTIONS

EQUARTERNARY STRUCTURE
Collagen Intercellular ground substances
Trypsin Enzymes
Insulin Hormone
Some proteins are an assembly of more than one polypeptide or

EE
Antibody Fights infectious agents subunits.
Receptor Sensory reception (smell, taste, hormone, etc.) Adult human haemoglobin consists of 4 subunits. Two of these are
GLUT-4 Enables glucose transport into cells. identical to each other. Hence, two subunits of α-type and two
subunits of β-type together constitute the human haemoglobin.
 ENZYMES
o NATURE OF ENZYME
All enzymes are protein
ACTION
Some nucleic acids behave like enzymes. These
are called ribozymes.
o o
0 Of
a
In the tertiary structure the backbone of the
protein chain folds upon itself, the chain criss-
crosses itself and hence, many crevices or
autumn
Concept of activation energy
me transition he
pockets are made. One such pocket is ‘active
site’.
How do enzymes bring about such high rates of gym
chemical conversions? activation energy
lowering

FACTORS AFFECTING Id
CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE OF ENZYMES
ENZYME ACTIVITY endigit between two
number
Oxidoreductases/dehydrogenases : Enzymes which catalyse oxidoreduction
substrates S and S’ or transfer of electron.

I
1. Temperature and pH
S reduced + S’ oxidized → S oxidized + S’ reduced.
afinorganiicatalyst Transferases : Enzymes catalysing a transfer of a group, G (other than hydrogen)
between pair of substrate S and S’ e.g.,

Eve
t empty
S – G + S’ → S + S’ – G
g
j
below
Hydrolases : Enzymes catalysing hydrolysis of ester, ether peptide, glycosidic, C-C, C-halide
or P-N bonds.

Effect of change in pH on Effect of change in temp. on
enzyme activity
2. Concentration of Substrate
I
Lyases : Enzymes that catalyse removal of groups from substrates by mechanisms other
than hydrolysis leaving double bonds.
XÉ Xy
any
enzyme activity Isomerases : Includes all enzymes catalysing inter-conversion of optical, geometrical or
positional isomers.
Ligases : Enzymes catalysing the linking together of 2 compounds e.g., enzymes which
catalyse joining of C–O, C–S, C–N, P–O etc. bonds.

I
Km indicates the substrate concentration at
eCO-FACTORS
which reaction attains half of its maximum
velocity. e Ttpoeny factor Holo
The protein portion of the enzymes is called the apoenzyme. enzyme
Three kinds of cofactors may be identified : prosthetic groups, co-enzymes and metal ions.
Tontproten
PROSTHETIC GROUPS

Q They are tightly bound to the apoenzyme.

on
9 Example, in peroxidase and catalase, which catalyze the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide
of water and oxygen, haem is the prosthetic group and it is a part of the active site of the
enzyme.
Michael'sMontomonstant
Effect of change in concentration of subtrate on
enzyme activity
CO-ENZYMES
3. Inhibitors
Co-enzymes are also organic compounds but their association with the apoenzyme is only
When the inhibitor closely resembles the substrate transient, coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and NADP contain the vitamin
in its molecular structure and inhibits the activity niacin.
of the enzyme, it is known as competitive inhibitor. Every co-enzyme is a cofactor but every cofactor is not a co-enzyme.
E.g. inhibition of succinic dehydrogenase by
malonate which closely resembles the substrate
succinate in structure. EMETAL IONS d 1
substrate activesitesidechain
Zinc is a cofactor for the proteolytic enzyme carboxypeptidase.
gym mom
my y agnate
Grb anhydrase
Chapter
CELL CYCLE AND CELL
10
DIVISION

Cell duplicates its genome, other constituents of the cell and

eventually divides in two daughter cells.
DNA synthesis occurs only during one specific stage in the cell cycle.
The cell cycle is divided into two basic phases:
interphase and M phase.
Duration of cell cycle can vary from organism to
organism
Yeast; (90 minutes), Bacteria (E.coli); 20 min.
A typical eukaryotic cell divide once in approximately
every 24 hours

M Phase represents the phase when the actual cell division or mitosis
occurs interphase represents the phase between two successive M
phases.
Interphase, resting phase, lasts for 95% of the duration of cell
cycle.
1. G phase / Post-mitotic gap phase
metabolically active continuously grows, does not replicate its DNA.
2. S phase
1
DNA synthesis or replication takes place. Amount of DNA per cell
doubles but no increase in the chromosome number
3. G phase / pre mitotic gap phase
• Proteins are synthesised in preparation for mitosis while cell growth
continues.
• Cells that do not divide further exit G phase to enter 1 an inactive
stage called quiescent stage (G ) of the cell cycle.
• Cells in G stage remain metabolically active but no longer
proliferate.
• In animals, mitotic cell division is only seen in the diploid somatic cells.
• Against this, the plants can show mitotic divisions in both haploid
and diploid cells.

TOPIC 2. M-PHASE OR MITOSIS PHASE 2 . METAPHASE

The number of chromosomes in the parent and progeny cells is the same, it is • Condensation of chromosomes is completed.
also called as equational division . • Morphology of chromosomes is most easily studied.
• Small disc - shaped structures at the surface of the centromeres
are called kinetochores.
1. PROPHASE • Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores of chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator and get aligned along
metaphase plate through spindle fibres to both poles.
Longest phase of mitosis.
Initiation of condensation of chromosomal material.
Centrosome, move towards opposite poles of the cell.
Chromosomes are seen to be composed of two chromatids attached together 4. TELOPHASE
at the centromere.
Initiation of the assembly of mitotic spindle, • Chromosomes, decondense and lose their individuality.
At the end of prophase, golgi complexes, endoplasmic reticulum, nucleolus and • Chromosomes cluster at opposite spindle poles.
the nuclear envelope. disappear. • Nuclear envelope developes around the chromosome clusters at
each pole forming two daughter nuclei.
• Nucleolus, golgi complex and ER reform.
3. ANAPHASE
Centromeres split and chromatids separate.
Chromatids move to opposite poles.
 CYTOKINESIS
• Cytokinesis involves division of cytoplasm.
• In an animal cell, this is achieved by the appearance of a furrow in the plasma membrane.
• In plant cells, wall formation starts in the centre of the cell and grows outward to meet the existing lateral walls called the cell-plate.
• In some organisms karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis leading to the formation of syncytium (e.g. liquid endosperm in coconut).

TOPIC 3. SIGNIFICANCE OF TOPIC 4. MEIOSIS

MITOSIS
Cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half results in
the production of haploid daughter cells.
• In some lower plants and in some social insects haploid cells also This kind of division is called meiosis or reductional divison.
divide by mitosis. Meiosis during gametogenesis in plants and animals. leads to the
• Continuous growth of plants. formation of haploid gametes.
• Restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio. Meiosis involves two sequential cycles, meiosis I and meiosis II, but
• Cell repair. only a single cycle of DNA replication.

(I) Meiosis-I ii. Zygotene

1. Prophase-1 • Chromosomes start pairing together and this process of association is
called synapsis. Such paired chromosomes are called homologous
chromosomes.
• Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene and Diakinesis. • Formation of synaptonemal complex.
• Formation of bivalent or a tetrad.
i. Leptotene
• Compaction of chromosomes continues.
iii. Pachytene iv. Diplotene
• Bivalent chromosomes now clearly appears as tetrads. • The dissolution of the synaptonemal complex and recombined homologous
• Crossing over occurs between non-sister chromatids of the chromosomes of the bivalents, separate from each other except at the
homologous chromosomes , by enzyme recombinase. sites of crossovers .
• Recombination between homologous chromosomes is completed by the • These X-shaped structures, are called chiasmata. In oocytes of some
end of pachytene. vertebrates, diplotene can last for months or years.

2. Metaphase-I
v. Diakinesis
• Terminalisation of chiasmata.
• Chromosomes are fully condensed Bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate. Spindle
• Nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope also breaks down. attach to the kinetochore of homologous chromosomes

3. Anaphase-I 4 . Telophase-I
Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear, cytokinesis follows
• Homologous chromosomes separate, sister chromatids remain
and this is called as dyad of cells.
associated at their centromeres.
Stage between the two meiotic divisions is called interkinesis and
is generally short lived.
 (II) MEIOSIS-II 2. Metaphase-II
Meiosis II is the equational divison. • Chromosomes align at the equator.
• Spindle get attached to the kinetochores of sister chromatids.
1. Prophase-II
• Nuclear membrane disappears.
• Chromosomes again become compact.
4. Telophase-II
Two groups of chromosomes once again get enclosed by a nuclear envelope;
3. Anaphase-II cytokinesis follows result in the formation of tetrad of cells. i.e., four haploid
daughter cells.
• Splitting of the centromere of each chromosome.

TOPIC 5. SIGNIFICANCE OF
MEIOSIS

• Conservation of specific chromosome number of each species.

• Increase in genetic variability in the population of organisms.
• Helps the process of evolution.
Amitosis is cleavage of nucleus without recognisable
chromosome distribution and spindle formation.
 PI ANT PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter

11 TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
FDPDt.ro
o.p

Translocation: bulk movement of substances

Ys OSMOSIS

EI
Xylem (water and minerals) distance
Unidirectional (from roots to stem)
Diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane.
Phloem (organic nutrients)
Depends on pressure gradient & concentration gradient.
Bi-directional/multidirectional
External pressure required to prevent water from diffusing is
Intrastate osmotic pressure
atque thistfunndemm.m
DIFFUSION
passive
PLASMOLYSIS

Ti
No ATP utilised
Substances move from higher concentration to lower
External solution balances osmotic pressure of cytoplasm →
concentration
Not dependent on a living system D
isotonic
External solution is more dilute → hypotonic
http
e hmmsummations
1g
Random
External solutions more concentrated → hypertonic

FACILITATED DIFFUSION PLANT CELL PLACED IN

O
Substances having hydrophilic moiety are difficult to pass
LI
1. Hypertonic solution
Yp ve
Plasmolysis

É
through membrane
Special carrier proteins help move substances 2. Isotonic solution Flaccid
Facilitated diffusion is very specific
Sensitive to inhibitors 3. Hypotonic solution Turgid
Saturation
Both molecules in the same direction ⇾ Symport
Both molecules in opposite direction ⇾ Antiport
Independent of other molecules ⇾ Uniport
IMBIBITION

ACTIVE TRANSPORT Special type of diffusion e.g., absorption of water by seeds & dry wood

oÉÉm
Water potential gradient between the absorbent & liquid imbibed is
Uses energy to pump molecules against a concentration gradient.
Tsugaru
essential
affinity ads

Tim
Uphill transport
These proteins are sensitive to inhibitors
LONG DISTANCE TRANSPORT

I
Diffusion is a slow process. It can account for only short distance
WATER – POTENTIAL movement
Mass flow is the movement of substances in bulk or en masse
Greater the concentration of water in a system greater is its
kinetic energy or water potential
ABSORPTION OF WATER BY
Water will move from higher water potential to low water
potential PLANTS
Water potential is expressed in pascals (Pa) enetodemmy
Is the function of root hairs
Water potential of pure water at standard temperature is eaten
Kid
Water is absorbed by diffusion Passively
Onion
zero.
Lowering in water potential due to solute is solute potential
Solute potential is always negative APOPLAST PATHWAY
At atmospheric pressure, water potential = solute potential.
Pressure exerted by the protoplasts due to entry of water is System of adjacent cell walls that is continuous except at the
pressure potential Casparian strips

