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Chapter

01 The Living World

WHAT IS LIVING?
Characteristics Of living

Non - Defining Defining

Characteristics Characteristics
Metabolism,
Growth

I
Cellular organisation
Reproduction
Consciousness

y gunny ayyyDefiningpenning gym

Self - consciousness feature of human beings

NOMENCLATURE
Obviously, nomenclature or naming is only possible when the organism is described correctly. This is identification.

International Code for Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN). International Code for Viral Nomenclature (ICVN).
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). International Code for Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB).

Binomial Nomenclature

Two components
Generic name Specific epithet

First word in a biological name represents the genus while the second component denotes the specific epithet.
First word denoting the genus starts with a capital letter while the specific epithet starts with a small letter.
Both words in a biological name, when handwritten, are separately underlined, or printed in italics to indicate
their Latin origin.
Name of the author appears after the specific epithet, i.e., at the end of the biological name and is written in an
abbreviated form, e.g., Mangifera indica Linn. It indicates that this species was first described by Linnaeus.

Taxonomy

r1 Characterisation 2 Identification Kingdom

r
In case of plants, classes with few
characters are assigned to a
3 Classification 4 Nomenclature Phylum or Division
higher category called Division.

Systema Naturae was written by Linnaeus. Class

The highest category in taxonomic
Term ‘systematics’ was also given by ‘Carolus
Order hierarchy is kingdom.
Linnaeus’.
Family
Taxonomic catergories KEEP POTS CLEAN
Each category, rank or taxon (plural-taxa) Genus OR FAMILY GETS
referred to as a unit of classification.
Species is lowest category. Species I SICK
 Common
Biological Name Family Order Class/Division Phylum Kingdom
Name

Man Home sapiens Hominidae Primata Mammalia Chordata Animalia

Housefly Musca domestica Muscidae Diptera Insecta Arthropoda Animalia

Organisms Mango Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae Sapindales Dicotyledonae Angiospermae Plantae

Wheat Triticum aestivum Poaceae Poales Monocotyledonae Angiospermae Plantae

with their Dog Canis familiaris Canidae Carnivora Mammalia Chordata Animalia

Taxonomic Cat Felis catus Felidae Carnivora Mammalia Chordata Animalia

Tiger Panthera tigris Felidae Carnivora Mammalia Chordata Animalia

Categories Lion Panthera leo Felidae Carnivora Mammalia Chordata Animalia

Leopard Panthera pardus Felidae Carnivora Mammalia Chordata Animalia

Potato Solanum tuberosum Solanaceae Polymoniales Dicotyledonae Angiospermae Plantae

Brinjal Solanum melongena Solanaceae Polymoniales Dicotyledonae Angiospermae Plantae

Makoi Solanum nigrum Solanaceae Polymoniales Dicotyledonae Angiospermae Plantae

TAXONOMICAL AIDS

I. Herbarium 2. Botanical Gardens

Herbarium is a store house of collected plant These specialised gardens have collections of
specimens that are dried, pressed and living plants for reference.
preserved on sheets.
Ex-situ conservation

The herbarium sheets carry a label providing
information about date and place of collection,
English, local and botanical names, family,
collector’s name, etc.
It serve as a quick referral system
Largest famous botanical garden of world is
Royal Botanical Garden, Kew (London),
England.
Indian Botanical Garden, Sitapur, Howrah.

National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow

3. Museum (India).

Museums have collections of preserved plant 4. zoological Parks EXSITU CONSERVATION

and animal specimens for study and reference.
Plant and animal specimens may also be
preserved as dry specimens.
Insects are preserved in insect boxes after
collecting, killing and pinning.
Larger animals are usually stuffed and preserved.
6. Flora
Museums often have collections of animals too.
5. Key
These are the places where wild animals are
kept in protected environments under human
care and which enable us to learn about their
food habits and behaviour.
All animals in a zoo are protected, as far as
possible, the conditions are similar to their
natural habitats.
Flora contains the actual account of habitat and
distribution of plants of a given area.

Key is the taxonomical aid used for identification 7. Manuals

of plants and animals based on the similarities
They are useful in providing information for
and dissimilarities.
identification of names of species found in an area.
The keys are based on the contrasting
characters generally in a pair called couplet.
8. Monographs
Each statement in the key is called a lead.
They contain information on any one taxon.
Keys are generally analytical in nature .
Chapter

02 Biological classification
Number of species 1. 7 -1.8 million

Aristotle used simple morphological characters to classify plants into trees, shrubs and herbs.
He divided animals into two groups, one which had red blood (Enaima) and those that did not (Anaima).
Two kingdom classification : Linnaeus divided all organisms into two kingdoms, Plantae & Animalia
Three kingdom classification six kingdom classification
Ernst Haeckel created a new kingdom Carl Woese
Protista, having only unicellular eukaryotes. Three domains
1. Archaea: Archaebacteria
2. Bacteria: Eubacteria
Four Kingdom Classification
3. Eukarya: Includes 4 eukaryotic
Copeland (1956). kingdoms- Plantae, Animalia, Protista
Copeland created a separate kingdom and Fungi
'Monera'

Five Kingdom classification

By R.H. Whittaker
1. Plantae, 2. Animalia, 3. Protista, 4. Monera
and 5. Fungi
I Whittaker has used 5 criteria EVE TIED
1. Reproduction 3. Phylogenetic relationships
2. Cell structure 5. Thallus organisation 4. Mode of nutrition

Characteristics of the Five Kingdoms

Five Kingdoms
Characters
u Monera Protista u Fungi Plantae Animalia

Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

Noncellulosic
Present (with
Cell wall (Polysaccharide + Present in some Present (cellulose) Absent
chitin)
amino acid) PELLICLE
Nuclear Membrane Absent Present Present Present Present

Multicellular/ Tissue/organ/
Body organisation Cellular Cellular Tissue/organ
loose tissue organ system
Autotrophic
(chemosynthetic
and Autotrophic
Heterotrophic Heterotrophic
photosynthetic) (Photosynthetic) Autotrophic
Mode of nutrition (Saprophytic/ (Holozoic/
and and (Photosynthetic)
Parasitic) Saprophytic etc.)
Heterotrophic Heterotrophic
(Saprophytic
/parasitic)
KINGDOM MONERA (i) Bacteria
Prokaryotes. Archaebacteria & Eubacteria Coccus - Spherical

I
Bacillus - Rod-shaped
1. Archaebacteria Vibrium - Comma shaped
Live in some of the most harsh habitats Spirillum - Spiral.
Halophiles : Inhabit salty areas.
Thermoacidophiles : Inhabit hot springs/deep sea Reproduce mainly by fission
water, Under favourable conditions, they produce
Methanogens : In marshy areas and gut of ruminants spore
Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria in having a

TI
Nutrition in Bacteria
different cell wall structure or different cell
membrane structure lacksadwaffAI VITA Autotrophic Heterotrophic
ANAEROBE
2. Eubacteria Mycoplasma 1. Photoautotropic
'True bacteria' Smoky 2. Chemoautotropic
1. Saprophytic
2. Parasitic
Includes bacteria, cyanobacteria (BGA), and 3. Symbiotic

I
mycoplasma.
pp
Diseases caused by the heterotrophic bacteria
Cyanobacteria of BGA = Blue green algae are
unicellular, colonial or filamentous.
Cholera Vibrio cholerae

Typhoid Salmonella typhi Cyanobacteria have chlorophyll a similar to green

plants.
Nostoc & Anabaena are cyanobacteria that can fix
Tetanus Clostridium tetani atmospheric nitrogen in specialised cells called

Citrus canker Xanthomonas citri

I
heterocysts.

Mycoplasma :
Mycoplasma are also called PPLO. Lack a cell wall,
KINGDOM PROTISTA
All single-celled eukaryotes oxygen.
I
are the smallest cells and can survive without

Chrysophytes Dinoflagellates
Includes diatoms & desmids (golden algae).

Diatoms Cell wall has stiff cellulose plates

Cell wall forms two thin overlapping shells that fit Dinoflagellates have 2 flagella : One
together as in a soap box. lies longitudinally and the other
Walls are embedded with silica transversely
Large amount of cell wall deposits is referred to as Red dinoflagellates (Gonyaulax)
diatomaceous earth. undergo such rapid multiplication

I
Uses : making the sea appear red (red tides).
In polishing, Toxins (SAXITOXIN) released by them
In filtration of oils & syrups. may even kill other marine animals
such as fishes.

E
Diatoms are the chief 'producers' of oceans.

Euglenoids:
Euglenoids possesses a protein rich layer called pellicle, instead of cell wall
They have two flagella, a short & a long one
Euglena acts as connecting link between plants and animals.
 Slime Moulds PROTOZOANS
Are saprophytic protists,
without cell walls. slime moulds Amoeboid
possess true walls.
Pseudopodia e.g. Amoeba
Protozoan
Entamoeba
Under favourable conditions,
form an aggregation called Flagellated
Flagella e.g. Trypanosoma
plasmodium that may grow & protozoan
spread over several feet. SLEEPING SICKNESS
Ciliated

E
During unfavourable conditions, Cilia e.g. Paramecium
forms fruiting bodies bearing Protozoan
spores at their tips. No locomotory
Sporozoan e.g. Plasmodium
Spores are extremely resistant organ
& survive for many years. They
are dispersed by air currents.

KINGDOM FUNGI
Reproduction in Fungi
With the exception of yeasts which are
unicellular, fungi are filamentous. Vegetative Asexual Sexual
Their bodies consist of long, slender Means Reproduction Reproduction
thread-like structures called hyphae.
Network of hyphae is known as Fragmentation Conidia Oospores
mycelium. Fission Zoospore Ascospores
Some hyphae are Écontinuous tubes
filled with multinucleated cytoplasm Budding Sporangiospore Basidiospores
are called coenocytic hyphae.
Cell walls of fungi are composed of
chitin

Sexual cycle involves

Fusion of protoplasms plasmogamy. Class 1 - Phycomycetes
Fusion of two nuclei karyogamy.
Meiosis in zygote results in haploid spores. Mycelium is aseptate and
coenocytic.
In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells immediately
results in diploid cells (2n). Asexual reproduction occurs
In other fungi (ascomycetes andÉ basidiomycetes), an through zoospores (motile),
intervening dikaryotic stage (n + n, i.e., two nuclei per cell) aplanospores (non-motile).
occurs; such a condition is called a dikaryon and the phase is Spores are endogenously
called dikaryophase of fungus. produced in sporangium.
The fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division
occurs, leading to formation of haploid spores. Examples : Mucor

Members of phycomycetes are found : Rhizopus : White spots seen on

1. In aquatic habitats mustard leaves are due to a
2. On decaying wood in moist and damp places parasitic fungus (Albugo).
3. As obligate parasites on plants.
Class 2 - ASCOMYCETES
Known as sac-fungi ascomycetes are mostly
multicellular, e.g., Penicillium unicellular, e.g.,
yeast (Saccharomyces).
'Mycelium is branched and septate
Asexual spores are conidia produced
exogenously on the special mycelium called
conidiophores. Conidia on germination produce
mycelium.
Sexual spores are called ascospores are
produced endogenously
Examples : Aspergillus, Claviceps and
Neurospora. Morels (Morchella) and truffles
are edible Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
called Baker's yeast and Brewer's yeast
Class 3 -Basidiomycetes:
Basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket fungi
or puffballs.
Grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in
living plant bodies as parasites, e.g., rusts and
smuts. The mycelium is branched and septate.
Asexual spores are generally not found,
vegetative reproduction by fragmentation is
common.
Sex organs are absent.
Basidiospores are exogenously produced on
the basidium basidia are arranged in fruiting
bodies called basidiocarps.
Examples : Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago
(smut), Puccinia (rust fungus).

Class 4 -Deuteromycetes

Imperfect fungi (sexual reproduction is absent).

Asexual spores known as conidia. The mycelium is septate and branched.
Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.

VIRUSES. VIROIDS & LICHENS Viroids

Virus
The viruses are non-cellular organisms that
are characterised by having an inert
crystalline structure outside the living cell.
Viruses are obligate intercellular parasites.
Their protein coat called capsid is made of
In 1971, T.0. Diener discovered that viroids are
smaller than viruses and caused potato spindle
tuber disease.
RNA of the viroid was of low molecular
weight.
Prions
Prions are the infectious proteinaceous agents.
Prions lack genetic material & contains only

IF
small subunits called capsomeres.
proteins molecule.
Ivanowsky discovered virus. D.J. Ivanowsky
(1892) recognised mosaic disease of tobacco. 0 MADCOW DISEASE
M.W. Beijerinek extracted infectious living Lichens CJ JACOB DISEASE
fluid and called it as Contagium vivum Lichens (SO2 Pollution indicators)
fluidum.
W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that viruses Algae (Phycobiont) Fungi (Mycoboint)
could be crystallised and are inert outside
their specific host cell.
No virus contains both RNA and DNA. Autotrophic Heterotrophic
(i) ssRNA : TMV, HIV (Retrovirus).
TMV has a coiled RNA strand.

o
(ii) ssDNA : 7 x 174 Bacteriophage.
The genetic material is infectious.
Prepare food Absorb mineral, nutrient, H2 O
and provide shelter
 Chapter

03 Plant Kingdom
Introduction
Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

1. Artificial system of classifications 2. Natural System of Classification

Based mainly on vegetative characters or on the androecium
structure given by Linnaeus).
Genera Plantarum was written by Linnaeus.
Based on natural affinities among the organisms and
consider, not only the external features, but also internal
features, like ultra-structure, anatomy, embryology and
phytochemistry.
It was given by Bentham and Hooker.