Item
(Ψw= Ψs + Ψp) Movement occurs exclusively through intercellular spaces & walls
Endodermis is impervious to water because of Casparian strips.
 checkpoint a
Casparia

SYMPLAST PATHWAY UPTAKE & TRANSPORT OF

MINERALS
Water molecules are directed into the cells proper through the
membrane most minerals enter the root by active absorption into

acting
Is the system of interconnected protoplasts.
Neighbouring cells connected through plasmodesmata
cyloplasm of epidermal cells

Ion active panic

Hyoscine

WATER MOVEMENT UP A
PLANT
0 MECHANISM OF ABSORPTION OF
ELEMENTS
Push Apoplaific
ROOT PRESSURE
Ions from the soil are actively transported into roots
G
Initial rapid uptake of ions into apoplast is passive
Water follows & increases pressure inside the xylem Ions are taken in slowly into symplast which is active process
This root pressure is responsible for pushing up water to
small heights evaporation
d
Jehydathdel
Water loss in liquid phase is known as guttation.
Mobile oggag.mg
fIefE Younglevel

TRANSPIRATION PULL PHLOEM TRANSPORT a Bidirectional

multidirectional
Flow of water through xylem can achieve high rate up to 15 meters Food is transported by phloem from source to sink
per hour.
Iwata vaporse
Water is mainly pulled, driving force is transpiration from the leaves
Phloem sap is mainly water & sucrose ammo
Less than 1% of water reaching the leaves is used in photosynthesis g
Sugar is first loaded into companion cells & then into sieve tube

egg
cells by active transport.
and plant growth. Loading at the source produces a hypertonic condition in phloem.
Most of water is lost through stomata Water in the adjacent xylem moves into phloem by osmosis.
Flow begins & sap moves through the phloem. o
O
At sinks sucrose actively transported out of phloem (unloading),.
Girdling experiment shows that phloem is responsible for
TRANSPIRATION
A
IÉÉÉ
translocation of food. baroqueconivemmmore
vapour Earectionate
Evaporative loss of water by plants through the stomata
When turgidity increases thin outer walls of guard cells bulge out,
stomata open.
Guard cells become flaccid & stomata closes. Tramenimer 48

IT
m
Transpiration is affected by: temperature, light, humidity, wind

Iggf
Tramp pull
qq.FI
speed, number and distribution of stomata, water status of the
plant Photo
water requirement
Ascent of xylem sap depends on
Minerals
(i) Cohesion : Mutual attraction between water
Cio1504
molecules. Cooling effect

Calleshape a
(ii) Adhesion : Attraction of water molecules to
surface of tracheary elements.
(iii) Surface Tension : water molecules are more
attracted to each other in the liquid phase
These 3 properties give water :
(i) High Tensile strength and
fruit
(ii) High capillarity smalldiameter
gravity

Forces generated by transpiration can lift column of water over

O 130 meters high.

C₄ plants are twice efficient as C₃ plants in fixing carbon
C₄ plant loses only half as much water as a C₃ plant
Chapter

12 MINERAL NUTRITION
Soillesscultivation
1
Sachs developed hydroponics in 1860 Potassium: (K⁺)
used for commercial production of tomato, D
Protein synthesis
anion cationbalance
lettuce and seedless cucumber
Opening & closing of stomata
Maintains the turgidity of cells
CRITERIA FOR ESSENTIALITY
accumulateinolderleave

É
Necessary for normal growth & reproduction
Requirement must be specific & not replaceable
I
Calcium : (Ca²⁺)
formation of mitotic spindle.
Directly involved in metabolism of plant
Imiddle
Synthesis of cell wall
Functioning of cell membrane
lamella

17 ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS Magnesium : (Mg²⁺) synthesis of DNA & RNA

Macronutrients (>10 mmole kg–1 of dry matter) Eg: C, H, O, Activates enzymes of respiration
P, K, N, S, Ca, Mg Constituent of chlorophyll.
Micronutrients (<10 mmole per kg. of dry matter) Eg: B, Cl,
Mo, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn Maintains ribosome structure
4 beneficial elements (Na, Si, Se & Co) Sulphur: SO₄²⁻ (Sulphate)
game
present in amino acids –cysteine & methionine
Iron : (Fe³⁺) (ferric ions) required in larger amount than other
ROLE OF ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS

I Ftrets
micronutrients
Constituent of ferredoxin & cytochromes
1. Components of biomolecules: C, H, O, N
Activates catalase enzyme.

2. Components of energy related

compounds
O
Mg in Chlorophyll I
Formation of chlorophyll.

OP in ATP o
Manganese: (Mn²⁺)
3. Alter the osmotic activates enzymes of photosynthesis, respiration &
Potential of a cell : K plays an important role N₂ metabolism
in opening & closing of stomata
Water splitting reaction

RuBisCo
4. Zinc: (Zn⁺²) activates carboxylases
Enzyme
activators o
Mg
PEPcase
Synthesis of Auxin

o
Zn Alcohol dehydrogenase

E
Caboxypeptidase
Copper: (Cu²⁺) essential for overall metabolism
Carbonic anhydrase
Nitrogenase

OMo
Boron : (BO₃3– or B₄O₇²⁻) a cat uptake
tf
Nitrate reductase
Pollen germination
O
Fe Catalase
Cell elongation & cell differentiation
Immolated
Nitrogen: absorbed as NO₃– (nitrate)
Required by plants in greatest amount. Constituent of all
proteins, nucleic acids, vitamins & hormones Molybdenum : (MoO₂²⁺) component of nitrogenase &
nitrate reductase
Phosphorus : Absorbed as H₂PO₄– or HPO₄²⁻
Constituent of cell membrane, certain proteins,
anion cation balance
nucleic acids & nucleotides D
Chlorine : (Cl–)
watersplittingaxe
Required for phosphorylation (ATP formation)
 DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS BIOLOGICAL N₂ - FIXATION

Critical concentration: Concentration of the essential element

below which plant growth is retarded
I
Free-living N₂ - fixation Symbiotic N₂ - fixation
Elements that are actively mobilised: Deficiency appears first in
older tissues. E.g., N, K, S & Mg With non-
Elements that are immobile: deficiency symptoms appear first in leguminous plants
Aerobic bacteria Cyanobacteria

I
the young tissues e.g., Ca

Deficiency symptoms
mama's
eg. Azotobacter-
Beijernickia I
eg. Nostoc-Anabaena eg. Frankia

Chlorosis N, K, S, Fe, Zn, Mg, Mn, WIth leguminous plants

(loss of chlorophyll) Mo Anaerobic bacteria

Necrosis eg. Rhizobium

eg. Rhodospirillum
(death of Ca, Cu, Mg, K

3
tissue)
Delay
Mo, S, N
Bacteria invade root hair, reach cortex and initiate nodule formation
O
00
Nitrogenase catalyses conversion atmospheric N₂ to NH₃

8
Flowering
Nodule contains O₂ scavenger called leg-haemoglobin

I
Inhibition of
7
Mo, S, N, K N₂ + 8e + 8H⁺ + 16 ATP → 2NH₃ + H₂ + 16ADP + 16Pi.

002
Cell division NH₃ is protonated to form NH₄⁺ (ammonium) ion
Two ways in which NH₄⁺ ion is used-
at
TOXICITY OF MICRONUTRIENTS
vein y1. Reductive Amination:
ochlorotic
Moderate increase concentration causes toxicity.
Excess of Mn induces deficiency of Fe, Mg, & Ca shstelocation
O
ya o
α-Ketoglutaric acid + NH₄⁺ + NADPH
Glutamate
dehydrogenase o
Glutamate + H₂O +
NADP
NITROGEN CYCLE

N₂O) IE
Conversion of N₂ (nitrogen) to NH₃ (ammonia) is N₂ fixation.
Lightning & UV radiation convert N₂ to nitrogen oxides (NO, NO₂,

Decomposition of dead plants and animals into ammonia is

e2.TRANSAMINATION :

Transfer of amino group

Amino acids formed through transamination (enzyme transaminase)
Ammonification.
Ammonia → Nitrite : 2NH₃ + O₂ → 2NO₂– + 2H⁺ + 2H₂O
(Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus)

o
Nitrite → Nitrate : 2NO₂– + O₂ → 2NO₃ (Nitrobacter)

chimoantotrophe retain
I
This is call nitrification.
and
Nitrate is absorbed by plants
In leaves nitrate is reduced to NH₃ that forms the amine group
(–NH₂) of amino acids. Amides are transported via xylem vessels.O
Hydroxyl part of the acid replaced by NH₂⁻ radicle.

Nitrate is also reduced to N₂ by denitrification.(Pseudomonas & Nodules of some plants export fixed nitrogen as ureides.
Thiobacillus)

I and'ÉÉ
Enzyme Nitrogenase is present in prokaryotes
Chapter
PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN
13 HIGHER PLANTS
Moll'sHalfleaf enperiment
importance
ofCo2
EARLY EXPERIMENTS
LIGHT REACTION
Joseph priestley (1770) Belljar
growth of green plants
o discovery III
o
performed experiments that showed the essential role of air in the
1 Light absorption

Jan Ingenhousz
2 Water splitting e

o
Showed that sunlight is essential for photosynthesis

Julius von sachs (1854) 3 O₂ release

Provided evidence for production of glucose and that the glucose
is stored as starch. Charon T
my 4 Formation of ATP & NADPH
T.W Engelmann

He split light using a prism & then illuminated a green alga 2 different photochemical light harvesting complexes.
(Cladophora) in suspension of aerobic bacteria LHC are made up of hundreds of pigment molecules

EE
Bacteria accumulated in the region of blue & red light
single Chl-a molecule forms the reaction centre.
First action spectrum of photosynthesis resembled absorption
spectra of Chlorophyll a & b In PSI reaction centre has absorption peak at 700 nm
CO₂ + H₂O → [CH₂]O + O₂ In PSII absorption peak is at 680 nm
Van Niel
Experiment with purple & green – sulphur bacteria demonstrated 1. Electron Transport
that Hydrogen from a suitable oxidisable compound reduces CO₂ to
carbohydrate In PSII reaction centre (P680) Chl-a absorbs 680 nm wavelength
2H₂A + CO₂ → 2A + CH₂O + H₂O Causing electron to becomes excited
O₂ evolved by the green plants comes form H₂O not from CO₂ These are passed to an electron transport system
6CO₂ + 12H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6H₂O + 6O₂ Passed on to the pigments of PSI.
Electrons in the reaction centre of PSI are also excited

SITE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Moved downhill to a molecule of energy rich NADP⁺
t
Ie
NADP⁺ → NADPH + H⁺
Mesophyll cells in the leaves have chloroplasts.
Chloroplast has a membranous system & fluid stroma
o
Scheme of transfer of electrons is called Z-scheme,
When 2 photosystems work; PSII & then PSI; non-cyclic photo-
Membrane system traps light energy & synthesises ATP & NADPH
a
phosphorylation occurs
(Dark reaction) Both ATP & NADH⁺ H⁺ are synthesised

Chromatography chromatogram
PIGMENTS AND SPECTRUM 2. Splitting of water

1 www.y.nyg
2
Chlorophyll a (bright or
blue green)
Chl - b (yellow green)
water.
O
Electrons of PSII replaced by electrons available due to splitting of

2H₂O → 4H⁺ + O₂ + 4e–

3 D
Xanthophylls (yellow)
4 O
Carotenoides (yellow to
yellow orange).
CYCLIC PHOSPHORYLATION

In blue & red regions there is maximum absorption by Chl-a lestromalamellae

Chl-a is the major pigment responsible for trapping light. When only PSI is functional
Pigments like Chl-b, xanthophylls is carotenoids which are called
accessory pigments also absorb light and transfer the energy to
Chl-a
as Q I
Synthesis of ATP but not of NADPH+ H⁺

my.mn
 CHEMIOSMOTIC HYPOTHESIS PHOTORESPIRATION
Itched
Peter Cycle
ATP synthesis is linked to development of proton gradient across RuBisCO has a much greater affinity for CO₂ than for O₂.
I
membranes of thylakoid
D
In C₃ plants some O₂ does bind to RuBisCO.

one
Protons accumulate in the lumen
Breakdown of this gradient leads to release of energy.game RuBP instead of being converted to PGA forms phosphoglycerate &
phosphoglycolate in a pathway called photorespiration.
Gradient is broken down due to the movement of protons through the
transmembrane channel of F₀ of the ATPase enzyme No synthesis of ATP or NADPH. at imagine
ATPase enzyme consists of Photorespiration is a wasteful process.
(i) F₀: carries out facilitated diffusion of protons across the
C₄ plants have a special type of leaf anatomy (kranz), tolerate higher
membrane.
temperatures, show a response to high light intensities, lack
(ii) F₁: protrudes on the outer surface of the thylakoid
membrane, change in the F₁ particle makes the enzyme O
7
synthesise ATP. a
photorespiration and have greater productivity.

BIOSYNTHETIC PHASE/DARK FACTORS AFFECTING

REACTION PHOTOSYNTHESIS
y
IF
Products of light reaction are ATP, NADPH & O₂.
O₂ diffuses out, ATP & NADPH are used for the synthesis of sugar

É
(biosynthetic phase) Blackman's law of limiting factors: Rate will be determined by the factor
Melvin Calvin used radioactive C¹⁴ to show first CO₂ fixation product was which is nearest to its minimal value.
3-carbon organic acid. Genetic
First product → 3-PGA (3-phosphoglyceric acid). Internal Predisposition
First product of CO₂ fixation C₃ acid (PGA) → C₃ pathway A. LIGHT
I
First product is C₄ acid (OAA) → C₄ pathway gntwth

É
At low light intensities there is a linear relationship
between incident light & CO₂ fixation rate.
CALVIN CYCLE (C₃ PATHWAY) Light is rarely a limiting factor

Calvin pathway occurs in all photosynthetic plants

First CO₂ acceptor (RUBP-Ribulose bisphosphate)
B. CO₂ CONCENTRATION
3 stages i) Carboxylation ii) Reduction iii) Regeneration
Major limiting factor
CO₂ is utilised for the carboxylation of RUBP (catalysed by the enzyme RUBP
Atmospheric concentration Of CO₂ is very low (between 0.03
carboxylase)
Gist
formation of 2 molecules of 3- PGA.
Formation of glucose Idan
& 0.04%) a
lowlife coat Sky
Increase in concentration can cause increase in
I
O photosynthesis. tighfght coat GlauTT
O
Utilisation of 2 molecules of ATP for phosphorylation & 2 of NADPH for
reduction per CO₂ molecule fixed.
O C₄ plants show saturation 360 μ1L⁻¹ (0.036%)

Q
Regeneration requires 1 ATP for phosphorylation to form RUBP. C₃ plants show saturation beyond 450 μ1L⁻¹ (0.045%)
a

C₄ PATHWAY (HATCH & SLACK

drememen
C. TEMPERATURE FIFE
PATHWAY)
Fatah C₄ plants respond to higher temperature C₃ plants
0

pygmy
Occurs in the plants that are adapted to dry tropical regions. have a much lower temperature optimum.
OAA is the first CO₂ fixation product To E
Calvin cycle as the main biosynthetic pathway.
First CO₂ acceptor is a 3-C molecule PEP (phosphoenol pyruvate)
D. WATER
The enzyme responsible for the fixation is PEPcase (PEP carboxylase)
Water stress causes the stomata to close and makes leaves wilt.
C₄ acid (OAA) is formed in mesophyll cells
Metabolism
Io
Forms other 4-C compounds like malic acid or aspartic acid which are
transported to the bundle sheath cells.
In the bundle sheath cells these C₄ broken down to release CO₂ & a 3-C
molecule.
3-C molecule is transported back to mesophyll and converted to PEP e
again
CO₂ released in the bundle sheath cells enters the C₃ or Calvin pathway
O
 RESPIRATION IN
Chapter

14 PLANTS gaff'ficanoit Neetu

Demand I
long distance x

INTRODUCTION

Breaking of C-C bonds of complex compounds through oxidation

I mannnn
within cells leading to release of energy is called respiration .

Usually carbohydrates are oxidized to release energy. a

tubstratt
Proteins or fats can also be used as respiratory substrates.

JE Egg
C₆H₁₂O₆ +6O₂ 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy

GLYCOLYSIS common
pathway I
Universalpathway

0
Enzymatic machinery to partially oxidise glucose to from 2 molecules of

7
pyruvic acid without the help of O₂ is called glycolysis.

Given by Embden, Meyerhof & Parnas also called EMP pathway.

In anaerobic organisms, it is the only process in respiration.

Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. FERMENTATION

Of
Sucrose is converted into glucose & fructose by the enzyme invertase. Under anaerobic conditions in many prokaryotes, unicellular eukaryotes,

ATP is utilized at 2 steps

sucrase
I
in germinatition of seeds.

Alcholic fermentation (by

yeast) coz
Que
ATP is synthesized at 2 steps Cuatro

Pyruvic acid is the key product of glycolysis e Bacteria produce lactic

acid
F
Less than 7% of the energy in glucose is released & not all of it is trapped
in ATP
I
O
Yeast poison themselves to death when the concentration of alcohol

OE
reaches about 13%

or or too

o
 AEROBIC RESPIRATION

Complete oxidation of organic substances in the presence of 0 2&

release of CO2 , H20 & a large amount of energy.

f
Pyruvate after entering the mitochondrial matrix undergoes oxidative
Tink
decarboxylation by pyruvate dehydrogenase.
an
game coenzyme A. o
Requires the participation of several coenzymes, including NAD+ &

Mg+
PA + CoA + NAD Acetyl CoA + CO 2 + NADH + H+
pyruvate dehydrogenase

2 molecules of NADH are produced from the Kebcycle

metabolism of 2 molecules of PA.

+
KREB'S CYCLE OR TCA CYCLE OR
e
TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE

Cine Auzenne x2
O3 points in the cycle where NAD + is reduced to NADH + H
x2
1 point in the cycle where FAD + is reduced FADH 2

+ + Mitochondrial
0000
+ ++ FADH + ATP

Q
PA + 4NAD + FAD + 2H2O+ ADP + Pi 3C02+ 4NADH + 4H 2

Matrix
O
ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM

ÉÉ gig
(ETS)
08
⚫ The energy stored in NADH + H+ & FADH2 is released & utilized.

Present in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

E si
⚫

⚫ Oxidation of 1 molecule of NADH gives rise to 3 molecules of ATP.

⚫ Oxidation of 1 molecule of FADH 2 gives rise to 2 molecules of ATP.

⚫ The role of O2 is limited to the terminal stage of process as it removes

hydrogen from the system. It
O2 acts as final hydrogen and/or e- acceptor. (O +2H+ + 2e- H2O).
game
⚫

constrain yid
aim Taasampten
Va t carrier
Gf
aid
Complen
Complen II
egg
y
Imm
 COMPARISON B/W FERMENTATION AND
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
⚫

⚫
This process is called oxidative phosphorylation.

ATP synthesis is explained by chemiosmotic hypothesis.

e
⚫

I
Fermentation accounts for only a partial breakdown of glucose
whereas in aerobic respiration it is completely degraded to CO2and H2O.

In fermentation there is a net gain of only two molecules of ATP,

I 00
⚫

ATP synthase consists of 2 components - F0 & F1 .

whereas many more molecules of ATP are generated under aerobic
⚫

Ritichondrial
⚫ F0 is an integral membrane protein complex. conditions.
channel
F1 headpiece is a peripheral membrane protein complex. +
NADH is oxidised to NAD rather slowly in fermentation, however the

QE
⚫
⚫

⚫ For each ATP produced 2H + passes through F 0 reaction is very vigorous in case of aerobic respiration. a

AMPHIBOLIC PATHWAY RESIRATORY QUOTIENT

ratio
⚫ Glucose is the favoured substrate for respiration.
0
RQ =
y
I zinging
⚫ Other substrates can also be respired.
For fat RQ is less than 1.

I
⚫ Proteins degraded by proteases & individual amino acid enter the
pathway at some stage within the kreb cycle or even as PA or
acetyl CoA.
o
For tripalmitin, RQ = 0.7

For proteins RQ is 0. 9
Fats WH
9
If fatty acids were to be respired they would first be degraded
to acetyl CoA & Enter the pathway.
For carbohydrate RQ is 1,
C6H12O 6 + 6O 2 6CO 2+ 6H2O + Energy,
g
Glycerol would enter the pathway after being converted to PGAL
(triose-phosphate).
RQ = 6CO2 /6O2= 1.

To synthesise fatty acids, acetyl CoA could be withdrawn

from the respiratory pathway for it. Organic acid 1
Anaerobic a
Respiratory pathway is involed in both anabolism &
succulent o
catabolism.
e
Chapter

15 PLANT GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT
Development = Growth + Differentiation.
GROWTH
Irreversible permanent increase in size.
Accompanied by metabolic processesj at the
expense of energy.
Plants retain the capacity for unlimited growth
throughout their life.
Due to the presence of meristems.
Measured by increase in fresh weight, dry weight,
GEOMETRIC GROWTH
Initial growth is slow (lag phase), increases rapidly (log or
exponential phase), then slows down (stationary phase)
sigmoid or S-Curve
The exponential growth can be expressed as : W₁=W₀ eʳᵗ.
W₁= final size (weight, height, number etc.)
W₀ = initial size at the beginning of the period
r = growth rate
t = time of growth

I
length, area, volume and cell number. e = base of natural logarithms

Measurement of total growth per unit time is called

Maize root apical meristem can give rise to more than

É
absolute growth rate.

EEE
17,500 new cells per hour. Callnumber

f
Cells in a watermelon increase in size by upto 3,50,000 times. Growth per unit time expressed per unit initial parameter is

É
called relative growth rate
o
Growth is divided into three phases-
Cells derived from meristems mature to perform, specific
Meristematic phase: Constantly dividing cells functions. This is differentiation.

enlargement, cell wall deposition I

Phase of elongation: Increased vacuolation, cell
Differentiated cells, that have lost the capacity to
divide can regain the capacity of division

FIcambia
Zone of maturation: Cells attain their maximal
(dedifferentiation) e.g., formation of interfascicular

www.ngy
size.
cambium

Cells once again lose the capacity to divide but mature to

XARITHMETIC GROWTH perform specific functions. i.e., get redifferentiated. e.g.,
2⁰ Xylem elements
Items Growth
differentiation

•Only one daughter cell continues to divide after mitosis. Development includes all changes from germination of seed to
senescence Birth death
•Linear curve is obtained.
cell TanelongataqquatMeaty
Lₜ = L₀ + rt

LE
Lₜ = length at time ‘t’
L₀ = length at time ‘zero’
r = growth rate/elongation per unit time. Oy sarge

I
 0
PGRs are molecules of diverse chemical composition.