3. phylogenetic system of classification

Based on evolutionary relationships between
the various organisms.

Numerical taxonomy Cytotaxonomy

It is based on all observable characteristics. Number and Based on cytological information like chromosome
codes are assigned to all the characters and the data are number, structure and behaviour
then processed.

Karyotaxonomy Chemotaxonomy
Based on nucleus and banding patterns of chromosomes. Uses the chemical constituents of the plant

ALGAE
Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic organisms.

form and size of algae is highly variable. Ranges from unicellular forms like Chlamydomonas, to colonial forms like Volvox and to
the filamentous forms like Ulothrix and Spirogyra.

Reproduction (R) in Algae Class 1 - Chlorophyceae

• Green algae may be unicellular, colonial or filamentous.
Vegetative R. Asexual R. Sexual R. Usually green due to chlorophyll a and b.

• Chloroplasts may be discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-

By fragmentation By Zoospores shaped, spiral or ribbon-shaped in different species.

Isogamous Anisogamous Oogamous • Have one or more storage bodies called pyrenoids Pyrenoids
contain protein besides starch.
eg. Some species eg. Volvox and
of Chlamydomonas Fucus • Vegetative reproduction usually takes place by
fragmentation .

Flagellated Non - flagellated • Sexual reproduction shows considerable variation and may
gametes gemetes be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous.

• Commonly found green algae are : Chlamydomonas, Volvox,

Eg., Chlamydomonas Eg., Spirogyra Ulothrix, Spirogyra and Chara.

I Mongecious
• Chlorella and Spirulina are unicellular algae, rich in proteins
and are used as food supplements even by space travelers.
 Class 2- Phaeophyceae
1. Brown algae show great variation in size and form range
from simple branched filamentous forms (Ectocarpus) to
profusely branched forms as represented by kelps.
2. Possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids and xanthophylls.
3. Vary in colour from olive green to various shades of
brown depending upon the amount of the xanthophyll
pigment, fucoxanthin present in them.
4. Food is stored as complex carbohydrates, which may be
E
in the form of laminarin or mannitol.
5. Vegetative cells have a cellulosic wall usually covered on
outside by a gelatinous coating of algin.
Class 3 - Rhodophyceae
• Commonly called red algae because of predominance of
the red pigment, r-phycoerythrin in their body.
• Food is stored as floridean starch very similar to
amylopectin, and glycogen in structure.
• Red algae usually reproduce vegetatively by
fragmentation.
bryophytes
Non-vascular terrestrial plants
Require water for fertilisation.
Plant body of bryophytes is more differentiated
than that of algae. Thallus-like and prostrate or
erect, and attached to the substratum by
unicellular or multicellular rhizoids.
Lack true roots, stem or leaves.
Main plant body of the bryophyte is haploid
produces gametes, hence is called a
gametophyte.
LIVERWORTS
Plant body of a liverwort is thalloid, e,g., Marchantia.
Thallus is dorsi-ventral and closely appressed to the
substrate.
MOSSES
• Predominant stage of the life cycle of a
moss is the gametophyte which consists of
two stages. First stage is the protonema
stage, which develops direct(y from a spore. It
is a creeping, green, branched and frequently
filamentous stage.
• The second stage is the leafy stage.
6. Plant body is usually attached to the
substratum by a holdfast, and has a stalk, the
stipe and leaf like photosynthetic organ — the
É
frond.
7. Common forms are Ectocarpus, Macrocystis,
Dictyota, Laminaria (Kelp), Sargassum and Fucus
(Rock weed)
8. Alginic acid is obtained from brown algae like
Fucus and Laminaria.
• Reproduce asexually by non-motile spores sexually by
non-motile gametes.
• Sexual reproduction is oogamous Polysiphonia,
Porphyra, Gracilaria, Gelidium.
• Agar obtained from Gelidium & Gracilaria
Sex organs in bryophytes are multicellular. Male sex
organ called antheridium. They produce biflagellate
antherozoids.
Female sex organ called archegonium is flask- shaped
and produces a single egg
Sphagnum, a moss, provide peat that have long been
used as fuel. Also has water holding capacity for
trans-shipment of living material.
Bryophytes are divided into liverworts and mosses.
Asexual reproduction takes place by fragmentation or by
the formation of specialised structures called gemmae.
Gemmae are green, multi-cellular, asexual buds.
E.g.: Marchantia, Riccia.
• Vegetative reproduction in mosses is by
fragmentation and budding in the secondary
protonema.
• The sporophyte in mosses is more elaborate
than that in liverworts.
• Examples of mosses are Funaria, Polytrichum
and Sphagnum.
 Pteridophytes
vescular plants
1. Pteridophytes include horsetails and ferns. 5. In majority of the pteridophytes all the spores
are of similar kinds; such plants are called
2. In pteridophytes, the main plant body is a homosporous. Genera like Selaginella, Salvinia
sporophyte which is differentiated into true Marsilea and Azolla which produce two kinds of
root, stem and leaves. spores, macro (large) and micro (small) spores,
are known as heterosporous.
3. Leaves in pteridophyta are small
6. The pteridophytes are further classified into four classes :
(microphylls) as in Selaginella or large
(macrophylls) as in ferns.
1. Psilopsida : e.g., Psilotum and Rhynia
2. Lycopsida : e.g., Selaginella and Lycopodium
4. Sporophytes bear sporangia In some 3. Sphenopsida : e.g., Equisetum (Horsetail)
cases sporophylls may form distinct compact 4. Pteropsida : e.g., Pteris, Dryopteris, Adiantum, Marsilea,
structures called strobili or cones Azolla and Salvinia.
(Selaginella, Equisetum)

GYMNOSPERMS
ANGIOSPERMS
Differences Endosperm n
between Bryophytes and Pteridophytes Gymnosperms are naked seeded plants Smallest angiosperm : Wolffia
Double fertilisation occurs in
Giant redwood tree Sequoia is one of these plants.
tallest tree species
Bryophytes Pteridophytes

All gymnosperms are heterosporous;

they produce haploid microspores and
1. Main plant body is 1. Main plant body is sporophyte megaspores.
gametophyte (haploid). (diploid).

2. Gametophytic phase is longer

than sporophyte.
2. Sporophytic phase is longer
than gametophyte.
I Ii
E.g.: (a) Cycas (b) Pinus (c) Ginkgo (d)
Cedrus.

PLANT LIFE CYCLES & ALTERNATION OF CENERATIONS

3. Sporophyte is dependent on 3. Both sporophyte and

gametophyte. gametophyte are independent.

4. True stem, leaves & roots are 4. True stem, leaves and roots
not found. are found.

(a) Haplontic (b) Diplontic (c) Haplodiplontic

5. Instead of root, rhizoids
5. True roots are present.
occurs.

6. Non-vascular plants 6. Vascular plants

E
Chapter

04 Animal Kingdom
Basis of classification

Levels of organisation
Digestive system is incomplete.
Coelentrates and Platyhelminthes

Digestive tract has 2 opening mouth

Celluar Level Tissue level Organ level Organ system level
and anus, eg.: Aschelminthes to
chordates
Porifera Coelentrata Platyhelminthes Aschelminthes
Ctenophora Arthropoda
Annelida
Circulatory System
Mollusca
Open type: Arthropoda, Mollusca and

I
Echinodermata hemichordate.
Hemichordata Closed type: Eg.: Annelida & chordata
Chordata
Germ layers
Coelom / Body cavity
Diploblastic: cells are arranged in two embryonic layers, an external
ectoderm and an internal endoderm, Acoelomate: animals in which the
E.g.: Porifer, coelenterates. An undifferentiated layer, mesoglea, is body cavity is absent. Eg. Porifer,
present in between the ectoderm and the endoderm in Coelentrates. Coelentrates, Ctenophores and
Platyhelminthes.
Triploblastic: animals in which the developing embryo has a third Pseudocoelomate: the body cavity is
germinal layer, mesoderm, in between the ectoderm and endoderm, not lined by mesoderm, instead, the
(Platyhelminthes to Chordates). mesoderm is present as scattered
pouches between the ectoderm and
SYMMETRY endoderm. E.g. Aschelminthes.

Coelomate
Asymmetrical Radial Symmetry Bilateral Symmetry Body cavity , which is lined by
mesoderm
E.g., Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs,
Platyhelminthes

I
Porifera Coelentrata
Aschelminthes Echinoderms, Hemichordates and
(sponges) Ctenophora
Echinodermata Annelida, Arthropada Chordates.
(in adult body) Mollusca, Echinodermata
(in larval stage)
Hemichordata, Chordata

Segmentation
Metamerism, eg. annelida, arthropoda and chordata.

Notochord Body division

Notochord is a mesodermally derived rod-like structure
formed on the dorsal side during embryonic development in
some animals. Animals with notochord are called chordates Hemichordata
u Arthropoda r Mollusca
and those animals which do not form this structure are
called non-chordates, e.g., Porifera to Echinoderms.

e
3 parts 3 parts 3 parts
Body temperature 1. Head 1. Head 1. Proboscis
Poikilothermic or cold blooded eg. invertebrates, fishes, 2. Thorax 2. Muscular foot 2. Collar
amphibians (frog) and reptiles. 3. Abdomen 3. Visceral hump 3. Trunk
Homioithermic or warm blooded animals
e.g., Birds and mammals.
 Levels of
Kingdom organisation
Symmetry Coelom Phylum

Cellular level Asymmetry Acoelomate Porifera

Animalia
Radial Acoelomate Cnidaria
(Multicellular)
Tissue or Ctenophora
Organ or
Acoelomate Platyhelminthes
Organ system
Bilateral Pseudococlomates Aschelminthes
Level
Coelomates Annelida
Arthropoda
Mollusca
Phylum [1] porifera Echinodermata
Sponges Generally marine, few are fresh water Hemichordata
mostly asymmetrical. Chorclata
Water enters through (ostia) and moves out through Phylum
osculum [2] Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
Choanoeytes or collar cells line the spongocoel and
the canals. All are aquatic
Digestion is intracellular Name is derived from the endoblasts
Sexes are not separate Contain the stinging capsules or nematocytes
Reproduce asexually by fragmentation A single opening, mouth on hypostome
Fertilisation is internal and development is indirect e.g., corals have a skeleton composed of calcium
Scypha (Sycon), Fresh water sponge (Spongilla) & carbonate.
Bath sponge (Euspongilla).
Cnidarians exhibit two basic body forms called polyp and
medusa.
Phylum - [3] Ctenophora Those cnidarians which exist in both form (Polyp and
Commonly known as sea walnuts or comb
Medusa) exhibit alteration of generation (metagenesis).
jellies are exclusively marine.
Eg. Obelia
The body bears eight external rows of ciliated
comb plates, which help in locomotion. E.g.. Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia), Sea anemone
Bioluminescence (the property of a living organism to (Adamsia), Sea-pen (Pennatula), Sea-fan (Gorgonia) 8 Brain
emit light) is well-marked in ctenophores. coral (Meandrina).
Reproduction takes place only by sexual means.
Asexually
Fertilisation is external with indirect development. e.g.,
Pleurobrachia, Ctenoplana, Beroe. Polyp Medusa

Phylum [4] PlatyheIminthes

Flatworms.
t GO
Sexually

Flame cells or protonephridia help in osmoregulation

and excretion.
Sessile Free – swimming
Sexes are not separate.
Cylindrical Umbrella – shaped
Fertilisation is internal and
EE development is through Eg. Hydra, Adamsia Eg. Aurelia
many larval stages.
Planaria possess high regeneration capacity.
Eg.: Tapeworm (Taenia), Liver fluke (Fasciola), Planaria.

Phylum [5] Aschelminthes Phylum - [6] Annelida

Roundworms.
Alimentary canal is complete with a well -developed
muscular pharynx.
Sexes are separate (dioecious), Often females are
longer than males.
Fertilisation is internal and development may be
direct
e.g., Common round worm (Ascaris), Filaria worm
(Wuchereria), Hookworm (Ancylostoma),
Metamerically segmented animals.
Possess longitudinal and circular muscles which help
in locomotion .
Nereis is dioecious whereas earthworms and leeches
are monoecious.
Eg.: leech (Hirudinaria), Nereis and Earthworm.
 Phylum [7] Arthropoda
Largest phylum Examples : Prawn, Scorpion, Spider
Body of arthropods is covered by chitinous exoskeleton Economically important insects :
Body consists of head, thorax and abdomen. Apis (Honey bee), Bombyx (Silkworm), Laccifer
They have jointed appendages (Lac insect).

t
Circulatory system is of open type. Vectors : Anopheles, Culex and
Statocysts or balance organs are present Aedes (Mosquitoes)
Excretion takes place through malpighian tubules. Gregarious pest : Locusta (Locust).
Mostly dioecious, fertilization internal, development Living fossil : Limulus (king crab)
may be3 direct or indirect.