Auxin
I
Ikinin a
I e

I I
DISCOVERY OF PGRS
Charles Darwin and Francis Darwin observed the coleoptiles
of canary grass.
Concluded that transmittable influence caused the bending
of coleoptile.
Auxin was isolated by F.W. Went from oat seedlings. e
Bakane' (foolish seeding) disease of rice seedlings, was
caused by fungus Gibberella fujikuroi.
The active substances were identified as gibberellic acid.
g
AUXIN
Auxins first isolated from human urine
Produced by the growing apices of the stem and roots.
Natural auxins- IAA and indole butyric acid (IBA) Synthetic
auxins- NAA (naphthalene acetic acid) and 2, 4-D (2, 4
dichlorophenoxyacetic)
Initiate rooting in stem cuttings rootinghormone
Promote followering e.g., in pineapples. Delays p'm
Induce parthenocarpy, e.g., in tomatoes. Apiddominane

F. SkoogCytokine
f
and his co-workers observed that callus from
tobacco stems required extracts of vascular tissues, yeast
2,4-D, widely used to kill dicotyledonous weeds.

Adami
IIntation

I Ennio
extract, coconut milk or DNA to proliferate.
During mid-1960s three independent researchers reported
Controls xylem differrentation.
decapitations

inhibitor-B, abscission II and dormin.

All the three were found chemically identical. It was named GIBBERELLINS
Ge
abscisic acid (ABA).
an
H.H Cousins confirmed the release of volatile substance from GA 3 is most extensively studied form.
ripened oranges that hastened the ripening of unripened

I
bananas. This substance was identified as ethylene. Causes increase in length of axis, used to increase the
length of grapes stalks.

Cause fruits like apple to elongate, improve shape

CYTOKININS
Delay senescence. marketperiodincrease

Speed up malting process in brewing industry.

Specific effects on cytokinesis celldivision
Spraying juvenile conifers with GAs hastens maturity period

Taerminatity
Discovered as kinetin (modified from of adenine)
Zeatin from corn-kernels and coconut milk.
Helps produce new leaves, chloroplasts in leaves, Increases length of sugarcane stem
lateral shoot growth and adventitious shoot Promotes bolting {internode elongation} in beet, cabbages.
formation.
Help overcome apical dominance. Leetehabit
Promote nutrient mobilisation

IFchmondlay
Delay of leaf senescence.
effect e
 ETHYLENE
MEssIion
Synthesised in tissues undergoing senescence and ripening Root growth and root hair formation
fruits. climactic
D www Initiate flowering in pineapples, mango femaleflower
Imber
Horizontal growth of seedlings, swelling of axis, apical hook
Widely used compound as source of ethylene is ethephone.
formation in dicot seedlings.

Breaks seed and bud dormancy, initiates germination. I

Hastens fruit ripening in tomatoes and apples

mF
Accelerates abscission in flowers and fruits (thinning of
Promotes rapid internode/petiole elongation cotton, cherry, walnut).
as
ABSCISIC ACID APHOTOPERIODISM

Long day plants : require exposure to light for a period

Inhibitor of plant growth and metabolism.
D
exceeding a critical duration before the flowering is initiated
Inhibits seed germination. I
o
Short day plants : must be exposed to light for a period less
Stimulates the closure of stomata
e
than this critical duration

Increases tolerance to stresses (stress hormone).

Day-neutral plants : no such correlation between exposure to
Role in seed development, maturation and dormancy.
light and flowering
Acts as an antagonist to GAs.
Site of perception of light/dark duration are the leaves..

VERNALISATION
sectormany
Flowering dependent on exposure to low temperature Platffnard impermeable
embryoimmature
Some food plants, wheat, barley, rye have winter man in
and spring varieties.

Winter varieties: planted in autumn, over winter

come out as small seedlings, resume growth in the
spring, harvested around mid-summer.
a
Biennials are monocarpic plants that flower
30
5 Cell
and die in the second season.
e.g., Sugerbeet, cabbages, carrots a Biology
 Chapter
DIGESTION AND
16 ABSORPTION
Conversion of complex food substances to simple absorbable ALIMENTARY CANAL
forms is called digestion.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Human digestive system

Alimentary canal and the associated glands.

Alimentary Canal Associated glands
1. teeth (Mouth to anus)
Salivary glands
embedded in a socket of jaw bone; (Thecodont)
Humans have two sets of teeth during their lifetime Mouth Liver
Teeth
(Diphyodont)
32 permanent teeth which are of four different types Oral cavity Pancreas (Mixed
Muscular
gland)
(Heterodont dentition), namely, incisors (I), canine (C), tongue
Pharynx
premolars (PM ) and molars (M); dental formula in human
(adult) is 2123/2123; in child is (2102/2102)
Oesophagous
The hard chewing surface of the teeth, made up of enamel, Duodenum
helps in the mastication of food.
Stomach Jejunum
2. Tongue Small Intestine Ileum
freely movable muscular organ attached to the floor of the Caecum
oral cavity by the frenulum. Large Intestine
Colon
3. Pharynx & Oesophagus Anus
Rectum
pharynx which serves as a common passage for food and air.
oesophagus is a thin, long tube which extends posteriorly to a
'J' shaped bag like structure called stomach.
muscular sphincter (gastro-oesophageal) regulates the
opening of oesophagus into the stomach.
6. Large intestine

consists of caecum, colon and rectum.

4. Stomach Caecum is a small blind sac which hosts some symbiotic microorganisms.
upper left portion o f the abdominal cavity, has four major
vermiform appendix is a vestigial organ, arises from caecum.
parts -a cardiac portion; fundic region, antrum, pyloric
colon is divided into four parts -an ascending, a transverse , a descending
portion
part and sigmoid part.
sigmoid part opens into the rectum which opens out through the anus
5. Small intestine
three regions; a 'C' shaped duodenum, a long coiled jejunum;
highly coiled ileum
The opening of the stomach into the duodenum is guarded by
the pyloric sphincter.

TOPIC 2. HISTOLOGY OF
ALIMENTARY CANAL
Serosa outermost layer
Muscularis; smooth muscles; In the stomach an oblique muscle layer is found
inner to the circular muscle layer
Submucosal Iayer
Mucosa.
Irregular folds (rugae) in the stomach and small finger-like foldings
(transverse folds) called villi in the small intestine. Villi are absent in stomach.
 TOPIC 2. HISTOLOGY OF
ALIMENTARY CANAL The wall of alimentary canal (outer to inner)

1. Serosa 2. Muscularis 3. Submucosa ®4 Mucosa

microvilli giving a brush border appearance.
Villi are supplied with a network of capillaries and a Loose connective tissue
Longitudinal
large lymph vessel called the lacteal. Mesothelium (outer) Nerve, blood and lymph vessel
(Epithelium of
Mucosal epithelium has goblet cells, also forms glands in Visceral organ) Circular (Inner) Glands are present
the stomach (gastric glands) and crypts in between the
bases of villi in the intestine (crypts of Lieberkuhn).

TOPIC 3. DIGESTIVE GLANDS

2. LIVER

1. SALIVARY GLANDS
Three pairs of salivary glands, the parotids, the sub-maxillary /sub -
Largest gland of the body; two lobes.
mandibular (lower jaw); sublingual (below the tongue).
Lobule is covered by a thin connective tissue sheath called the Glisson's
capsule.
3. PANCREAS The bile is stored and concentrated in a thin muscular sac called the
gall bladder.
(both exocrine and endocrine) Situated between the limbs of the
Cystic duct along with the hepatic duct forms the common bile duct.
'C' shaped duodenum.
Bile duct and the pancreatic duct open together into the duodenum as
Exocrine portion secretes an alkaline pancreatic juice endocrine
the common hepato-pancreatic duct; guarded by the sphincter of Oddi.
portion secretes hormones, insulin and glucagon.

TOPIC 4. DIGESTION OF FOOD

Buccal cavity performs two major functions, mastication of food & facilitation of swallowing.
The teeth and the tongue with the help of saliva masticate and mix up the food thoroughly.
Mucus in saliva helps in lubricating and adhering the masticated food particles into a bolus.
Bolus is then conveyed into the pharynx and then into the oesophagus by swallowing or deglutition.
The gastro-oesophageal sphincter controls the passage of food into the stomach.

1. Saliva
Saliva (Physiological barrier) contains
30 per cent of starch is hydrolysed here by salivary amylase (optimum pH 6.
8) into a disaccharide -maltose

Sallvary Amylase
Starch Maltose

Lysozyme acts as an antibacterial agent Na+, K+, Cl–, HCO3– Salivary amylase Lysozyme

2. Gastric juice
Stores the food for 4- 5 hours.
Gastric glands; Food mixes by the churning movements of its muscular wall and is called
(i) Mucus neck cells which secrete mucus the chyme.
(ii) Peptic or chief cells (zymogen cells) which secrete the proenzymes pH (pH 1 .8) optimal for pepsins.
pepsinogen & prorennin. Rennin of infants helps in the digestion of milk proteins casein
(iii) Parietal or oxyntic cells which secret HCI and intrinsic factor Small amounts of lipases are also secreted by gastric glands.
(factor essential for absorption of vitamin B 12 )
 3. DIGESTION IN SMALL BILE JUICE
INTESTINE
No enzymes
movements by the muscular is layer, help in a thorough mixing up of the helps in emulsification of fats, breaking down of the
food and facilitate digestion. fats into very small micelles
bile, pancreatic juice and the intestinal juice are released into the
small intestine.

INTESTINAL JUICE
PANCREATIC JUICE The intestinal mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which
secrete mucus
Pancreatic juice contains secretions of the brush border cells of the mucosa along with
the secretions of the goblet cells constitute the intestinal
juice .
(pH 7.8) for enzymatic activities. Sub-mucosal glands
Trypsionogen Amylases Procarboxy peptidase {Brunner's glands) also help in this.
simple substances thus are absorbed in the jejunum and Ileum
Chymotrypsinogen Lipases Nucleases

Enterokinase
Trypsinogen Intestinal Juice Trypsin
Trypsin
Chymotrypsinogen Chymotrypsin
Trypsin
THE FUNCTIONS OF LARGE
Procarboxypeptidase Carboxypeptidase
INTESTINE ARE
Proteins Trypsin / Chymotrypsin (i) Absorption of some water, minerals and certain drugs,
Peptones Dipeptides (ii) Secretion of mucus which helps in adhering the waste
Proteoses (undigested) particles together and lubricating it for an
easy passage.
Trypsin, chymotrypsin & carboxypeptidase are proteolytic enzymes.
The undigested, unabsorbed substances called faeces
temporarily stored in the rectum till defaecation.
Amylase
Polysaccharides (starch) Disaccharides.
Nucleases
Nucleic acids Nucleotides Nucleosides
Lipases
Fats Diglycerides Monoglycerides
Intestinal Juice cotains
Dipeptidases
Dipeptides Aminoacids
Maltase
Maltose Lactose Glucose + Glucose Glucose + Nucleosidases
Lactase Disaccharidases
Sucrose Galactose Glucose + Fructose
Sucrase Lipases Dipeptidases Maltase Lactase
Enterokinase Sucrase
Nucleotidases Nucleosidases
Nucleotides Nucleosides Sugar + Bases

TOPIC 5. REGULATION OF
DIGESTION
Neural and hormonal control
muscular activities - moderated by neural mechanisms,
Hormonal control - by the local hormones produced by
the gastric and intestinal mucosa.
gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK) and gastric
inhibitory peptide (GJP).
Gastrin - secreted from duodenum - stimulates stomach
for secretion of hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen.
CCK - secreted from duodenum - causes contraction of
gall Bladder, secretion of pancreatic enzymes; bile juice
GIP - inhibits gastric secretion and motility.
SUMMARY OF ABSORPTION IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Mouth : Certain drugs coming in contact with the mucosa of
mouth and lower side of the tongue are absorbed into the
blood capillaries lining them.
Stomach : Absorption of water, simple sugars, and alcohol
etc. takes place.
TOPIC 7. DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Jaundice: deposition of bile pigments, eyes and skin becomes yellow
Vomiting: ejection of stomach contents through the mouth vomit centre in the medulla.
Diarrhoea: Abnormal frequency of bowel movement
Constipation: bowel movements irregularly.
Indigestion: feeling of fullness. Causes are inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, foo d poisoning, over eating, and spicy food.
Physiological values of carbohydrates, proteins and fats are 4 Kcal/gm, 4 Kcal/gm, 9 Kcal/gm
MARASMUS
deficiency of proteins and calories
infants less than a year in age,
happens if the mother has second pregnancy or childbirth when the older
infant is still too young
impairs growth; replacement of tissue proteins; skin becomes dry
growth and development of brain and mental faculties are impaired .
ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED PRODUCTS
passive, active or facilitated transport mechanisms.
electrolytes like chloride ions are generally absorbed by simple diffusion.
Transport of water depends upon the osmotic gradient.
amino acids, monosaccharides like glucose, electrolytes like Na+ are
absorbed into the blood by active transport.
Fatty acids and glycerol incorporated into small droplets called micelles
which move into the intestinal mucosa re-formed into very small protein
coated fat globules called the chylomicrons (triglycerides); Transported
into the lymph vessels (lacteals) in the villi.
lymph vessels release the absorbed substances into the blood stream.
Absorption of substances takes place in alimentary canal mouth,
stomach, small intestine
maximum absorption occurs in the small intestine
Most of the water is absorbed in large intestine.
The absorbed substances finally reach the tissues which utilise them for
their activities. This process is called assimilation.
The egestion of faeces to the outside through the anal opening
(defaecation) carried out by a mass peristaltic movement.
Small intestine : Principal organ for absorption of nutrients. The digestion is
completed here and the final products of digestion such as glucose, fructose, fatty
acids, glycerol and amino acids are absorbed through the mucosa into the blood
stream and lymph.
Large intestine : Absorption of water, some minerals and drugs takes place.
KWASHIORKAR
protein deficiency (Q 2009) unaccompanied by calorie
deficiency.
more than one year in age
wasting of muscles, thinning of limbs, failure of growth and
brain development
some fat is still left under the skin; extensive oedema and
swelling of body parts are seen
Chapter
BREATHING AND
17 EXCHANGE OF GASES
TOPIC 2
Topic 1. RESPIRATORY ORGANS HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
External Nostrils
Lower invertebrates like sponges, coelenterates, flatworms, etc.,
exchange O₂ with CO₂ by simple diffusion over their entire body Nasal passage
surface.
Earthworms use their moist cuticle and insects have a network of Nasal chamber
tubes (tracheal tubes).
Nasopharynx
Among vertebrates, fishes use gills while reptiles, birds and
mammals respire through lungs. Larynx (through glottis)
Amphibians like frogs can respire through moist skin
Larynx is a cartilaginuous box which helps in sound production and Trachea

hence called the sound box. 1° Bronchi (left and right bronchi)
Human have two lungs which are covered by a double layered
pleura, with pleural fluid between them. 2° Bronchi

The part starting with the external nostrils upto the terminal 3° Bronchi
bronchioles constitute the conducting part whereas the alveoli and
their ducts form the respiratory or exchange part of respiratory Initial bronchioles
system. Terminal bronchioles
The lungs are situated in the thoracic chamber
Duct of Alveoli
The thoracic chamber is formed by the vertebral column, the
sternum, the ribs and the dome-shaped diaphragm. Alveoli

TOPIC 3. MECHANISM OF BREATHING

Breathing involves two stages

INSPIRATION EXPIRATION
Alveolar air rich in carbon dioxide expelled out from
Atmospheric air rich in oxygen drawn into lungs
the lungs

It is an active process It is a passive process

Inspiration occurs when intra-pulmonary pressure is less than

Expiration occurs when intra-pulmonary pressure is
the atmospheric pressure. It is due to negative pressure in the
high than the atmospheric pressure
lungs

It is initiated by: It is initiated by:

Contraction of diaphragm Relaxation of diaphragm

Increase in volume of the thoracic chamber in the anterio- Inter costal muscles, the diaphragm and sternum
posterior axis return to their normal position

Contraction of external inter-costal muscles and lifting up of Reduction in the volume of thoracic chamber and
the ribs and sternum overall pulmonary volume

Increase in the volume of the thoracic chamber in the dorso- Increase in intra pulmonary pressure to more than
ventral axis the atmospheric pressure

Overall increase in thoracic volume leads to increase in

pulmonary volume and decrease in
It leads to the expulsion of air from the lungs
intra pulmonary pressure to less than
atmospheric pressure

It forces atmospheric air to come into the lungs

 Topic 4. RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES

RESPIRATORY VOLUMES DEFINITION VOLUME OF AIR

(NEET 2018)
500 ml;
Tidal Volume (TV) Air volume inspired (inhaled) or expired (exhaled) per breath
6000-8000 ml/min.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) Extra volume of air one inhales (inspires) by forced inspiration 2500-3000 ml

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) Extra volume of air one exhales by forced expiration 1000-1100 ml

Residual Volume (RV) Volume of air remaining in lungs after forced exhalation 1100-1200 ml
It prevents collapsing of the lungs
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES (SHOWS THE CAPACITY
DEFINITION VOLUME OF AIR
OF THE LUNGS)

Inspiratory Capacity (IC) Total volume of air one inhales after normal exhalation 3000-3500 ml
It is the sum of tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume (TV+IRV)
Total volume of air one exhales after normal inhalation
Expiratory Capacity (EC) It is the sum of tidal volume and 1500-1600 ml
expiratory reserve volume (TV+ERV)

Volume of air remaining in lungs after normal exhalation (expiration)

Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) It is the sum of expiratory reserve volume and residual volume (ERV+RV). 2100-2300 ml
It is the volume of air required to keep the lungs functioning in the normal condition

Maximum volume of air one can inhale after forceful exhalation or maximum volume of air one can exhale
Vital Capacity (VC) (AIPMT 2009) after forceful inhalation 3500-4500 ml
It is the sum of expiratory reserve volume, tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume (ERV+TV+IRV)

Total volume of air accommodated in lungs after a forced inspiration.

Total Lung Capacity (TLC) It is the sum of vital capacity and residual volume (VC+RV) or 5000-6000 ml
(ERV+TV+IRV + RV)

Volume of air present in the respiratory tract (nostrils to terminal bronchi) not involved in the gaseous
Dead air volume exchange. It is called dead space 150 ml

topic 5. EXCHANGE OF GASES

Alveoli are the primary sites of exchange of gases. Exchange of gases

occur between blood and tissues.
O₂ and CO₂ are exchange by simple diffusion.
The diffusion membrane is made up of three major layers namely,

topic 6. TRANSPORT OF GASES

Squamous epithelium of alveoli

Diffusion membrane (Thickness is
less than a millimetre)

Basement membrane

Endothelium of alveolar capillaries

 TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE CHEMICAL REGULATION

A chemosensitive area is situated adjacent to the rhythm centre

CO₂ is carried by haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin (about
20-25 per cent).
This binding is related to the partial pressure of CO₂. Partial
pressure of O₂ is a major factor which could affect this binding.
When pCO₂ is high and pO₂ is low as in the tissues, more binding of
carbon dioxide occurs whereas, when the pCO₂ is low and pO₂ is high
as in the alveoli, dissociation of CO₂ from carbamino-haemoglobin
takes place, i.e., CO₂ which is bound to haemoglobin from the tissues
is delivered at the alveoli.
RBCs contain a very high concentration of the enzyme, carbonic
anhydrase. This enzyme facilitates the following reaction.
CO₂ trapped as bicarbonate at the tissue level and transported to
the alveoli is released out as CO₂.
which is highly sensitive to CO₂ and hydrogen ions.
Receptors associated with aortic arch and carotid artery also can
recognise changes in CO₂ and H⁺ concentration and send necessary
signals to the rhythm centre for remedial actions.
RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS
Hb occurs in RBCs of all vertebrates. Hb dissolved in the plasma of
earthworm and Nereis.
Haemocyanin contain Cu and occurs in plasma of crustaceans
(prawn), snails (Pila) and cephalopods (Sepia) – Molluscs.
Vanabin is present in the blood of tunicates/urochordates.

TOPIC 8. DISORDERS OF THE

TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN
Haemoglobin is a red coloured iron containing pigment present in
the RBCs.
O₂ can bind with haemoglobin in a reversible manner to form
oxyhaemoglobin.
Each haemoglobin molecule can carry a maximum of four molecules
of O₂. Thus, chemical formula of oxyhaemoglobin is Hb (O₂)₄.
Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin is primarily related to partial
pressure of O₂.
A sigmoid curve is obtained when percentage saturation of
haemoglobin with O₂ is plotted against the pO₂. This curve is called
the Oxygen dissociation curve and is highly useful in studying the
effect of factors like pCO₂, H⁺ concentration, etc., on binding of
O₂ with haemoglobin.
This clearly indicates that O₂ gets bound to haemoglobin in the lung
surface and gets dissociated at the tissues.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Asthma difficulty in breathing due to inflammation of bronchi and
bronchioles.
Emphysema is a chronic disorder where alveolar walls are
damaged due to which respiratory surface is decreased. Caused
by of this is cigarette smoking.
Human protein alpha-1 antitrypsin is used to treat emphysema.
OCCUPATIONAL RESPIRATORY DISORDERS
Damage to the lung caused by dust or fumes of substances
inhaled by workers in certain industries, involving grinding or
breaking of stone.
Long exposure can give rise to inflammation leading to fibrosis.

TOPIC 7. REGULATION OF
RESPIRATION

In humans, respiration is under both nervous and chemical regulation.

A specialized centre present in the medulla called respiratory rhythm
centre is primarily responsible for this regulation.
Another centre present in the pons region of the brain called
pneumotaxic centre can moderate the functions of the respiratory
rhythm centre.
Chapter

18 BODY FLUIDS AND

CIRCULATION
Blood is a special connective tissue Formed Elements
consisting of - Constitute 45 percent of the blood.
PLASMA
RBC s (Erythrocytes)
Straw coloured, viscous fluid constituting 55 per cent of
blood. 90-92 per cent water and 6 to 8 per cent most abundant.
proteins which include
-3
5 - 5.5 million RBCs mm
Fibrinogens: coagulation of blood.
Formed in red bone marrow.
Globulins: defense mechanisms albumins osmotic
balance.
Devoid of nucleus, biconcave in shape.
Albumins: osmotic balance
Have red coloured, iron containing protein called
Plasma also contains Na+ , Ca++ , Mg++, haemoglobin.
- -
HCO 3 Cl , glucose, amino acids, lipids,
etc.
12-16 g of haemoglobin in 100 ml blood
Plasma without the clotting factors is serum.
Role in transport of respiratory gases.

Life span of 120 days

WBC s (LEUCOCYTES)
6000-8000 mm⁻³ of blood. Destroyed in the spleen (graveyard of RBCs).