Phylum [8] Mollusca Phylum {9} Echinodermata

Second largest animal phylum. Have an endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles,
Body is covered by a calcareous shell exclusively marine
A soft and spongy layer of skin forms a mantle
Adult echinoderms are radially symmetrical but
over the visceral hump.
larvae are bilaterally symmetrical digestive system is
Feather like gills are present.
complete. É
Mouth contains a file like rasping organ for
Most distinctive feature of echinoderms is the
feeding called radula.
present of water vascular system.
EE
Eg.: Apple snail (Pita), Pearl oyster (Pinctada), Excretory system is absent. Sexes are separate.
Cuttlefish (Sepia), Squid (Loligo), Devil fish
Eg.: Star fish (Asterias), Sea urchin (Echinus), Sea lily
(Octopus), Sea-hare (Aplysła), Tusk shell
(Antedon), Sea cucumber (Cucumaria) & Brittle star
(Dentalium) & Chiton (Chaetopleura).
(Ophiura). I
Chordata is divided into three subphyla:
Phylum {10} hemichordate Urochordata , Cephalochordate and Vertebrata.
Urochordata and cephalochordate are often referred to as
Excretory organ is proboscis gland. protochordates and are exclusively marine.
E.g.: Balanoglossus In Urochordata, notochord is present only in larval tail,
Saccoglossus while in Cephalochordata, it extends from head to tail
region and is persistent throughout their life.
Urochordata : Ascidia (Ascidians), Salpa, Doliolum

Chordata (phylum) I Cephalochordata : Branchiostoma (Amphioxus or

Lancelet).
PROTONEPHRIDIA
Subphylum

Vertebrata
I. Urochordata II. Cephalochordata III. Vertebrata
Division
Cyclostomata
are ectoparasites on some fishes
Agnatha (lacks jaw) Gnathostomata (bears jaw) 6 – 15 pairs of gill slits
Super class
Cyclostomes have a sucking and circular mouth
Class without jaws.

O
Pisces (bear fins) Tetrapoda (bear limbs) Body is devoid of scales and paired fins
I. Cyclostomata
Class Class eg.: Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine
1. Chondrichthyes 1. Amphibia (Hagfish).
2. Osteichthyes 2. Reptilia
3. Aves
4. Mammalia
 Class – 1 Chondrichthyes or
Cartilagenous fishes Class - 2 Osteichthyes or Bony fishes
Bony endoskeleton.
Marine animals have cartilagenous
Mouth is mostly terminal.
endoskeleton. Four pairs of gills which are covered by an operculum
Notochord is persistent throughout life. Skin is covered with cycloid/ctenoid scales.
Mouth is located ventrally.

I
Gill slits are separate and without operculum
Skin is tough, containing minute placoid scales
Air bladder is present
Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is usually external.
Mostly oviparous and development is direct.
Absence of air bladder.
Eg. : Marine - Exocoetus (Flying fish),
Some of them have electric organs. e.g.,
Hippocampus (Sea horse)
Torpedo or Rays and some possess poison sting Fresh water: Labeo (Rohu),
(e.g., Trygon). Males pelvic fins bear claspers. Catla (Katla), Clarias (Magur)
Internal fertilization and many of them are

I
Aquarium : Betta (Fighting fish),
viviparous. Pterophyllum (Angel fish).

Examples: Scoliodon (Dog fish) Pristis (Saw fish) False fishes

Carcharodon (Great white shark) Trygon (Sting
1. Jelly fishes Aurelia Coelentrata
ray), Torpedo (Electric ray)

I
2. Cray fish Astacus Arthropoda
3. Silver fish Lepisma Arthropoda
Class Amphibia 4. Cuttle fish Sepia Mollusca
Body is divisible into head and trunk.
5. Devil fish Octopus Mollusca
Tail may be present in some.
Amphibian skin is moist 6. Razor fish Solen Mollusca

I
E.g., Toad (Bufo), Frog (Rana), Tree frog (Hyla),
Limbless amphibia (Ichthyophis).
7. Shell fish
8. Star fish
9. Hagfish
Asterias
Myxine
Mollusca
Echinodermata
Cyclostomata
Class – Reptilia
Eg.: Turtle (Chelone), Tortoise (Testudo), Tree 10. Whale fish Balaenoptera Mammal
lizard (Chameleon), Garden lizard (Calotes),

In
Crocodile (Crocodilus), Alligator (Alligator). Wall
lizard (Hemidactylus), Poisonous snakes-Cobra
(Naja). Krait (Bangarus), Viper (Vipera).

Class – Aves
Eg.: Crow (Corvus), Pigeon (Columba), Parrot
(Psittacula), Ostrich (Struthio), Peacock (Pavo),
Penguin (Aptenodytes), Vulture (Neophron).
Skin is dry without glands except the oil gland
at the base of the tail

Class – Mammalia
Viviparous : Macropus (Kangaroo), Pteropus (Flying fox),
Camelus (Camel), Macaca (Monkey), Rattus (Rat), Canis
(Dog), Felis (Cat), Elephas (Elephant), Equus (Horse).
Pantheratigris (Tiger), Panthera leo (Lion).
Aquatic mammals :
Delphinus (Common dolphin)
Balaenoptera (Blue whale)
Chapter
MORPHOLOGY OF
05 FLOWERING PLANTS
THE ROOT
Smallest angiosperm is Wolffia. Roots
Tallest angiosperm is Eucalyptus ragnans
Tap root Fibrous root Adventitious
Annuals : Life cycle is completed in
single year. E
system system u roots v
Annuals and biennials are monocarpic plants
eg. Dicots eg. Monocots eg. Grass, Monstera,
Biennials : Life cycle is completed in two seasons. (Mustard) (Wheat) Banyan

Regions of root
mODIFICATIOns of root

Modifications of root

Region of Region of Region of

meristematic
activity
u
elongation
v maturation u Storage Support Respiration

Tap root Adventitious Prop root Stilt root

I
Responsible for Root hairs root
Thin walled
eg- Carrot,
and repeatedly growth of root arises from eg- Banyan eg-Maize ,
Turnip sugarcane
dividing cells in length this zone eg- Sweet potato,
Asparagus Pneumatophores

I
THE STEM eg- Rhizophora

The stem is the ascending part of the axis Stem bears buds, which may be terminal or
bearing branches, leaves, flowers and fruits. It axillary.
develops from a plumule of the embryo of the The stem bears nodes and internodes.
germinating seed.
MODIFICATIONS OF STEM
Modifications of stem THE LEAF
Parts of Leaf
Storage eg- Zaminkand, Ginger, Turmeric, Potato, Colocasia
(underground)

1. Leaf base 2. Petiole 3. Lamina/Leaf blade

Support Stem tendrils eg-Gourds (cucumber,
(Climbing) pumpkin, watermelon) and Grapevines
Sheath covered Pulvinus Hold the blade Green expanded
leaf base leaf base towards light part

I
Protection Thorns eg-Citrus, Bougainvillea

Photosynthesis

Vegetative
Opuntia (flattened)

Euphorbia (cylindrical)

RUNNER Grass & Strawberry

are eg- Monocots

I
eg- Leguminous
plants
Have midrib
(middle prominent vein)

E
Propagation
STOLON Mint & Jasmine
The leaf base may become swollen, which is called
OFFSET Pistia & Eichhornia
the pulvinus. E.g.: Pea, legumes and Trifolium.
SUCKER Banana, Pineapple & Chrysanthemum
 Venation
DICOT
I
When the Veinlets form a network,
E.g., Mango
the venation is termed as reticulate
MONOCOT
When the veins run parallel to each other within
E.g., Banana
a lamina, the venation is termed as parallel.
types of Leaves PHYLLOTAXY
Types of leaves
Phyllotaxy

Simple leaf Compound leaf

1. Alternate 2. Opposite 3. Whorled
(code-CMS)

Pinnately Palmately
eg. - China rose eg- Guava eg- Alstonia
compound leaf compound leaf
- Mustard - Calotropis
- Sun flower
e.g - Neem e.g - Silk cotton

MODIFICATIONS OF LEAVES
Modifications of Leaves
THE INFLORESCENCE
Climbing or support Tendrils eg. Pea
phyllode
Defence or protection Spines eg. Cacti Racemose type : The flowers are borne
laterally in an acropetal succession.
Storage Fleshy leaves eg- Garlic, Onion
In cymose type of inflorescence the
Photosynthesis Expanded petiole eg- Australian acacia
main axis terminates in a flower.
Pitcher/flap Insectivorous plants eg- Pitcher plant, The flowers are borne in a basipetal order.
Venus-fly trap

Flower
Flower Symmetry of Flower

Acessory organs Reproductive organs Actinomorphic Zygomorphic Asymmetric

(Radial sym.) (Bilateral sym) (Irregular)

eg -Datura eg -Pea eg -Canna

I E
Calyx Corolla Androecium Gynoecium -Chilli -Bean
-Mustard -Cassia
-Gulmohur
Sepals Petals Stamens Carpels/ pistils
w u
In some flowers like lily, the calyx and corolla
are not distinct and are termed as perianth.
 Types of flower on the basis of position of calyx,
corolla and androecium in respect of ovary on thalamus Aestivation
Flower
Aestivation

OOO
Hypogynous Perigynous Epigynous
Valvate Twisted Imbricate Vexillary
or Papilionaceous
eg - Cassia
Ovary superior Ovary Ovary inferior eg- Calotropis -Gulmohar
half-inferior eg -China rose
eg -Pea
-Lady's finger
- Bean
-Cotton
eg -Mustard eg -Plum eg -Guava
-China rose -Brinjal - Rose -Peach -Cucumber
-Ray florets of
sunflower

Androecium

I
Remains free May be united

Polyandrous
Valvate Twisted
Monoadelphous Diadelphous Polyadelphous STANDAÉ
eg- China rose eg-Pea eg-Citrus
wing
A sterile stamen is called staminode. KEEK
When stamens are attached to the petals, they are
epipetalous as in brinjal, or epiphyllous when attached to
the perianth as in the flower of lily. lmbricate Vexillary

Gynoecium

Single carpel More than one carpel

When more than one carpels are
Monocarpellary present, they may be free ( as in
Multicarpellary

I
lotus and rose) are called
eg-Mango apocarpous.

They are termed syncarpous

Syncarpous Apocarpous
(carpels fused) when carpels are fused, as in
mustard, tomato and Papaver.
eg -Rose
eg - Papaver

I
-Michelia
-Mustard -
-Lotus
-Tomato
 Placentation
Marginal

Placentation
Marginal Pea
Axile Tomato, Lemon, China Axile
rose
Parietal Mustard, Argemone

Free - central Dianthus, Primrose Perietal

Basal Sunflower, Marigold

The fruit Free

central

Fruit is formed without fertilisation of the ovary.

It is called a parthenocarpic fruit e.g., Banana. Basal

Fruit

Pericarp (fruit wall) Seed

In mango and coconut, the fruit is
Dry (e.g- Groundunt Fleshyb(e.g- Guava, Seed coat Embryo known as a drupe.
& mustard) mango & orange) I
Outer layer Inner layer They develop from monocarpellary
superior ovaries and are one
ooo
Epicarp Mesocarp Endocarp Testa Tegmen
seeded.

Embryonal axis Cotyledons In coconut which is also a drupe,

I
the mesocarp is fibrous.

O
Radicle
O
Plumule One
(in monocot)
Two
(in dicot)

e.g. Wheat, e.g. Gram,

Maize
The seed
Structure of a Monocotyledonous seed
Structure of a dicotyledonous seed
Outermost covering of a seed is the seed coat.
The outer layer is testa and the inner tegmen.
The hilum is a scar on the seed coat through
which the developing seeds were attached to
I
the fruit..
In some seeds such as castor the endosperm
formed as a result of double fertilisation.
Pea
Monocotyledonous seeds are endospermic but
some as in orchids are non-endospermic.
The endosperm is bulky and stores food. The
outer covering of endosperm separates the
embryo by a proteinous layer called aleurone
layer.
Csn
The embryo is small and situated in a groove
at one end of the endosperm. It consists of
one large and shield shaped cotyledon known
as scutellum and a short axis with a plumule
and a radicle.