Short lived

Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils are

granulocytes, lymphocytes and monocytes are the
PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTES)
agranulocytes.
produced from megakaryocytes in bone marrow.
Neutrophils: most abundant (60-65 per cent), kill -3
microbes by phagocytosis. 1,500,00 - 3,500,00 platelets mm.

Monocytes: (6-8 per cent), phagocytic cells

Basophils: least abundant (0.5-1 per cent), secrete

histamine, serotonin, heparin, involved in inflammatory ABO grouping
reactions.
Based on the presence or absence of two surface antigens
Eosinophils (2-3 per cent) resist infections.
A and B.
Lymphocytes (20-25 per cent)
Plasma contains two natural antibodies.
B and T lymphocytes are responsible for immune
responses.
 BLOOD GROUPS AND DONOR COMPATBILITY

Blood group Antigens of RBCs Antibodies in Plasma Donor’s group

A A Anti-B A, O
B B Anti-A B, O
AB A, B nil AB, A, B, O
O Nil Anti-A, B O

COAGULATION OF BLOOD
'O' group individuals are 'universal donors'.
Prevent excessive loss of blood.
'AB' individuals are 'universal recipients'.
Calcium ions play important role.

Rh grouping

Rh antigen is observed on the surface of RBCs of 80 per cent

of humans (Rh+ve). When antigen is absent
(RH-ve).
Rh incompatibility between the Rh-ve blood of mother with
Rh+ve blood of foetus leads to erythroblastosis foetalis.

TISSUE FLUID
Fluid released out from capillaries is called interstitial
fluid or tissue fluid.
Same mineral distribution as plasma.
lymphatic system drains it back to veins.
Lymph: colourless fluid containing specialised lymphocytes.
HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Heart (mesodermally derived).
Protected by double walled pericardium.
Two small upper chambers (atria)
two larger lower chambers (ventricles).
Tricuspid valve: between right atrium and right
ventricle
Bicuspid or mitral valve: between left atrium left
ventricle.
Semilunar valves: openings of right and left
ventricles into pulmonary artery and aorta
Valves prevent backward flow.
NODAL TISSUE
Specialised musculature distributed in heart.
Sino-atrial node (SAN): Right upper corner of the right
atrium
Atrio - ventricular node (AVN): lower left corner of the
right atrium
Bundle of nodal fibres continues, passes through atrio -
ventricular septa, divides into a right and left bundle.
Give rise to minute fibres throughout ventricular
musculature (Purkinje fibres).
These fibres with right and left bundles bundle of His
Nodal musculature is autoexcitable.
SAN generates maximum number of action
–1
potentials, i.e., 70-75 min,
–1
It is called the pacemaker (average 72 beats min.
 CARDIAC CYCLE
4 phases in a cardiac cycle:
Joint Diastole: all four chambers are in relaxed state.
Blood flows into ventricles.
Atrial systole : SAN generates an action potential and
atria undergo contraction.
This increased the flow of blood into ventricles
Ventricular systole : action potential conducted to
ventricular side,
Ventricles contract, atria relax.
Closure of tricuspid and bicuspid valves.
Semilunar valves open.
`Ventricular diastole: ventricles relax closure of
semilunar valves.
Tricuspid and bicuspid valves open.
Blood moves freely to ventricles.
ELECTTROCARDIOGRAPH (ECG)
Machine (electro-cardiograph) used to obtain
an electrocardiogram (ECG).
Graphical representation of electrical activity
of heart.
Patient is connected with three electrical leads
(one to each wrist and to left ankle)
P-wave: depolarisation of the atria
QRS complex: depolarisation of the ventricles
T-wave: (repolarisation).
CIRCULATORY PATHWAYS
Fishes have 2-chambered heart.
Amphibians reptiles (except crocodiles) 3-chambered
heart.
Birds and mammals 4-chambered heart.
DOUBLE CIRCULATION
Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood received by the left
and right atria respectively passed to two separate
circulatory pathways
Pulmonary circulation: Blood pumped by the right ventricle
enters the pulmonary artery Passed on to the lungs from
where the oxygenated blood is carried by the pulmonary
veins into the left atrium
This sequential event is called the cardiac cycle.
Duration of a cardiac cycle is 0.8 seconds.
Each ventricle pumps out 70 mL blood/min (stroke
volume).
Cardiac output: volume of blood pumped out by each
ventricle per minute (5000 mL)
Cardiac output = Stroke volume x Heart rate.
During cardiac cycle two prominent sounds are
produced.
First heart sound (lub): closure of the tricuspid
and bicuspid valves
Second heat sound (dub): closure of the semilunar
valves.
Systemic circulation: left ventricle pumps blood into the
aorta
Oxygenated blood entering the aorta is carried by capillaries
to tissues from where the deoxygenated blood emptied into
the right atrium.
Hepatic portal system: Unique vascular connection between
the digestive tract and liver
Special coronary system of blood vessels for circulation to
cardiac musculature.
Neural centre in the medulla oblangata can moderate the
cardiac function through autonomic nervous system (ANS).
Sympathetic nerves increase heart beat, ventricular
contraction and cardiac output.
Parasympathetic neural signals decrease the heart beat,
conduction of action potential and cardiac output.
 DISORDERS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

High Blood Pressure (Hypertension)

Normal: 120 mm Hg systolic pressure and 80 mm Hg diastolic pressure.

If 140/90 mm Hg (140 over 90) or higher, it shows hypertension.
Leads to heart diseases, affects vital organs.

Coronary Artery Disease (atherosclerosis)

Deposits of calcium, fat, cholesterol and fibrous tissues, makes arteries narrower.

Angina pectoris: acute chest pain when not enough oxygen is reaching the heart muscle.

Heart Failure: heart is not pumping blood effectively enough

Cardiac Arrest: heart stops beating,

Heart attack (Myocardial Infarction) : heart muscle is suddenly damaged.

Chapter
EXCRETORY PRODUCTS &
19 THEIR ELIMINATION
TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION

Ammonia is the most toxic form requires large amount of

Removal of metabolic wastes from the body. water for its elimination. Uric acid, being the least toxic, can be
Ammonia, urea and uric acid are the major forms of removed with a minimum loss of water.
nitrogenous wastes Produced during metabolism of protein.

TOPIC 2. EXCRETORY PRODUCTS

1. AMMONOTELISM
1. Excreting ammonia
2. Bony fishes, aquatic amphibians and aquatic insects
3. Excreted by diffusion or through gill surfaces
4. Kidneys do not play any significant role

2. UREOTELISM 3. URICOTELISM
1. Mammals, many terrestrial amphibians and marine fishes
2. Ammonia produced by metabolism is converted into urea in • Reptiles, birds, land snails and insects excrete nitrogenous wastes as uric acid in the
the liver & eliminated by kidney. form of pellet or paste with minimum loss of water.

TOPIC 3. EXCRETORY STRUCTURES

• In invertebrates, structures are simple tubular forms while vertebrates have complex tubular organs called kidneys.

• Protonephridia or flame cells in Platyhelminthes (Flatworms), rotifers, some annelids and the cephalochordate - Amphioxus.
• Nephridia : earthworms and other annelids.
• Malpighian tubules: insects including cockroaches.
• Antennal glands or green glands: crustaceans like prawn

TOPIC 4. HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

• One pair of metanephric kidneys, one pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra.

• Kidneys are reddish brown, bean shaped structures close to the dorsal inner wall of the
abdominal cavity.
• 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in width, 2-3 cm thickness average weight of 120-170 g.
• Towards centre of the inner concave surface of

the kidney is a notch called hilum through which ureter, blood vessels and nerves enter.

• Inner to the hilum is a funnel shaped space called the renal pelvis with projections called calyces.
• Two zones, outer cortex and an inner medulla.

• Medulla is divided into a few conical masses (medullary pyramids)

• Cortex extends in between the medullary pyramids as renal columns called Columns of Bertini.
 TOPIC 5. NEPHRON

Two parts - the glomerulus and the renal tubule.

Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries formed by the different
arteriole
Blood is carried away by an efferent arteriole.
Double walled cup-like structure called Bowman's capsule,
Glomerulus along with Bowman's capsule, is called the Malpighian
body or renal corpuscle.
The Malpighian body or renal corpuscle, PCT and DCT of the nephron
are situated in the cortical region of the kidney whereas the loop of
Henle dips into the medulla.
In majority of nephrons, the loop of Henle is too short and extends
only very little into the medulla,
are called cortical nephrons.
In some of the nephrons, the loop of Henle is very long and runs
deep into the medulla, are called juxta medullary nephrons.
A minute vessel of this network runs parallel to the Henle's loop
forming a ' U ' shaped vasa recta.
Vasa recta is absent or highly reduced in cortical nephrons.

TOPIC 6. URINE FORMATION 2. REABSORPTION :

1. Glomerular Filtration : non-selective process.

• Filtrate formed per day [180 litres per day) urine released (1.5
litres), 99 per cent of the filtrate has to be reabsorbed by the renal
• First step in urine formation. tubules.
• 1100-1200 ml of blood is filtered by the kidneys per minute • Substances like glucose, amino acids, Na+, etc., in the filtrate are
reabsorbed actively while nitrogenous wastes are absorbed by
• Through 3 layers, the endothelium of glomerular blood vessels, the passive transport.
epithelium of Bowman's capsule and a basement membrane between
these two layers. • Reabsorption of water also occurs passively.
• Epithelial cells of Bowman's capsule leave some minute spaces called
filtration slits or slit pores.
• All the constituents of the plasma except the proteins pass onto the
lumen of the Bowman's capsule. Hence known as process of ultra 3. SECRETION :
filtration. + +
• Tubular cells secrete substances like H , K and ammonia into the
• GFR in a healthy individual is approximately 125ml/minute, i.e., 180 litres filtrate.
per day.
• JGA is a region formed by cellular modifications in the distal
convoluted tubule and the afferent arteriole at the location of
their contact. 3. Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
• A fall in GFR can activate the JG cells to release renin
+
Conditional reabsorption of Na and water takes place in this segment.
-
TOPIC 7. FUNCTION OF THE TUBULES Reabsorption of HCO₃ selective secretion of hydrogen and potassium ions and
-
NH₃ to maintain pH.

1. Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)

• Lined by simple cuboidal brush border epithelium

• 70-80 percent of electrolytes and water are reabsorbed by this 4. Collecting Duct
segment.
• Secretion of hydrogen ions, ammonia and potassium ions into the Extends from the cortex of the kidney to the inner parts of the medulla.
filterate.
Large amounts of water could be reabsorbed under the influence of ADH
2. Henle's Loop to produce a concentrated urine.
• Reabsorption is minimum in its ascending limb. Allows passage of small amounts of urea into the medullary interstitium
+ +
• Plays a significant role in the maintenance of high osmolarity of medullary Maintenance of pH and ionic balance selective secretion of H and K ions.
interstitial fluid.
• The descending limb of loop of Henle is permeable to water but impermeable to
electrolytes.
• The ascending limb is impermeable to water but allows transport of
electrolytes actively or passively.
 TOPIC 8. MECHANISM OF CONCENTRATION OF THE FILTRATE

Henle's loop and vasa recta play a significant role in this.

Proximity between the Henle's loop and vasa recta, as well as the
counter current in them help in maintaining an increasing osmolarity
towards the inner medullary interstitium, i.e., from 300 mOsmol L⁻¹ in
the cortex to about 1200 mOsmol L⁻¹ in the inner medulla
Mainly caused by NaCl and urea.
Transport of substances facilitated by the special arrangement
of Henle's loop and vasa recta is called the counter current
mechanism.