The plumule and radicle are enclosed in

sheaths which are called coleoptile and
coleorhiza respectively.
 K C A
G E C
description of some important families CA
fABACEAE SOLANACEAE PA
Inflorescence : Racemose

I
Floral Formula : % K(5) C1+2+(2) A (9)+1 G (1) Floral Formula :

Vegetative Characters
K(5) C(5) A(5) G (2)

Vegetative CHaracteRS

- Trees, shrubs, herbs; root with root nodules
- Stem: Erect or climber
- Leaves: Alternate, pinnately compound or
simple; leaf base, pulvinate; stipulate; venation
reticulate.
Economic importance : Many plants belonging to the
family are sources of pulses (gram, arhar, sem,
moong, soyabean; edible oil (soyabean, groundnut);
dye (Indigofera); fibres (sunhemp); fodder (Sesbania,
Trifolium), ornamentals (Lupin, sweet pea); medicine
- Plants mostly herbs, shrubs and rarely small trees
- Stem: Herbaceous rarely woody, aerial; erect,
cylindrical, branched, solid or hollow, hairy or
glabrous, underground stem in potato (Solanum
tuberosum)
- Leaves : Alternate, simple, rarely pinnately
compound, exstipulate; venation reticulate.
Economic Importance: Many plants belonging to this
family are source of food (tomato, brinjal, potato),
spice (chilli); medicine (belladonna, ashwagandha);

E
(muliathi), Pisum sativum (pea) fumigatory (tobacco); ornamentals (Petunia). Solanum
nigrum (makoi), Ashwagandha : Withania somnifera

LILIACEAE 10US
EPIPHY
Floral Formula : Br P
(3+3)
A
3+3
G
(3)

Vegetative CHaracteRS
-Perennial herbs with underground bulbs/corms/rhizomes.
-leaves: Mostly basal, alternate, linear, exstipulate with parallel venation.
Economic Importance: Many plants belonging to this family are good ornamentals (tulip, Gloriosa),
source of medicine (Aloe), vegetables (Asparagus), and colchicine (Colchicum autumnale). Allium cepa
(onion)
Chapter

06 Anatomy of
Flowering plants
I THE TISSUES
Collenchyma
Cells are much thickened at the corners due to
deposition of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
Intercellular spaces are absent.
They provide mechanical support to the growing
parts of the plant such as young stem and petiole of
cambium
a leaf.

Sclerenchyma
Sclereids
Sclerenchyma consists of long, narrow cells with thick
and lignified cell walls having a few or numerous pits.
D=dead; L=living Usually dead and without protoplasts.

May be either fibres or sclereids.

Fibres are thick-walled, elongated and pointed cells.

Sclereids are spherical, oval or cylindrical, highly

Meristematic Tissues thickened dead cells with very narrow cavities.
Two types of meristems : Primary & secondary. Commonly found in the fruit walls of nuts; pulp of
fruits like guava, pear and sapota; seed coats of
Primary Meristem legumes and leaves of tea.

Two types : Apical meristem & intercalary meristem.

Apical Meristem Complex tissues

Occur at the tips of roots and shoots. Xylem and phloem constitute the complex tissues in
plants.
Intercalary Meristem
Xylem
Occurs between mature tissues.
They occur in grasses (monocot) and regenerate Conducting tissue for water and minerals from roots
parts removed by grazing herbivores. to the stem and leaves. It also provides mechanical
strength to the plant parts.
Secondary/Lateral Meristems
Four different kinds of elements, namely, tracheids,

I
Fascicular vascular cambium, interfascicular cambium vessels, xylem fibers and xylem parenchyma.
and cork cambium are examples of lateral meristems.
Pteridophytes & Gymnosperms lack vessels in their
Permanent Tissues xylem.
Simple Tissues
Parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma. Tracheids
Parenchyma Tracheids are elongated or tube like with thick and
Cells are generally isodiametric. lignified walls and tapering ends.
Their walls are thin and made up of cellulose.
Dead and are without protoplasm.
Performs various functions like photosynthesis, storage,
secretion.
Vessels
Vessel is a long cylindrical tube-like structure made up of
many cells called vessel members, each with lignified
walls.
Vessel cells are also devoid of protoplasm.
Phloem (bast)
Phloem transports food materials, usually from leaves
to other parts of the plant.
Phloem in angiosperms is composed of sieve tube elements,
companion cells, phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres.

Vessel members are interconnected through perforations Gymnosperms have albuminous cells. They lack sieve tubes
in their common walls. and companion cells.

Presence of vessels is a characteristic feature of Seive tube

angiosperms. Sieve tube elements are also long, tube-like structures,
arranged longitudinally and are associated with the
Xylem fibres companion cells.
Highly thickened walls and obliterated central
Their end walls are perforated in a sieve-like manner
lumens.
to form the sieve plates.
Cells are narrow and pointed at the ends and have
A mature sieve element possesses a peripheral
bordered pits, either septate or aseptate.
cytoplasm and a large vacuole but lacks a nucleus.

Xylem parenchyma Functions of sieve tubes are controlled by the nucleus of

Xylem parcenchyma cells are living and thin-walled,
are made up of cellulose.
Store food materials in the form of starch or fat, and
other substances like tannins.
companion cells.
Companion cells
companion cells are specialised parenchyrmatous cells,
which are closely associated with sieve tube elements.

E
Radial conduction of water takes place by the ray
parenchymatous cells.
Primary xylem is of two types, protoxylem and metaxylem.
First formed primary xylem elements are called protoxylem
the later formed primary xylem is called metaxylem.
In stems, the protoxylem lies towards the centre and
the metaxylem lies towards the periphery. This type of
Sieve tube elements and companion cells are connected
by pit fields present between their common longitudinal
walls.
Phloem parenchyma
Phloem parenchyma is made up of elongated, tapering
cylinclrical cells which have dense cytoplasm and
nucleus.

I
primary xylem is called endarch. The cell wall is composed of cellulose and has pits.

In roots, the protoxylem lies towards periphery and
metaxylem lies towards the centre. Such arrangement
of primary xylem is called exarch.
Phloem fibres
Phloem parenchyma stores food and other material
other substances like resins, latex and mucilage.
Phloem parenchyma is absent in most of the
monocotyledons.

WEAD
These are generally absent in the primary phloem but are found in the secondary phloem.
The first formed primary phloem consists of narrow sieve tubes and is referred to as protophloem and the later formed phloem
has bigger sieve tubes and is referred to as metaphloem.

THE TISSUE SYSTEM

Epidermal Tissue System
1. Epidermis

000 Epidermis is the outermost layer of the

primary plant body. Epidermis is usually

000 single layered.

Epidermal cells are parenchymatous.

u n Outside of the epidermis is often

covered with a waxy thick layer called
the cuticle which prevents the loss of
water.
2. Stomata

Stomata are structures present in the epidermis
of leaves.
Regulate the process of transpiration and gaseous
exchange.
Composed of two bean shaped cells known as guard
cell
In grasses, the guard cells are dumbbell shaped.
Sometimes, a few epidermal cells, in the vicinity of
the guard cells become specialised in their shape
and size and are known as subsidiary cells.
Stomatal aperture, guard cells and the surrounding
subsidiary cells are together called stomatal
apparatus.

3. Epidermal Appendages
Root hairs Ground Tissue System
Unicellular elongations of the epidermal cells Consists of parenchyma, collenchyma and
Helps in absorption of water and minerals from soil sclerenchyma

Trichomes Parenchymatous cells are usually present in

cortex, pericycle, pith and medullary rays.
Usually multicellular
Prevent water loss due to transpiration.
Vascular Tissue System go
In dicotyledonous stems, cambium is present between In conjoint type of vascular bundles, the xylem and
phloem are situated at the same radius of vascular

I
phloem and xylem and are called open vascular bundles.
bundles. Such vascular bundles are common in stems
In the monocotyledons, the vascular bundles have no and leaves.
cambium present in them and are referred to as closed.
É The conjoint vascular bundles usually have the
When xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are phloem located only on the outer side of
arranged in an alternate manner on different radii, the
xylem.
arrangement is called radial such as in roots.

Dicotyledonous Root

Vascular bundles are radial type of arranged

in a ring.
yeaspassifp
Usually two to four xylem and phloem patches.

Pericycle, vascular bundles and pith constitute the

stele.

2 or 4

Monocotyledonous Root

O It has epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, vascular

u u
z
bundles and pith. n
Cortex consists of several layers of thin-walled
parenchyma cells with intercellular spaces. Vascular Tissue System (T.S.)
Innermost layer of the cortex is called endodermis.

Endodermal cells have a deposition of water impermeable,

waxy material, suberin, in the form of casparian strips.

Endodermis lies a few layers of thick-walled

parenchyomatous cells referred to as pericycle. Initiation
of lateral roots and vascular cambium during the
secondary growth takes place in these cells.

Pith is small or inconspicuous.

Parenchymatous cells which lie between the xylem and

the phloem are called conjuctive tissue.
Xylem bundles: There are usually more than six (polyarch) in the monocot root. Phloem parenchyma is absent.

Pith is large and well developed.

Monocotyledonous roots do not undergo any secondary growth.

Dicotyledonous stem
Isobilateral (Monocotyledonous) Leaf

Mesophyll is not differentiated.

É
In grasses, certain adaxial epidermal cells along the
Sclerenchymatous
veins modify themselves into large, empty, colourless
É
Sclerenchymatous cells. These are called bulliform cells.

I
SECONDARY GROWTH
Vascular Cambium
The meristematic layer that is responsible for cutting
off vascular tissues, xylem and pholem, is called
vascular cambium.

Monocotyledonous Stem In the young stem it is present in patches as a single

Monocot stem layer between the xylem and phloem. Later it forms a
complete ring.
1. Hypodermis is sclerenchymatous
2. Pith is absent Formation of cambial ring
3. Phloem parenchyma is absent
Dicot stems, the cells of cambium present between
4. Vascular bundles are scattered primary xylem and primary phloem is the
intrafascicular cambium.
5. Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and closed
6. Secondary growth is absent Cells of medullary rays, adjoining these intrafascicular
7. Bundle sheath is present cambium become meristematic and form the
interfascicular cambium. Thus, a continuous ring of
8. Medullary rays are absent cambium is formed.

Activity of the cambial ring

Dorsiventral (Dicotyledonous) Leaf Cambial ring becomes active and begins to cut off (to
form) new cells, both towards the inner and the outer
sides.

I
cells cut off towards pith, mature into secondary
xylem towards periphery mature into secondary
000 phloem.

cambium is generally more active on the inner side

than on the outer.

As a result, the amount of secondary xylem produced

is more than secondary phloem and soon forms a
compact mass.

Correct sequence of layers in stem is as follows from

outer to inner side : 1° Phloem -2° phloem - Cambium

UP lower I
-2° Xylem -1° xylem - pith.
 Cork Cambium/Phellogen

Cork cambium cut off cells on both sides. Outer cells differentiate
into Cork or Phellem.
Inner cells differentiate into secondary cortex or Phelloderm

Cork is impervious to water due to suberin deposition

in the cell wall. Cells of secondary cortex are
parenchymatous.

Phellogen, phellem, and phelloderm are collectively

known as periderm.
I
Secondary Growth in Roots

Secondary growth occurs in gymnosperms, dicot

roots and stems.

O O Dicot root, the vascular cambium is completely

secondary in origin.

I
water
Stele = VPP = Vascular tissue + Pericycle + Pitr
Ground tissue = CPP = Cortex + Pericycle + Pith
Bark = SPP = Secondary Phloem + Periderm
Periderm. = PPP = Phellem + Phellogen + Phelloderm

I
= Cork + Cork cambium +2 cortex
 Chapter

07 STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION
IN ANIMALS
Four types: 1 Epithelial 2 Connective 3 Muscular 4 Neural

ANIMAL TISSUES Cuboidal or columnar

epithelium

Epithelial 2. Connective 3 . Muscular 4. Neural

Ciliated Glandular
Simple epithelium Compound epithelium epithelium epithelium

Eg., Bronchioles,
Eg. Wall of blood vessels, Fallopian tubes
Squamous
epithelium Air sacs of lungs
Cuboidal Eg. Ducts of glands,
B'Mordor Unicellular Multicellular
epithelium Tabular parts of nephron of kIdney
tubular Eg., Goblet cells of Eg., Salivary
Columnar Eg. Lining of stomach and intestine
epithelium alimentary canal gland

Compound epithelium Connective tissue (C.T.)

They cover the dry surface of the skin, the moist Connective tissue (C.T.)
surface of buccal cavity, pharynx, inner lining of
ducts of salivary glands and of pancreatic ducts.
Loose C.T. Dense C.T. Specialised C.T.
Junction

Q
Areolar Tissue Adipose Tissue Cartilage Bone Blood
IFAT
Tight Adhering Gap Beneath Beneath
junction junction junction the skin the skin

Dense regular Dense irregular

Stop Cementing Facilitate cell
substances Tendons Ligament E.g., Skin
neighbouring to cell
from leaking cells communication Muscle to bone Bone to bone
w u w
1. Loose connective tissue

Areolar tissue serves as a support framework for epithelium. It

contains fibroblasts, macrophages and mast cells.

Adipose tissue is another type of loose connective tissue

located mainly beneath the skin and store fats.
 2. Dense connective tissues
Fibres and fibroblasts are compactly packed in the dense connective tissues.
In the dense regular connective tissues, the collagen fibres are present in rows between many parallel bundles of fibres.
Tendons, which attach skeletal muscles to bones and ligaments which attach one bone to another are examples of this tissue.
Dense irregular connective tissue has fibroblasts and many fibres (mostly collagen) that are oriented differently.

3. Specialised connective tissues muscular Tissues Neural Tissues

Cartilage, bones and blood are various

types of specialised connective
tissues.
The intercellular material of cartilage
is solid and pliable and resists
compression. Cells of this tissue
(chondrocytes) are enclosed in small
cavities within the matrix secreted by
them.

Bones non pliable osteoblast

Osteoclast
HARVESIAN CANAL COCKROACH
Phylum Arthropoda. Nocturnal omnivores
Morphology
Sense organs of cockroach
Periplaneta americana have wings that extend beyond the tip
of the abdomen in males.

1. Antennae 3. Maxillary palps 5. Anal cerci The body of the cockroach is segmented and divisible into
three distinct regions-head, thorax and abdomen.

2. Eyes (Compound) 4. Labial palps The entire body is covered by a hard chitinous exoskeleton
(brown in colour).

In each segment, exoskeleton has hardened plates called

head sclerites (tergites dorsally and sternites ventrally) that are
joined to each other by a thin and flexible articular membrane
Head is triangular. (arthrodial membrane).

Flexible neck.
Mouth parts of cockroach
The head capsule bears a pair of compound eyes.
A pair of thread like antennae arise from Grinding Labrum (Upper lip)
membranous sockets lying in front of eyes. region
Mandible Mandible
Antennae have sensory receptors that help in Hypopharynx
monitoring the environment. Incising
region (tongue)
Maxilla Maxilla
Thorax Labium (lower lip)

Thorax consists of three parts : prothorax, mesothorax & metathorax. The head is connected with thorax by a short
extension of the prothorax known as the neck.
Each thoracic segment bears a pair of walking legs.
The first pair of wings arises from mesothorax and the second pair from metathorax.
Forewings (mesothoracic) called tegmina or elytra are opaque dark and leathery and cover the hind wings when at
rest.
The hind wings are transparent, membranous and are used in flight.
Abdomen Anatomy
The abdomen in both males and females consists of 10 segments. Digestive System
Males bear a pair of short, thread like anal styles 9th sternum which

I
are absent in females. Alimentary Canal of cockroach
In both sexes, the 10th segment bears a pair of jointed filamentous
structures called anal cerci.
Mouth

Blood Vascular System Pharynx

F
Open type.
o
Heart: 13 chambered tubular heart and have 12 Oesophagus
r
pairs of alary muscles. e
Respiratory System g Crop (for storing food)
u
Respiratory system consists of a network of trachea, that open t Gizzard (for grinding)
through 10 pairs of small holes called spiracles.
Hepatic or gastric caeca (At
Excretory System M the junction of foregut and
i midgut)
Excretion is performed by Malpighian tubules. d
g
u Malpighian tubules
Nervous System t (At the junction of midgut
and hindgut)
Three ganglia lie in the thorax, and six in the abdomen.
In the head region, the brain is represented by supra-oesophageal ganglion
which supplies nerves to antennae and compound eyes. H
Ileum
i
n
Sense organs d Colon
g
Antennae, eyes, maxillary palps, labial palps, anal cerci, etc. u
The compound eyes are situated at the dorsal surface of the head. Rectum Anus
t
Each eye consists of about 2000 hexagonal ommatidia.

Male Reproductive System

Cockroaches are dioecious.

Male reproductive system consists of a pair of testes lying one on each lateral side in the 4th-6th abdominal
segments.
A characteristic mushroom shaped gland or utricular gland is present in the 6th-7th abdominal segments which
functions as an accessory reproductive gland.

Female Reproductive System

In females, the 7th sternum is boat shaped and together with the 8th and 9th sterna forms a brood or genital pouch
whose anterior part contains female gonopore, spermathecal pores and collaterial glands.
The female reproductive system consists of two large ovaries, lying laterally in the 2nd-6th abdominal segments.
A pair of spermatheca is present in the 6th segment which opens into the genital chamber.
Sperms are transferred through spermatophores.
Their fertilised eggs are encased in capsules called oothecae.

E
On an average, females produce 9-10 oothecae, each containing 14-16 eggs. The nymphs look very much like adults.
The development of P. americana is paurometabolous, meaning there is development through nymphal stage.
The nymph grows by moulting about 13 times to reach the adult form.
Chapter
08 Cell The unit of life
Cell was discovered by Robert Hooke.
Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first saw and
described a live cell.
Matthias Schleiden examined a large
number of plants.
Theodore Schwann studied different
types of animal cells and reported that
cells had a thin outer layer which is
today known as the 'plasma membrane'.
AN OVERVIEW OF CELL
Cytoplasm is the main arena of cellular
activities in both the plant and animal cells.
Mycoplasmas, smallest cells are only
0.3μm in length while bacteria could be 3
to 5μm.
Largest isolated single cell is the egg of an
ostrich (15 cm).
Human red blood cells are about 7.0 μm
in diameter.
E
Nerve cells are longest cells.
RBCs are round & biconcave.
Cell Envelope and its Modifications
Three layered structure outermost
glycocalyx followed by the cell wall and
then the plasma membrane. Function
together as a single protective unit.
Those that take up the gram stain are
Gram positive and the others that do not
are called Gram negative bacteria.
Glycocalyx Could be a loose sheath
called the slime layer in some, in others
it may be thick and tough, called the
capsule.
Flagella FLAGELLIN
Filamentous extensions from their cell wall.
Pili and Fimbriae are also surface structures
of the bacteria but do not play a role in
motility.
sonogram
Pili made of a special protein Pilin.
Fimbriae are small bristle like fibres.
Help attach the bacteria to rocks in streams
and also to the host tissues.
Schleiden and Schwann together formulated
the cell theory.
Rudolf Virchow (Omnis cellula-e cellula).
Cell theory as understood today is:
i) All living organisms are composed of cells
and products of cells.
I
ii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Prokaryotic cells
Bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma and
PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia like organisms).
Cell wall surrounding the cell membrane
except in mycoplasma.
No well defined nucleus.
Genetic material is basically naked.
Small circular DNA outside the genomic DNA
(Plasmids.)
No organelles, like the ones in eukaryotes,
except for ribosomes.
Something unique in the form of inclusions.
Help in cell wall formation, DNA
replication respiration,respiration
secretion processes.
Cyanobacteria, have other membranous
extensions into the cytoplasm called
I
chromatophores which contain pigments.
Cell wall determines the shape of the
cell and provides a strong structural
support to cell.
Plasma membrane is selectively-
permeable in nature.
Mesosome formed by extensions of
plasma membrane in the form of
vesicles, tubules and lamellae.
 Ribosomes Inclusion Bodies
15 nm by 20 nm in size made of two Reserve material are stored in the
subunits 50S and 30S units which
when present together form 70S. cytoplasm in the form of inclusion bodies.

Site of protein synthesis. Not bounded by any membrane system

Several ribosomes may attach to a Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and
single mRNA and form a chain called purple and green photosynthetic bacteria.
polyribosome or polysome.

EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Extensive compartmentalisation,
presence of membrane bound
organelles.
Organised nucleus with a nuclear
envelope. Variety of complex
locomotory and cytoskeletal
structures.
CELL MEMBRANE
Plant and animal cell are different as
the former possess cell wall, plastids Lipids are arranged in a bilayer.
and a large central vacuole which are
absent in animal cells. Polar head towards the outer sides
hydrophobic tails towards the inner part.
CELL WALL The membrane of the erythrocyte has
A non-living rigid structure forms an approximately 52 per cent protein and
40 per cent lipids.
outer covering for the plasma membrane.

Gives shape to the cell and protects the

cell from mechanical damage and Fluid Mosaic Model
infection, it also helps in cell-to-cell
interaction provides barrier to Proposed by Singer and Nicolson.
undesirable macromolecules.
Peripheral proteins lie on the surface of
Algae made of cellulose, galactans, membrane while the integral proteins
are partially or totally buried in the
carbonate, in other plants Iit consists of
mannans and minerals like calcium
membrane.
lipids can tiptopbut
cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins &
proteins. Quasi-fluid nature of lipid enables lateral
movement of proteins within the overall
ppg
bilayer.
Young plant cell, the primary wall is
capable of growth, secondary wall is
formed on the inner (towards I Fluid nature of the membrane; cell growth
formation of intercellular junctions,
membrane) side of the cell. secretion, endocytosis, cell division etc.
Middle lamella is a layer mainly of
calcium pectate which holds or glues Important functions of the plasma membrane
the different neighbouring cells is the transport of the molecules across it.
together.
Movement of water by diffusion is called
Cell wall and middle lamella may be osmosis.
traversed by plasmodesmata to
I
connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring
cells.

Endomembrane System
(i) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Network or reticulum of tiny tubular
structures scattered in the cytoplasm.
Divides the intracellular space into two,
luminal & extra luminal compartments.
Endoplasmic reticulum bearing ribosomes
on their surface is called rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER).
In the absence of ribosomes they appear
smooth and are called smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER).
RER involved in protein synthesis and
secretion.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum, major site
for synthesis of lipid and steroids (lipid –
like steroidal hormones).
(ii). Golgi Apparatus
Camillo Golgi first observed densely
stained reticular structures near the
nucleus.
Many flat, membranous disc-shaped
sacs/bag or cisternae of 0.5μm to
1.0μm diameter.
Stacked parallel to each other.
Concentrically arranged near the
nucleus with distinct convex cis or the
forming face and concave trans or the
maturing face.
Function of packaging materials to be
delivered either to the intra-cellular
targets or secreted outside the cell.
Packed in the form of vesicles from the ER
fuse with the cis face of the golgi
apparatus and move towards the maturing
face.
Proteins modified in the cisternae of the
golgi apparatus before they are released
from trans face.
Important site of formation of
glycoproteins and glycolipids.
(5) Plastids
Found in all plant cells and in euglenoids.
Bear some specific pigments, imparting
specific colours to the plants.
Classified into chloroplasts, chromoplasts and
leucoplasts.
(iii). Lysosomes
Formed by the process of packaging
in the golgi apparatus.
Rich in almost all types of hydrolytic
enzymes optimally active at the
acidic pH.
Capable of digesting the
macromolecules like carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids and nucleic acids
(iv). Vacuoles
Membrane-bound space found in the
cytoplasm, bound by a single
membrane called tonoplast.
Vacuoles can occupy up to 90 per
cent of the volume of the cell.
Contains water, dissolved substances,
sap, excretory product and other
materials not useful for the cell.
Transport of a number of ions and
other materials against concentration
gradients into the vacuole.
In Amoeba, contractile vacuole is
important for excretion &
osmoregulation.
In protists, food vacuoles are formed
by engulfing the food particles.
(4) Mitochondria
Absent in mammalian RBCs and
prokaryotes.
Sausage-shaped or cylindrical having a
diameter of 0.2 -1.0 μm (average 0.5 μm)
and length 1.0 – 4.1 μm
Double membrane-bound structure
distinctly two aqueous compartments, the
outer compartment and the inner
compartment.
Inner compartment is called the matrix.
Inner membrane forms a number of
infoldings called the cristae (sing.: crista)
towards the matrix.
Sites of aerobic respiration or Kreb's
cycle.
'Power houses' of the cell.
Single circular DNA molecule, few RNA
molecules, ribosomes (70S).
Divide by fission.

oil & fat protein
(6) Ribosomes to
Granular structures first observed as dense
particles by George Palade (1953).
Composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA).
so
Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S prokaryotic
ribosomes are 70S.
'S' stands for the Svedberg unit or
sedimentation coefficient.
w Mitochondria and chloroplast are semi-
Two subunits of 70S ribosome are 50S
(larger subunit) 30S (smaller subunit).
Two subunits of 80S ribosome are 60S
(larger subunit) & 40S (smaller subunit).
Ribosomes are site of protein synthesis so
they are called protein factories.
(7) Cytoskeleton
Network of filamentous proteinaceous
structures present in the cytoplasm is
collectively referred to as the
cytoskeleton.
Mechanical support, motility,
maintenance of the shape of the cell.
INTER
DOUBLE
Chloroplasts
Lens-shaped, oval, spherical, discoid or
even ribbon-like organelles having variable
length (5-10Pm) and width (2-4Pm).
1 per cell of the Chlamydomonas, 20-40
per cell in the mesophyll.
Double membrane bound., the inner
chloroplast membrane is relatively less
permeable.
Space limited by the inner membrane of
the chloroplast is called the stroma.
Number of organised flattened disc like
membranous sacs called the thylakoids,
Thylakoids are arranged in stacks like the
piles of coins called grana.
Flat membranous tubules called the
stroma lamellae connecting the
I thylakoids of the different grana.
Membrane of the thylakoids enclose a
space called a lumen.
I small, double-stranded circular DNA
molecules and ribosomes.
Ribosomes of the chloroplasts are smaller
(70S) than the cytoplasmic ribosomes
(80S).
autonomous organelles because
Possess their own nucleic acid (DNA
molecule).
Can form some of the required protein.
Do not arise de novo.
membrane similar to those of bacteria.
(8) Cilia and Flagella
Hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane.
Cilia are small structures which work like
oars.
Flagella are comparatively longer and
responsible for cell movement.
Core called the axoneme, possesses a
number of microtubules running parallel to
the long axis.
at
Axoneme usually has nine pairs of
doublets of radially arranged peripheral
microtubules, and a pair of centrally
g
located microtubules.
9+2 array.
Both the cilium and flagellum emerge
from centriole like structure called the
basal bodies.
 (9) Centrosome and Centrioles
Two cylindrical structures called centrioles.
They are surrounded by amorphous
pericentriolar materials.