Maintain a concentration gradient in the medullary interstitium. Helps in an easy passage of water from the collecting tubule
thereby concentrating the filtrate (urine).
Produce urine nearly four times concentrated than the initial
filtrate formed.

2 Control by JGA

• A fall in glomerular blood flow/glomerular blood

TOPIC 9. REGULATION OF KIDNEY FUNCTIONs pressure/GFR can activate the JG cells to release renin
• Renin- Angiotensin mechanism.

Hormonal feedback mechanisms

1. Control by ADH
• Osmoreceptors in the body are activated by changes in blood volume, body
fluid volume and ionic concentration.

• Stimulate the hypothalamus to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or

vasopressin from the neurohypophysis .
• ADH facilitates water reabsorption from latter parts of the tubule,
preventing diuresis.
• Increase in body fluid volume can switch off the osmoreceptors
• Constrictory effects on blood vessels.

3. CONTROL BY ANF

1. Increase in blood flow to atria the can cause the release of

Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF).

2. Causes vasodilation and decreases the blood pressure.

3. check on the renin-angiotensin mechanism

 TOPIC 10. MICTURITION

1. Process of release of urine is called micturition, abd the neural

mechanisms causing it is called the micturition renex.

2. 1 to 1. 5 litres of urine excreted per day.

3. Urine is light yellow coloured watery fluid which is slightly acidic

(pH 6.0)

4. 25-30 gm of urea is excreted out per day.

5. Highest concentration of urea is found in hepatic vein

6. Presence of glucose (Glycosuria) and ketone bodies (Ketonuria) in

urine are indicative of Diabetes Mellitus.

TOPIC 11. ROLE OF OTHER ORGANS IN EXCRETION

Lungs, liver and skin also help in the elimination of excretory wastes.
Lungs remove large amounts of CO₂ (200 mL/minute)
Liver secretes bile-containing substances like bilirubin, biliverdin,
cholesterol, degraded steroid hormones, vitamins and drugs.
Sweat and sebaceous glands can eliminate certain substances through
their secretions.
Sweat is a watery fluid containing NaCl, small amounts of urea,
lactic acid, etc.
Sebaceous glands eliminate substances like sterols,
hydrocarbons and waxes through sebum. This secretion provides
oily covering for the skin.
Small amounts of nitrogenous wastes could be eliminated through
saliva too.

TOPIC 12. DISORDERS OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Haemodialysis
1.Renal/Kidney failure

Kidney transplantation is the ultimate method in

the correction of acute renal failure (kidney
failure).

2 . Renal calculi
• Insoluble mass of crystallised salts (oxalates, etc.)
formed within the kidney.

3. Glomerulonephritis
• Inflammation of glomeruli of kidney.
Chapter
LOCOMOTION AND
20
MOVEMENT
INTRODUCTION MUSCLE
Animals and plants exhibit a wide range of
movements. Mesodermal origin.

Movements result in a change of place or location. Such 40-50 percent of the body weight have special
voluntary movements are called locomotion. properties like excitability, contractility, extensibility
and elasticity.

TYPES OF MOVEMENT Made of many long, cylindrical fibres composed of

numerous fine fibrils, called myofibrils.
Type of movement in human body
Muscle fibres contract (shorten) in response to
stimulation, then relax (lengthen) & return to their
uncontracted state.

TYPES OF MUSCLES

Skeletal (striated) muscles

Locomotion requires a perfect coordinated activity of
muscular, skeletal and neural systems.

SKELETAL MUSCLE

Made of a number of muscle bundles or fascicles held

together by a common collagenous connective tissue layer
called fascia.
Visceral (Non-striated) muscles
Muscle fibre is the anatomical unit of muscle.

Total number of muscle in human body

- 639.

Largest muscle - Gluteus maximus

Smallest muscle – Stapedius

Longest muscle – Sartorius

Cardiac muscles
 Muscle Fibre
Lined by the plasma membrane
called sarcolemma.
Sarcoplasmic reticulum is
the store house of calcium
ions.
Syncitium
Presence of a large number of
parallelly arranged filaments
in the sarcoplasm called
myofilaments or myofibrils.

Each myofibril has alternate dark and light bands on it.

The portion of the myofibril between two successive 'Z' lines is considered
sarcomere.

Structure of Contractile Proteins

MECHANISM OF MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
Sliding filament theory which states that contraction of a
muscle fibre takes place by the sliding of the thin filaments
over the thick filaments

Signal sent by (CNS) via a motor neuron.

Motor neuron along with the muscle fibres constitute a

motor unit junction between a motor neuron and the
sarcolemma of the muscle fibre is called the neuromuscular
junction or motor-end plate.
++
Increase in Ca level leads to the binding of calcium with a subunit of troponin
A neural signal reaching this junction releases a
on actin filaments and thereby remove the masking of active sites for myosin.
neurotransmitter (Acetylcholine) which generates an
action potential in the sarcolemma.

Spreads through the muscle fibre and causes the release

of calcium ions into the sarcoplasm.
Utilising the energy from ATP hydrolysis, the myosin head now
binds to the exposed active sites on actin to form a cross
bridge.

'Z' line attached to these actins are also pulled inwards

thereby causing a shortening of the sarcomere, i.e.,
contraction.
During shortening of the muscle, i. e. 'I' bands get reduced.'A'
bands retain the length. H-zone also reduced
++
The process continues till the Ca ions are pumped back to the
sarcoplasmic cisternae resulting in the masking of actin
filaments. causes the return of 'Z' lines back to their original
position, i.e .,relaxation.

Repeated activation of the muscles can lead to the

accumulation of lactic acid due to anaerobic breakdown of
glycogen in them, causing fatigue.

SKELETAL SYSTEM
In human beings , this system is
made up of 206 bones and a few
cartilages.

Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones

distributed along the main axis of the
body.

Thus the skull consists or 29 bones as

Cranial bones. - 8
Facial bones. - 14
Hyoid bones. - 1
Ear ossiclcs - 6
29

Vertebral column of man is made up of 33 bones Axial skeleton (80 bones)

but is consists of only 26 vertebrae because 5
sacral vertebrae fused to form one sacrum & 4 1. Skull - 29 (8, 14, 1, 6)
coccygeal vertebrae fused to form one coccyx. 2. Vertebral - 26 (7, 12, 5, 1, 1)
26 serially arranged units called vertebrae. column
3. Sternum - 1
First vertebra is the atlas and it articulates with the 4. Ribs - 24 (7, 3, 2) × 2
occipital condyles 80

RIBS Fore limb (30 bones)

12 pairs of ribs . Each rib is a thin flat bone connected Appendicular skeleton (126 bones) 1. Humerus - 1
dorsally to the vertebral column and ventrally to the 2. Radius - 1
sternum. 1. Fore limb - 60 (30 × 2) 3. Ulna - 1
Bicephalic 2. Hind limb - 60 (30 × 2) 4. Carpals - 8
3. Pectoral girdle - 04 (2 × 2) (wrist bones)
First seven pairs of ribs are called true ribs.
4. Pelvic girdle - 02 5. Metacarpals - 5
Dorsally, attached to the thoracic Vertebrae ventrally 126 (palm bones)
connected to the sternum with the help of hyaline 6. Phalanges
cartilage..
(digits) - 14
30
 Hind limb (30 bones)
The 8th , 9th and 10th pairs of ribs do not articulate
directly with the sternum but join the seventh rib with the 1. Femur (thigh bone) - 1
help of hyaline cartilage. These are called vertebrochondral 2. Tibia - 1
(false) ribs. 3. Fibula - 1
4. Tarsals (ankle bones) - 7
Last 2 pairs (11th and 12th) of ribs are not connected 5. Metatarsals - 5
ventrally and are therefore, called floating ribs. 6. Phalanges (digits). - 14
7. Patella (cup-shaped) - 1
30
PECTORAL GIRDLE/
SHOULDER GIRDLE
Below the acromion is a depression called the glenoid cavity which
articulates with the head of the humerus to form the shoulder joint.
Consists of a clavicle and a scapula.
Clavicle is a long slender bone with two curvatures. This bone is
Scapula is present in dorsal part of thorax between the
commonly called the collar bone.
second an d the seventh ribs.

Dorsal, triangular body of scapula called the acromion.

The clavicle articulates with this. JOINTS

PELVIC GIRDLE

Two coxal bones.

Each coxal bone is formed by the fusion of three bones -

ilium, ischium and pubis.

At the point of fusion of the above bones is a cavity called

acetabulum to which the thigh bone articulates.

The two halves of the pelvic girdle meet ventrally to form

the pubic symphysis containing fibrous cartilage.

DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR
AND SKELETAL SYSTEM

Myasthenia gravis : Auto immune disorder affecting

neuromuscular junction leading to fatigue, weakening
and paralysis of skeletal muscle.
Chapter
NEURAL CONTROL AND
21 COORDINATION
All the functions of the body are integrated, coordinated & regulated by the neuro-endocrine system of the body.

NEURON

Three major parts - Cell body, dendrites and axon. Axon is a long fibre, the distal end of which is branched.

Cell body cytoplasm with typical cell organelles and certain
granular bodies called Nissl's granules.
Short fibres which branch repeatedly and project out of the
cell body also contain Nissl's granules are called dendrites.
They transmit impulses towards the cell body.
Each branch terminates as a bulb-like structure called
synaptic knob which possess synaptic vesicles containing
chemicals called neurotransmitters.
It transmit nerve impulses away from the cell body to a
synapse or to a neuro-muscular junction.

TYPE OF AXONS

Myelinated nerve fibres have Schwann cells, which form a
myelin sheath around the axon.
Gaps between two adjacent myelin sheaths are called nodes
of Ranvier which are found in spinal and cranial nerves.
Unmyelinated nerve fibre enclosed by a Schwann cell that does
not form a myelin sheath around the axon and are found in
autonomous and the somatic neural systems

TYPES OF THE NEURONS GENERATION AND CONDUCTION

OF NERVE IMPULSE
Pseudounipolar neurons
Ion channels are present on the neural membrane, which are
A single process arises from the cyton & then divides into axon & dendrite
selectively permeable to different ions.
Eg.: dorsal root ganglia of spinal nerves.
When a neuron is not conducting any impulse, i.e., resting, the axonal
membrane is comparatively more permeable to potassium ions (K⁺),
less permeable to Na⁺ and impermeable to negatively charged proteins
present in the axoplasm.
Ionic gradients maintained by the active transport of ions by the sodium-
+ +
potassium pump which transports 3Na outwards for 2K into the cell.+
+
As a result, the outer surface of the axonal membrane possesses a
positive charge while its inner surface becomes negatively charged and
therefore is polarised.
The electrical potential difference across the resting plasma
membrane is called as the resting potential (–70mV).
+
EYE
Two types of photoreceptor cells, namely, rods and cones.
Contain the light-sensitive proteins called the photopigments.
Daylight vision/colour vision is function of cones and the twilight
(scotopic) vision is the function of the rods.
The rods contain a purplish-red protein called the rhodopsin or
visual purple, which contains a derivative of Vitamin A.
There are three types of cones which respond to red, green and
blue lights.
When these cones are stimulated equally, a sensation of white
light is produced.
TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES
Through junctions called synapses.
There are two types: 1. Electrical synapses and 2.
Chemical synapses
Electrical synapses allows quick transmission,
both membranes are in close contact. They are
rare in our body.
CHEMICAL SYNAPSES
Photoreceptor cells are not present in region medial to and slightly
above the posterior pole of the eye ball from where optic nerves
leave the eye and the retinal blood vessels enter It is called the blind
spot.
At the posterior pole of the eye lateral to the blind spot, there is a
yellowish pigmented spot called macula lutea with a central pit called
the fovea, where only the cones are densely packed, and the visual
acuity (resolution) is the greatest.
The space between the cornea and the lens is called the aqueous
chamber and contains a thin watery fluid called aqueous humor.
The space between the lens and the retina is called the vitreous
chamber and is filled with a transparent gel called vitreous humor.
 MECHANISM OF VISION EYE DEFECTS

Light reflected from an object ---- enters the eye through 1. Myopia- (Short sightedness)
cornea & lens ---- focus on retina ---- dissociation of retinal
from opsin ---- changes in membrane permeability ---- Person can not clearly see the distant objects.
generates potential differences (impulse) in photoreceptor
cells (rods & cones) ---- generates action potentials in Correction is by concave lens.
ganglion cells through bipolar cells ---- impulses are
transmitted by optic nerves to brain (visual cortex) ---- 2. Hypermetropia (Far-sightedness)
impulses are analyzed and the image is recognized based on
earlier memory and experience ---- vision. Person can not see near object clearly.

Correction is by convex lens.

5. GLAUCOMA (KALA MOTIA) 3. Presbyopia (Old age far-

sightedness)
Increased intraocular pressure due to the blockage
of canal of Schlemm.

6. ASTIGMATISM 4. Cataract (Safaid Motia)

Lens loses its transparency and become opaque.

Irregular cornea of lens.

Correction is by cylindrical lens

THE EAR COCHLEA

(Statoacoustic organ.)
Coiled portion of labyrinth

1. Outer Ear The organ of corti is a structure located on the basilar

membrane which contains hair cells that act as auditory
receptors.

The hair cells are present in rows on the internal side of the
organ of corti, which have stercocilia on apex, above which
tectorial membrane is present.

Membranous labyrinth is divided into 3 parts: (i) Cochlea, (ii) Otolith organs
(Saccule & Utricle), (iii) Semicircular canals(3)
 MECHANISM OF HEARING

Pinna collects sound waves ---- waves pass through ear---- relayed to the tympanic membrane ---- tympanic
membrane vibrates ---- vibrations transmit to ear ossicles & oval window ---- perilymph in the vestibular canal
vibrates ---- vibrations reach the scala tympani and force the basilar membrane to vibrate ---- hair endings
of sensory hair cells press against tectorial membrane ---- sensory hair cells are excited ---- auditory nerve
carries impulses to auditory centre of the brain ---- hearing.

RECEPTORS

Bowman's glands are the mucus glands that are found

Nose : For receiving the sense of smell -has olfactory below the olfactory membrane which secrete mucus.
receptors. (CBSE 2006)

Made up of olfactory epithelium.
The neurons of the olfactory epithelium extend from
the outside environment directly into a pair of broad
bean-sized organs, called olfactory bulb.
The chemical senses of gustation (taste) and olfactory
(smell) are functionally similar and interrelated.
Tongue detect taste through taste buds, containing
gustatory receptors.
Chapter
CHEMICAL COORDINATION &
22 INTEGRATION
The neural system and the endocrine system jointly coordinate
and regulate the physiological functions in the body. HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND Pituitary, pineal, thyroid , adrenal , pancreas, parathyroid, thymus and
gonads (testis in males and ovary in females)
HORMONES GIT, kidney, heart also produce hormones.
Ductless glands secretions are called hormones.
Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals, intercellular messengers,
and are produced in trace amounts. PITUITARY GLAND

1. HYPOTHALAMUS
Adenophypophysis Neurohypophysis

Contains group of neurosecretory cells called nuclei which

produce hormones of two types: Pars distalis or Pars intermedia Pars nervosa or
1. Releasing hormones (which stimulate secretion of pituitary Anterior Pituitary Posterior pituitary
hormones eg. GnRH)
GH Oxytocin
2. Inhibiting hormones (inhibit secretions of pituitary hormones eg.
Somatostatin) PRL MSH Vasoprcssin (ADH)
They regulate synthesis and secretion of Pituitary Hormones through TSH
hypophyseal portal circulation ACTH
3. Oxytocin, vasopressin (ADH) through direct neural secretion of LH
posterior pituitary. FSH

2. THE PITUITARY GLAND REGULATION OF SPERMATOGENESIS

The pituitary gland is located in a bony cavity called sella Hypothalamus
tursica of sphenoid bone and is attached to hypothalamus by a
stalk. GnRH
Over secretion of GH causes Gigantism, low secretion of GH
causes pituitary dwarfism. Anterior pituitary or Pars distalis
Excess secretion of GH in adults especially in middle age can
result in severe disfigurement (especially of face) called Gonadotrophin (In Male)
Acromegaly.
In females, LH induces ovulation of fully mature follicles
(graafian follicles) and maintains the corpus luteum Luteinizing Follicle Stimulating
FSH stimulates growth and development of the ovarian follicles Hormone (LH) Hormone (FSH)
in females.
Neurohypophysis stores and releases 2 hormones: Oxytocin & Leydig cell Sertoli cells
vasopressin.
Oxytocin stimulates a vigorous contraction of uterus,Also known Androgen Some factors
as milk ejection hormone
Vasopressin causes resorption of water and electrolytes by the Spermatogenesis Spermiogenesis
distal tubules and reduce water loss through urine (diuresis)
also called as anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) .
'Diabetes Insipidus’ (hyposecretion of ADH)
4. THYROID GLAND
3. THE PINEAL GLAND
Two lobes either side of the trachea.
Dorsal side of forebrain. Interconnected with a thin flap of connective tissue isthmus.
Secretes a hormone melatonin Composed of follicles and stromal tissues.
Regulation of a 24-hour (diurnal) rhythm of our body. Follicle is composed of follicular cells
Maintaining body temperature. Follicular cells synthesise two hormones, tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine
Metabolism, pigmentation, menstrual cycle as well as our (T₄ ) and triiodothyronine (T₃ ).
defense capability. Iodine is essential
 THYROID DISORDERS
Hypothyroidism and enlargement of the thyroid gland, commonly called goitre due to deficiency of Iodine.
Cretinism: Hypothyroidism during pregnancy causes defective development and maturation of the growing baby leading to stunted growth mental
retardation, low intelligence quotient, abnormal skin, deaf-mutism, etc.
Myxoedema or Gull's disease: hypothyroidism in adult women, menstrual cycle become irregular.
Exophthalmic Goitre or Grave's disease : hyperthyroidism, enlargement of thyroid gland due to cancer of thyroid gland unit. Causes protrusion of eye ball,
increased BMR & weight loss.
Thyrocalcitonin (TCT) (by parafollicular cell); hypocalcaemic hormone, lower the blood calcium level.

5. PARATHYROID GLAND 6. THYMUS

Four parathyroid glands are on the back side of the thyroid gland, one Lobular structure located on the ventral side of the heart and the
pair each in the two lobes of the thyroid gland. aorta, major role in the development of the immune system. Secretes
Parathyroid hormone (PTH). peptide hormones called thymosins.
Increases the Ca²⁺ level of blood & stimulates the process of bone Major role in the differentiation of T-lymphocytes provide cell-
resorption (dissolution/demineralisation). mediated immunity.
Stimulates reabsorption of Ca⁺² by the renal tubules & increases Ca²⁺ Production of antibodies to provide humoral immunity.
absorption from the digested food. Degenerated in old individuals
PTH is a hypercalcemic hormone
Hyposecretion of PTH (hypoparathyroidism) causes hypocalcaemie
tetany.
ADRENAL MEDULLA
Increase alertness, pupilary dilation, piloerection (raising of hairs),
7. ADRENAL GLAND sweating etc.
Catecholamines also stimulate the breakdown of glycogen
Our body has one pair' of adrenal glands, one at the anterior part of breakdown of lipids and proteins.
each kidney (supra-renal glands).

Adrenal gland

Adrennl Cortex (Outer) Adrenal medulla

(Inner)

Catecholamines
Outer zona Middle Zona fasciculata Inner Zona reticularls
glomerulosa (Glucocorticoid) (Sex corticoid)
(Mineralo- Adrenaline or Noradrenaline or
corticoid) epinephrine norepinephrine

Emergency hormones or hormones of fight or flight

ADRENAL CORTEX
Androgenic steroids play a role in the growth of axial hair, pubic
Aldosterone acts mainly at the renal tubules and stimulates the hair and facial hair during puberty. Hyposecretion of adrenal
reabsorption of Na⁺ and water and excretion of K⁺ and phosphate ions. cortex hormone alters carbohydrate metabolism causing acute
Maintenance of electrolytes, body fluid volume, osmotic pressure and weakness, fatigue leading to a disease called Addison's disease.
blood pressure. Hypersecretion: Cushing syndrome.
Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid. Stimulate, gluconeogenesis, lipolysis
and proteolysis. Maintaining the cardio-vascular system as well kidney
functions. Produces anti inflammatory reactions and suppresses the
immune response.
 8. PANCREAS 9. TESTIS
Hyposecretion of Insulin - causes hyperglycemia leads to a complex Primary male sex organ as well as an endocrine gland.
disorder called diabetes mellitus. Loss of glucose through urine and The Leydig cells or interstitial cells, which are present in the
formation of harmful compounds known as ketone bodies. intertubular spaces produce a group of hormones called
androgens mainly testosterone.
Main male hormone or androgen is testosterone.
Pancreas
Responsible for the puberty in male.
Regulate the development, maturation and functions of the
male accessory sex organs like epididymis, vas deferens,
Exocrine part (98- Endocrine part (1-
99%) 2%)
seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra etc.
Stimulate muscular growth, growth of facial and axillary
Islets of Langerhans hair, aggressiveness, low pitch of voice etc.
Regulates the process of spermatogenesis
Influence the male sexual behaviour (libido).
alpha-cells beta-cells Anabolic (synthetic) effects on protein and carbohydrate
Hepatocytes metabolism.
Glucagon Hepatocytes Insulin
Adipocytes
Hyperglycemic Hypoglycemic
11. HORMONES OF HEART AND
KIDNEY.
10. OVARY Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF), which decreases blood
pressure. vasodilation)
The juxtaglomerular cells of kidney produce a peptide hormone
Primary female sex organ called erythropoietin which stimulates erythropoiesis (formation
Estrogen is synthesised and secreted mainly by the growing ovarian of RBC).
follicles.
After ovulation, the ruptured follicle is converted to a structure
called corpus luteum, which secretes mainly progesterone. NATURE OF HORMONE
Estrogens stimulates the growth and activities of female secondary
sex organs, development of growing ovarian follicles, appearance of
female secondary sex characters e.g., mammary gland development. Peptide, polypeptide, protein hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon,
Regulate female sexual behaviour. pituitary hormones, hypothalamic hormones, etc.), TCT, PTH,
Progesterone supports pregnancy. Thymosines.
Progesterone also acts on the mammary glands and stimulates the Steroids (eg., cortisol, testosterone, estradiol and progesterone)
formation of alveoli (sac-like structures which store milk) and milk Iodothyronines (thyroid hormones)
secretion. Amino-acid derivatives (eg., epinephrine)

MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION

Mechanism of steroid hormone action

Mechanism of protein hormone action