II
Centrioles in a centrosome lie perpendicular
to each other in which each has an
organisation like the cartwheel.
Nine evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of
tubulin.
Each of the peripheral fibril (microtubule) is
a triplet. The adjacent triplets are also
linked.
The central part of the centriole is also
proteinaceous and called the hub, which is
connected with tubules of the peripheral
triplets by radial spokes made of protein.
The centrioles form spindle fibres that give
10) Microbodies rise to spindle apparatus
Membrane bound minute vesicles called
microbodies.
9140450ME PEROXISOME PITY TIME
11) Nucleus
First described by Robert Brown
Stained by the basic dyes was given
the name chromatin by flemming. 0000
Normally, there is only one nucleus structure
per cell. a
Some mature cells even lack nucleus,
e.g., erythrocytes of many mammals
and sieve tube cells of vascular
plants. These cells are enucleated or
anucleated.
Chromatin contains DNA and some basic
The interphase nucleus has highly proteins called histones some non-histone
extended and elaborate nucleoprotein proteins and also RNA.
fibres called chromatin, nuclear matrix
and one or more spherical bodies called Every chromosome essentially has a primary
nucleoli. constriction or the centromere on the sides
of which disc shaped structures called
Two parallel membranes with a space kinetochores are present.
between (10 to 50 nm ) called the
perinuclear space.
w
Nuclear envelope is interrupted by
minute pores, which are formed by
the fusion of its two membranes.
w V
Nuclear pores are the passages
through which movement of RNA and
protein molecules takes place in both
directions between the nucleus and L
the cytoplasm. W
Nucleoplasm contains nucleolus and
chromatin. a
Content of nucleolus is continuous
with the rest of the nucleoplasm it J
is not a membrane bound structure.

Nucleolus is a site for active

ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) synthesis. w
i
 E E w

Few chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions at a constant location. This gives the appearance
of a small fragment called the satellite.

Short arm p arm

long arm
q arm
 Chapter

09 BIOMOLECULES
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS PRIMARY AND SECONDARY METABOLITES

BIOMACROMOLECULES and BIOMiCROMOLECULES

Except lipid, other macromolecules are formed by polymerization or condensation of monomers hence these are called polymers.

HO 21
BIOMOLECULES

Micromolecules Macromolecules

Mwt. ranging from

18 to 800 Da.
Present in acid
Mwt. in range of
10,000 Da or above.
Present in acid
Q E
soluble pool insoluble pool
Many types 4 types
eg. eg.
Glucose Protein
Ribose Nucleic acid

If
Amino acids Polysaccharide 16
Nitrogen bases Lipid (exception)
Nucleosides
Nucleotides

3 FATTYACID
GLYCEROL

PHOSPHOLIPID

Lipids are not strictly macromolecules.

CARBOHYDRATES
Homopolysaccharides
Starch : Starch forms helical secondary structures.
starch can hold I₂ molecules
Glycogen : commonly called animal starch because its
structure similar to amylopectin.
In a polysaccharide chain (say glycogen}, the right end is
called the reducing end and the left end is called the non-
reducing end. It has branches.
Cellulose does not contain complex helices and cannot hold I₂
Chitin - Homopolymer of N Acetyl Glucosamine
Inulin - Polymer of Fructose
Lipids
water insoluble
They could be simple fatty acids. A fatty acid has a carboxyl
group attached to a R group.
The R group could be a methyl (–CH₃), or ethyl (–C₂H₅) or
higher number of –CH₂ groups (1 carbon to 19 carbons).
Palmitic acid has 16 carbons including carboxyl carbon.
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds in
their carbon chain.
AMINO ACIDS
Substituted methanes.
These are four substituent groups occupying the
four valency positions.
These are hydrogen, carboxyl group, amino group
and a variable group.
Based on the nature of R group there are many
amino acids. However, those which occur in proteins
are only of twenty types.
The R group in these proteinaceous amino acids
could be a hydrogen (the amino acid is called
glycine), a methyl group (alanine), hydroxy methyl
(serine).
1. Acidic amino acids – Glutamic acid (glutamate),
Aspartic acid (aspartate).
2. Basic amino acids – Histidine, Arginine and Lysine.
3. Neutral amino acids – Valine, Isoleucine, Leucine,
Alanine and Glycine.
4. Alcoholic amino acids – Threonine and Serine.
5. Aromatic amino acids – Tryptophan, Tyrosine and
Phenylalanine.
6. Sulphur containing amino acid – Cysteine and

I
Arachidonic acid has 20 carbon atoms including the carboxyl
carbon.
Methionine.

Simple lipid is glycerol which is trihydroxy propane.

X
Many lipids have both glycerol and fatty acids.
Zwitter ion
Aa som
I
Fats and oils are differentiated on basis of melting point.

o
Here the fatty acids are found esterified with glycerol. They
can be then monoglycerides, diglycerides and triglycerides.
Phospholipids : They are found in cell membrane.
Lecithin

PROTEIN
A protein is a heteropolymer

STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
Primary Structure only peptide Secondary Structure (Peptide bond + H-Bond)
The first aminoacid is also called as N-terminal amino Proteins, only right handed helices are observed.
acid. Other regions of the protein thread are folded into other
The last amino acid is called the C-terminal amino acid. forms in what is called the secondary structure.

Tertiary Structure
PROTEIN FUNCTIONS
(Peptide + H Bond + Disulphide Bond)
Collagen Intercellular ground substances w
Trypsin Enzymes Quarternary Structure
Insulin Hormone É Some proteins are an assembly of more than one
polypeptide or subunits.
Antibody Fights infectious agents ye 19A Adult human haemoglobin consists of 4 subunits.
Receptor Sensory reception (smell, taste, hormone, etc.) Two of these are identical to each other. Hence,
two subunits of α-type and two subunits of β-type
GLUT-4 Enables glucose transport into cells.
together constitute the human haemoglobin.
ENZYMES NATURE OF ENZYME
All enzymes are protein w w ACTION
Some nucleic acids behave like
enzymes. These are called ribozymes. w
In the tertiary structure the backbone
of the protein chain folds upon itself,
the chain criss-crosses itself and Concept of activation energy
hence, many crevices or pockets are
How do enzymes bring about such
made. One such pocket is ‘active site’.
high rates of chemical conversions?

FACTORS AFFECTING CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE OF ENZYMES

ENZYME ACTIVITY

Ybetween twoSsubstrates
Oxidoreductases/dehydrogenases : Enzymes which catalyse oxidoreduction
1. Temperature and pH S and S’ or transfer of electron.
reduced + S’ oxidized S oxidized + S’ reduced.
Transferases : Enzymes catalysing a transfer of a group, G (other than
hydrogen) between pair of substrate S and S’ e.g.,
S – G + S’ S + S’ – G
Hydrolases : Enzymes catalysing hydrolysis of ester, ether peptide, glycosidic,
3 C-C, C-halide or P-N bonds.
Lyases : Enzymes that catalyse removal of groups from substrates by
Effect of change in pH Effect of change in temp. mechanisms other than hydrolysis leaving double bonds.
on enzyme activity on enzyme activity Isomerases : Includes all enzymes catalysing inter-conversion of optical,
geometrical or positional isomers.
2. Concentration of Substrate Ligases : Enzymes catalysing the linking together of 2 compounds e.g.,
Km indicates the substrate w y enzymes which catalyse joining of C–O, C–S, C–N, P–O etc. bonds.
concentration at which reaction
attains half of its maximum velocity. Co-Factors
The protein portion of the enzymes is called the apoenzyme.
O Three kinds of cofactors may be identified : prosthetic groups, co-enzymes
and metal ions.

O Prosthetic Groups
They are tightly bound to the apoenzyme. E
gynitm Example, in peroxidase and catalase, which catalyze the breakdown of
hydrogen peroxide of water and oxygen, haem is the prosthetic group and it
Effect of change in concentration of is a part of the active site of the enzyme.
subtrate on enzyme activity

3. Inhibitors
Co-enzymes
Co-enzymes are also organic compounds but their association with the
When the inhibitor closely resembles
apoenzyme is only transient, coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
the substrate in its molecular
(NAD) and NADP contain the vitamin niacin.
structure and inhibits the activity of
Every co-enzyme is a cofactor but every cofactor is not a co-enzyme.
the enzyme, it is known as
competitive inhibitor.
E.g. inhibition of succinic Metal ions
dehydrogenase by malonate which Zinc is a cofactor for the proteolytic enzyme carboxypeptidase.
closely resembles the substrate
succinate in structure.
ome inhibitor
feature
Noncome
Vmax
Ed de Vmax Same
Km A
Chapter

10 CELL CYCLE AND

CELL DIVISION
Cell duplicates its genome, other constituents of the Duration of cell cycle can vary from
cell and eventually divides in two daughter cells. organism to organism
DNA synthesis occurs only during one specific stage Yeast; (90 minutes), Bacteria (E.coli); 20 min.
in the cell cycle. A typical eukaryotic cell divide once in
approximately every 24 hours
The cell cycle is divided into two basic
phases: interphase and M phase.
3. G phase
2
2 / pre mitotic gap phase W
• Proteins are synthesised in preparation for mitosis
M Phase represents the phase when the actual cell while cell growth continues.
division or mitosis occurs interphase represents the • Cells that do not divide further exit G phase to
1
phase between two successive M phases. enter an inactive stage called quiescent stage (G ) of0
Interphase, resting phase, lasts for 95% of the the cell cycle.
duration of cell cycle. • Cells in G stage remain metabolically active but no
0

2. S phase longer proliferate.

1. G phase / Post-mitotic
DNA synthesis or • In animals, mitotic cell division is only seen in the
gap phase
replication takes place. diploid somatic cells.
metabolically
1 active
Amount of DNA per cell • Against this, the plants can show mitotic divisions in
continuously grows, does
doubles but no increase in both haploid and diploid cells.
not replicate its DNA.
the chromosome number
a

TOPIC 2. M-PHASE OR MITOSIS PHASE

The number of chromosomes in the parent and progeny cells is the same, it is also called as equational division .

1. Prophase
Longest phase of mitosis.
Initiation of condensation of chromosomal material.
Centrosome, move towards opposite poles of the cell.
Chromosomes are seen to be composed of two
I • Small disc - shaped structures at the surface of the
chromatids attached together at the centromere.
Initiation of the assembly of mitotic spindle,
At the end of prophase, golgi complexes, endoplasmic
reticulum, nucleolus and the nuclear envelope. disappear.
w
2 . Metaphase
• Condensation of chromosomes is completed.
• Morphology of chromosomes is most easily studied.
centromeres are called kinetochores.
• Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores of chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator and get
aligned along metaphase plate through spindle fibres to
both poles.
w

3. Anaphase 4. Telophase
• Chromosomes, decondense and lose their individuality.
Centromeres split and chromatids separate. w • Chromosomes cluster at opposite spindle poles.

I
Chromatids move to opposite poles.
• Nuclear envelope developes around the chromosome
clusters at each pole forming two daughter nuclei.
• Nucleolus, golgi complex and ER reform.
 CYTOKINESIS
• Cytokinesis involves division of cytoplasm.
• In an animal cell, this is achieved by the appearance of a furrow in the plasma membrane.
• In plant cells, wall formation starts in the centre of the cell and grows outward to meet the existing lateral walls
called the cell-plate.
• In some organisms karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis leading to the formation of syncytium (e.g. liquid
endosperm in coconut).

TOPIC 3. SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS TOPIC 4. MEIOSIS

• In some lower plants and in some social insects
haploid cells also divide by mitosis.
• Continuous growth of plants.
• Restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio.
• Cell repair.
Cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half
results in the production of haploid daughter cells.
This kind of division is called meiosis or reductional divison.
Meiosis during gametogenesis in plants and animals. leads
to the formation of haploid gametes.
Meiosis involves two sequential cycles, meiosis I and
meiosis II, but only a single cycle of DNA replication.

(I) Meiosis-I
1. Prophase-1
E• Chromosomes start pairing together and this process
ii. Zygotene
• Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene and
Diakinesis. of association is called synapsis. Such paired
chromosomes are called homologous chromosomes.
i. Leptotene w • Formation of synaptonemal complex.
• Formation of bivalent or a tetrad.
• Compaction of chromosomes continues.

wiii. Pachytene
• Bivalent chromosomes now clearly appears as
tetrads.
• Crossing over occurs between non-sister chromatids
of the homologous chromosomes , by enzyme
recombinase.
• Recombination between homologous chromosomes
is completed by the end of pachytene.
iv. Diplotene a
• The dissolution of the synaptonemal complex and
recombined homologous chromosomes of the bivalents,
separate from each other except at the sites of
crossovers .
• These X-shaped structures, are called chiasmata. In
oocytes of some vertebrates, diplotene can last for
months or years.

v. Diakinesis 2. Metaphase-I
To
• Terminalisation of chiasmata.
• Chromosomes are fully condensed Bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial
• Nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope also plate. Spindle attach to the kinetochore of
breaks down. w homologous chromosomes
DOUBLE METAPHASIC
PLATE
3. Anaphase-I 4 . Telophase-I W
Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear,

T
• Homologous chromosomes separate, sister
chromatids remain associated at their centromeres. cytokinesis follows and this is called as dyad of
cells.
No separationof Stage between the two meiotic divisions is called
interkinesis and is generally short lived.
centromere
La r
Sphase Nodnarep
92
(II) MEIOSIS-II
Meiosis II is the equational divison.
1. Prophase-II
• Nuclear membrane disappears.
• Chromosomes again become compact.
3. Anaphase-II
• Splitting of the centromere of each chromosome.
2. Metaphase-II
• Chromosomes align at the equator.
• Spindle get attached to the kinetochores of sister chromatids.
4. Telophase-II a
Two groups of chromosomes once again get enclosed by a
nuclear envelope; cytokinesis follows result in the formation
of tetrad of cells. i.e., four haploid daughter cells.

Tetrad
TOPIC 5. SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS
• Conservation of specific chromosome number of each species.
• Increase in genetic variability in the population of organisms.
• Helps the process of evolution.
Amitosis is cleavage of nucleus without

a
recognisable chromosome distribution and
spindle formation.

Alterman a Dna 114

No of Chromosome 1 2

CLASS RESUMES AT
12 50PM

t.me anandmanioot
Chapter

11 Transport in Plants

Translocation: bulk movement of substances Osmosis

Xylem (water and minerals)
Unidirectional (from roots to stem) Diffusion of water across a semi-permeable
Phloem (organic nutrients) membrane.
Bi-directional/multidirectional Depends on pressure gradient & concentration
gradient.
Diffusion External pressure required to prevent water from
diffusing is osmotic pressure
passive
i t
No ATP utilised
if Pressure OP REVERSE
Substances move from higher concentration to
lower concentration PLASMOLYSIS
Not dependent on a living system
External solution balances osmotic pressure of
Facilitated Diffusion 8waterchannel cytoplasm isotonic
Substances having hydrophilic moiety are difficultAmann
Do
to External solution is more dilute hypotonic
pass through membrane External solutions more concentrated hypertonic
Special carrier proteins help move substances EXOSMOSIS
Facilitated diffusion is very specific
Sensitive to inhibitors
Both molecules in the same direction ⇾ Symport
PLANT CELL PLACED IN
1. Hypertonic solution
in
Plasmolysis
Both molecules in opposite direction ⇾ Antiport normal
Independent of other molecules ⇾ Uniport 2. Isotonic solution Flaccid

3. Hypotonic solution Turgid

active transport seed
Uses energy to pump molecules against a concentration swamp
IMBIBITION imbibition PRESSURE
gradient.
Special type of diffusion e.g., absorption of water
Uphill transport
by seeds & dry wood
These proteins are sensitive to inhibitors
Water potential gradient between the absorbent &
liquid imbibed is essential
WATER – POTENTIAL HighYwtolowQu
Greater the concentration of water in a system long distance transport W
greater is its kinetic energy or water potential Diffusion is a slow process. It can account for only
Water will move from higher water potential to low short distance movement
water potential Mass flow is the movement of substances in bulk
Water potential is expressed in pascals (Pa) or en masse Massflow
Water potential of pure water at standard
temperature is zero.
Lowering in water potential due to solute is solute Absorption of water by plants
potential
Is the function of root hairs
Solute potential is always negative
At atmospheric pressure, water potential = solute
Water is absorbed by diffusion I
potential.
Pressure exerted by the protoplasts due to entry of
Apoplast Pathway
water is pressure potential System of adjacent cell walls that is continuous
(Ψw= Ψs + Ψp) except at the Casparian strips
Movement occurs exclusively through intercellular
spaces & walls
Endodermis is impervious to water because of
Casparian strips.
Symplast Pathway
Water molecules are directed into the cells proper through
the membrane
Is the system of interconnected protoplasts.
Neighbouring cells connected through plasmodesmata
w Mechanism of absorption of elements
WATER MOVEMENT UP A PLANT
root pressure the Hydrostatic
Ions from the soil are actively transported into roots
Water follows & increases pressure inside the xylem
This is root pressure responsible for pushing up water
to small heights
Water loss in liquid phase is known as guttation.
UPTAKE & TRANSPORT OF MINERALS
most minerals enter the root by active
absorption into cyloplasm of epidermal cells
Initial rapid uptake of ions into apoplast is passive
Ions are taken in slowly into symplast which is
active process
Phloem Transport
Food is transported by phloem from source to sink
Phloem sap is mainly water & sucrose

É
HYDATHODES
LaFnight Sugar is first loaded into companion cells & then
Transpiration pull EARLYMORNING
into sieve tube cells by active transport.
Loading at the source produces a hypertonic
Flow of water through xylem can achieve high rate condition in phloem. Water in the adjacent xylem
up to 15 meters per hour. moves into phloem by osmosis.
Water is mainly pulled, driving force is transpiration Flow begins & sap moves through the phloem.
from the leaves At sinks sucrose actively transported out of phloem
Less than 1% of water reaching the leaves is used in (unloading),.
photosynthesis and plant growth.
O
Girdling experiment shows that phloem is
Most of water is lost through stomata responsible for translocation of food.
TRANSPIRATION
Source Sink Root
E
dies
Evaporative loss of water by plants through the Bidirectional
stomata In'dstmenshout
When turgidity increases thin outer walls of guard
cells bulge out, stomata open.
I
Guard cells become flaccid & stomata closes.
Transpiration is affected by: temperature, light,
humidity, wind speed, number and distribution of
stomata, water status of the plant
Ascent of xylem sap depends on
(i) Cohesion : Mutual attraction between water
molecules.
(ii) Adhesion : Attraction of water molecules to
w surface of tracheary elements.
w
(iii) Surface Tension : water molecules are more
attracted to each other in the liquid phase
These 3 properties give water :
(i) High Tensile strength and
(ii) High capillarity
Forces generated by transpiration can lift column of
water over 130 meters high.
C₄ plants are twice efficient as C₃ plants in fixing
carbon
C₄ plant loses only half as much water as a C₃ plant
Chapter

12 Mineral NutrITION
Sachs developed hydroponics in 1860 Potassium: (K⁺)
used for commercial production of Protein synthesis
tomato, lettuce and seedless Opening & closing of stomata
cucumber
Maintains the turgidity of cells
Criteria for Essentiality
Necessary for normal growth & reproduction Calcium : (Ca²⁺)
Requirement must be specific & not formation of mitotic spindle.
replaceable
Synthesis of cell wall
Directly involved in metabolism of plant
Functioning of cell membrane
17 Essential elements
Macronutrients (>10 mmole kg–1 of dry Magnesium : (Mg²⁺) synthesis of DNA & RNA
matter) Eg: C, H, O, P, K, N, S, Ca, Mg Activates enzymes of respiration
Micronutrients (<10 mmole per kg. of dry É
Constituent of chlorophyll.
matter) Eg: B, Cl, Mo, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn
4 beneficial elements (Na, Si, Se & Co) Maintains ribosome structure
Sulphur: SO₄²⁻ (Sulphate)
Role of essential elements present in amino acids –cysteine & methionine

1. Components of biomolecules: C, H, O, N
Iron : (Fe³⁺) (ferric ions) required in larger amount

Mg in Chlorophyll than other micronutrients

2. Components of energy related
compounds Constituent of ferredoxin & cytochromes
P in ATP Activates catalase enzyme.

3. Alter the osmotic

Formation of chlorophyll.
Potential of a cell : K plays an important role
in opening & closing of stomata
Manganese: (Mn²⁺)
activates enzymes of photosynthesis, respiration &
RuBisCo
4. Enzyme
activators O
Mg
PEPcase E N₂ metabolism
Water splitting reaction
Zn Alcohol dehydrogenase
Caboxypeptidase Zinc: (Zn⁺²) activates carboxylases
Carbonic anhydrase
Synthesis of Auxin
Nitrogenase
Mo
Nitrate reductase
Copper: (Cu²⁺) essential for overall
Fe Catalase a metabolism Ets
Boron : (BO₃3– or B₄O₇²⁻)
Nitrogen: absorbed as NO₃– (nitrate) Pollen germination
Required by plants in greatest amount. Cell elongation & cell differentiation
Constituent of all proteins, nucleic acids,
vitamins & hormones
Molybdenum : (MoO₂²⁺) component of
Phosphorus : Absorbed as H₂PO₄– or HPO₄²⁻ nitrogenase & nitrate reductase
Constituent of cell membrane, certain proteins,
nucleic acids & nucleotides Chlorine : (Cl–)
I
Required for phosphorylation (ATP formation)
Anionbalance
 Deficiency symptoms Enzyme Nitrogenase is present in prokaryotes

Critical concentration: Concentration of the BIOLOGICAL N₂ - FIXATION

essential element below which plant growth is
retarded
Elements that are actively mobilised: Deficiency Free-living N₂ - fixation Symbiotic N₂ - fixation
appears first in older tissues. E.g., N, K, S & Mg
Elements that are immobile: deficiency symptoms WIth non-
o
appear first in the young tissues e.g., Ca leguminous plants
Aerobic bacteria Cyanobacteria

Deficiency symptoms weg.Beijernickia

Azotobacter- eg. Nostoc- w eg. Frankia
Anabaena
Chlorosis N, K, S, Fe, Zn, WIth leguminous
w
(loss of chlorophyll) Mg, Mn, Mo Anaerobic bacteria plants

Necrosis
w
(death of tissue)
Ca, Cu, Mg, K eg. Rhodospirillum eg. Rhizobium
e

o
Delay Mo, S, N
Flowering Bacteria invade root hair, reach cortex and initiate
nodule formation
Inhibition of
Cell division o
Mo, S, N, K
I
Nitrogenase catalyses conversion atmospheric N₂ to
NH₃

N₂ + 8e + 8H⁺ + 16 ATP I
Nodule contains O₂ scavenger called leg-haemoglobin
2NH₃ + H₂ + 16ADP + 16Pi.
INH3 8ATP
NH₃ is protonated to form NH₄⁺ (ammonium) ion
Toxicity of micronutrients w Two ways in which NH₄⁺ ion is used-
Moderate increase concentration causes toxicity.
Excess of Mn induces deficiency of Fe, Mg, & Ca 1. Reductive Amination: w
Glutamate w
α-Ketoglutaric acid + NH₄⁺ + NADPH Glutamate +
dehydrogenase
H₂O + NADP
Nitrogen Cycle w
Conversion of N₂ (nitrogen) to NH₃ (ammonia) is 2.Transamination :
N₂ fixation.
Lightning & UV radiation convert N₂ to nitrogen Transfer of amino group
oxides (NO, NO₂, N₂O) Amino acids formed through transamination (enzyme
Decomposition of dead plants and animals into transaminase)

Ammonia
o
ammonia is Ammonification.
Nitrite : 2NH₃ + O₂ 2NO₂– + 2H⁺ +
2H₂O
w
w and Nitrococcus)
(Nitrosomonas
Nitrite Nitrate : 2NO₂– + O₂ 2NO₃
(Nitrobacter) w
Hydroxyl part of the acid replaced by NH₂⁻ radicle.
o
This is call nitrification. Amides are transported via xylem vessels.
Nodules of some plants export fixed nitrogen as ureides.

TE
Nitrate is absorbed by plants
In leaves nitrate is reduced to NH₃ that forms the
amine group (–NH₂) of amino acids.
Nitrate is also reduced to N₂ by denitrification.
(Pseudomonas & Thiobacillus)
Chapter

13 Photosynthesis in
higher plants
early experiments
LIGHT REACTION
Joseph priestley (1770)
w
performed experiments that showed the essential
role of air in the growth of green plants
W
1 Light absorption w
Jan Ingenhousz
Showed that sunlight is essential for photosynthesis
2 Water splitting w
w
Julius von sachs (1854)
Provided evidence for production of glucose and
3 O₂ release

that the glucose is stored as starch.

4 Formation of ATP & NADPH
T.W Engelmann
PSI 68ohm PSI 70ohm
He split light using a prism & then illuminated a green 2 different photochemical light harvesting complexes.
alga (Cladophora) in suspension of aerobic bacteria
LHC are made up of hundreds of pigment molecules
Bacteria accumulated in the region of blue & red light
First action spectrum of photosynthesis resembled single Chl-a molecule forms the reaction centre.
absorption spectra of Chlorophyll a & b In PSI reaction centre has absorption peak at 700 nm
CO₂ + H₂O [CH₂]O + O₂ a In PSII absorption peak is at 680 nm
Van Niel
Experiment with purple & green – sulphur bacteria 1. Electron Transport
demonstrated that Hydrogen from a suitable
oxidisable compound reduces CO₂ to carbohydrate In PSII reaction centre (P680) Chl-a absorbs 680 nm
2H₂A + CO₂ 2A + CH₂O + H₂O wavelength
O₂ evolved by the green plants comes form H₂O not Causing electron to becomes excited
from CO₂

I
These are passed to an electron transport system
6CO₂ + 12H₂O C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6H₂O + 6O₂
Passed on to the pigments of PSI.
site of pHOTOSYNTHESIS Electrons in the reaction centre of PSI are also
excited
Mesophyll cells in the leaves have chloroplasts. Moved downhill to a molecule of energy rich NADP⁺
Chloroplast has a membranous system & fluid stroma
NADP⁺ NADPH + H⁺
Membrane system traps light energy & synthesises
ATP & NADPH (Dark reaction) Scheme of transfer of electrons is called Z-scheme,

I
When 2 photosystems work; PSII & then PSI; non-
PIGMENTS AND SPECTRUM cyclic photo-phosphorylation occurs
Both ATP & NADH⁺ H⁺ are synthesised

1w Chlorophyll a (bright
or blue green) 2w Chl - b (yellow
green) 2. Splitting of water
Electrons of PSII replaced by electrons available due

3 Xanthophylls
4 Carotenoides (yellow to splitting of water.

I
(yellow) to yellow orange).
w u
2H₂O 4H⁺ + O₂ + 4e–

In blue & red regions there is maximum absorption by Cyclic Phosphorylation

Chl-a
Chl-a is the major pigment responsible for trapping When only PSI is functional stromalamella
light. Synthesis of ATP but not of NADPH+ H⁺
Pigments like Chl-b, xanthophylls is carotenoids which
are called accessory pigments also absorb light and
transfer the energy to Chl-a Inosplitting ofwater
 Pheophytin 10 e aceptor PEROXISOME CHLOROPLAST MITOCHONDRIA
CHEMIOSMOTIC HYPOTHESIS Photorespiration
ATP synthesis is linked to development of proton gradient RuBisCO has a much greater affinity for CO₂ than
across membranes of thylakoid for O₂.
Protons accumulate in the lumen
Breakdown of this gradient leads to release of energy. In C₃ plants some O₂ does bind to RuBisCO.
Gradient is broken down due to the movement of protons RuBP instead of being converted to PGA forms
through the transmembrane channel of F₀ of the ATPase phosphoglycerate & phosphoglycolate in a
enzyme
pathway called photorespiration.
ATPase enzyme consists of w
(i) F₀: carries out facilitated diffusion of protons across the No synthesis of ATP or NADPH.
membrane. Photorespiration is a wasteful process.
(ii) F₁: protrudes on the outer surface of the thylakoid
C₄ plants have a special type of leaf anatomy,
membrane, change in the F₁ particle makes the enzyme
synthesise ATP. tolerate higher temperatures, show a response to
high light intensities, lack photorespiration and
biosynthetic phase/dark reaction have greater productivity.

Products of light reaction are ATP, NADPH & O₂.

O₂ diffuses out, ATP & NADPH are used for the synthesis
of sugar (biosynthetic phase)
FACTORS AFFECTING
Melvin Calvin used radioactive C¹⁴ to show first CO₂ Photosynthesis
fixation product was 3-carbon organic acid.
First product 3-PGA (3-phosphoglyceric acid).
Blackman's law of limiting factors: Rate will be
First product of CO₂ fixation C₃ acid (PGA) C₃ pathway
determined by the factor which is nearest to its
First product is C₄ acid (OAA) C₄ pathway
minimal value.
Tomato SBellpepper w
calvin cycle (C₃ pathway) w
Calvin pathway occurs in all photosynthetic plants
A. Light w
First CO₂ acceptor (RUBP-Ribulose bisphosphate) At low light intensities there is a linear
3 stages i) Carboxylation ii) Reduction iii) Regeneration relationship between incident light &
CO₂ fixation rate.
CO₂ is utilised for the carboxylation of RUBP (catalysed by
Light is rarely a limiting factor
the enzyme RUBP carboxylase) 5C
formation of 2 molecules of 3- PGA.
Formation of glucose
Utilisation of 2 molecules of ATP for phosphorylation & 2 B. CO₂ concentration w
of NADPH for reduction per CO₂ molecule fixed.
Regeneration requires 1 ATP for phosphorylation to form Major limiting factor
RUBP. Atmospheric concentration Of CO₂ is very low
18 ATP T 12NADPH F (between 0.03 & 0.04%)
C₄ pathway (Hatch & Slack Increase in concentration can cause increase in
Pathway) KRANZ ANATOMY photosynthesis.
C₄ plants show saturation 360 μ1L⁻¹ (0.036%)
Occurs in the plants that are adapted to dry tropical C₃ plants show saturation beyond 450 μ1L⁻¹
regions. (0.045%)
OAA is the first CO₂ fixation product
Calvin cycle as the main biosynthetic pathway. C. Temperature
First CO₂ acceptor is a 3-C molecule PEP (phosphoenol
pyruvate) C₄ plants respond to higher temperature 35 401

I
The enzyme responsible for the fixation is PEPcase (PEP
C₃ plants have a much lower temperature
carboxylase)
optimum. 25 30 C
C₄ acid (OAA) is formed in mesophyll cells
Forms other 4-C compounds like malic acid or aspartic
acid which are transported to the bundle sheath cells.
In the bundle sheath cells these C₄ broken down to D. Water
release CO₂ & a 3-C molecule. Water stress causes the stomata to close and
3-C molecule is transported back to mesophyll and
makes leaves wilt.
converted to PEP again
CO₂ released in the bundle sheath cells enters the C₃ or
Calvin pathway
Maize
3ontPtiangppd Shorgum
SUGARCANE
 Chapter

14 RESPIRATION IN
PLANTS
INTRODUCTION GATPORSAINI
Breaking of C-C bonds of complex compounds through
oxidation within cells leading to release of energy is
called respiration .

Usually carbohydrates are oxidized to release energy.

Proteins or fats can also be used as respiratory

substrates.
C₆H₁₂O₆ +6O₂ 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy

GLYCOLYSIS
Enzymatic machinery to partially oxidise glucose to from 2
molecules of pyruvic acid without the help of O₂ is called glycolysis.

Given by Embden, Meyerhof & Parnas also called EMP pathway.

In anaerobic organisms, it is the only process in respiration.

Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell.

Sucrose is converted into glucose & fructose by the enzyme

invertase.

ATP is utilized at 2 steps

ATP is synthesized at 2 steps

Pyruvic acid is the key product of glycolysis

fermentation

Quito
Under anaerobic conditions in many prokaryotes, unicellular
eukaryotes, in germinatition of seeds.

Alcholic fermentation (by yeast)

E
w
d O Bacteria produce lactic acid

Muscle Less than 7% of the energy in glucose is released & not all of it
is trapped in ATP

D Yeast poison themselves to death when the concentration of

F alcohol reaches about 13%

Mitochondria
 AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Complete oxidation of organic substances in the
presence of 02 & release of CO 2 , H20 & a large
amount of energy.

Pyruvate after entering the mitochondrial matrix

undergoes oxidative decarboxylation by pyruvate
dehydrogenase.

Requires the participation of several coenzymes,

including NAD + & coenzyme A.

Mg+

0PA + CoA + NAD +

pyruvate dehydrogenase
Acetyl CoA + CO 2 + NADH + H +

2 molecules of NADH are produced from the

metabolism of 2 molecules of PA. INADH x z
Kreb's Cycle or TCA Cycle or Tricarboxylic acid cycle

3 points in the cycle where NAD+ is reduced to NADH + H +

1 point in the cycle where FAD+ is reduced FADH 2

+ +
Mitochondrial +
PA + 4NAD + FAD + 2H2O+ ADP + Pi 3C02+ 4NADH + 4H + FADH 2+ ATP
Matrix 3 NADH X 2
FADH X Z
I GTP x2
Electron Transport System (ETS)
The energy stored in NADH + H + & FADH 2 is released & utilized.

Present in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

Oxidation of 1 molecule of NADH gives rise to 3 molecules of ATP.

IMM
MAIRIE
Oxidation of 1 molecule of FADH 2 gives rise to 2 molecules of ATP.
Tuccinate
The role of O2 is limited to the terminal stage of process
as it removes hydrogen from the system.
w
w
O2 acts as final hydrogen and/or e- acceptor. (O 2 +2H + + 2e - H2O).

8
LIV Af
GNADH Ht 18ATP Glycolysis
2FADHz 2A
war Infinitum 36 Or 38ATP

INADA GATP link

 OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION comparison b/w fermentation and
aerobic Respiration

This process is called oxidative phosphorylation. Fermentation accounts for only a partial
W breakdown of glucose whereas in aerobic
ATP synthesis is explained by chemiosmotic hypothesis. respiration it is completely degraded to CO2
W and H2O.
ATP synthase consists of 2 components - F0 & F .
1
W In fermentation there is a net gain of only
F is an integral membrane protein complex. two molecules of ATP, whereas many more
0
molecules of ATP are generated under
F1 headpiece is a peripheral membrane protein complex. aerobic conditions.

NADH is oxidised to NAD+ rather slowly in

+
For each ATP produced 2H passes through F0 fermentation, however the reaction is very
vigorous in case of aerobic respiration.

AMPHIBOLIC PATHWAY
Glucose is the favoured substrate for respiration. To synthesise fatty acids, acetyl CoA could be
withdrawn frum the respiratory pathway for it.
Other substrates can also be respired.
Respiratory pathway is involed in both anabolism
Proteins degraded by proteases & individual amino & catabolism.
acid enter the pathway at some stage within the
kreb cycle or even as PA or acetyl CoA.

Fats
If fatty acids were to be respired they would first be
degraded to acetyl CoA & Enter the pathway.

Glycerol would enter the pathway after being converted

to PGAL (triose-phosphate).

Aminoacid PyravicAcid
RESIRATORY QUOTIENT

RQ =
For proteins RQ is 0. 9 W
For fat RQ is less than 1. Tripalmitin 0.7 For carbohydrate RQ is 1, w
C6 H12O6 + 6O 2 6CO 2 + 6H2O + Energy,
For tripalmitin, RQ = 0.7
w RQ = 6CO2 /6O 2 = 1.

Organicacid 1
Malic Acid 1.33
Chapter

15
PLANT GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
Geometric Growth w
K
Development = Growth + Differentiation. w
GROWTH Initial growth is slow (lag phase), increases
rapidly (log or exponential phase), then slows
Irreversible permanent increase in size.
down (stationary phase)
Accompanied by metabolic processes at sigmoid or S-Curve
the expense of energy.
The exponential growth can be expressed as :
Plants retain the capacity for
W₁=W₀ eʳᵗ.
unlimited growth throughout their life.
W₁= final size (weight, height, number etc.)
Due to the presence of meristems.
W₀ = initial size at the beginning of the period
Measured by increase in fresh weight, dry r = growth rate
weight, length, area, volume and cell t = time of growth
number. e = base of natural logarithms
Maize root apical meristem can give rise Measurement of total growth per unit time is
to more than 17,500 new cells per hour. called absolute growth rate.
Cells in a watermelon increase in size by upto
Growth per unit time expressed per unit initial
3,50,000 times.
parameter is called relative growth rate
Growth is divided into three phases-
Cells derived from meristems mature to
Meristematic phase: Constantly
perform, specific functions. This is
dividing cells
differentiation.
Phase of elongation: Increased
Differentiated cells, that have lost the
vacuolation, cell enlargement, cell
capacity to divide can regain the capacity
wall deposition
of division (dedifferentiation) e.g.,
Zone of maturation: Cells attain
formation of interfascicular cambium
their maximal size.
Cells once again lose the capacity to divide
but mature to perform specific functions. i.e.,
Arithmetic Growth W get redifferentiated. e.g., 2⁰ Xylem elements
•Only one daughter cell continues to divide
after mitosis.
•Linear curve is obtained. Development includes all changes from

O
E
Lₜ = L₀ + rt germination of seed to senescence
Lₜ = length at time ‘t’
L₀ = length at time ‘zero’ e
r = growth rate/elongation per unit time.
 PGRs are molecules of diverse chemical
composition.
8 E
8 auxin
discovery of pGr s
Charles Darwin and Francis Darwin observed the
coleoptiles of canary grass. T
Concluded that transmittable influence caused the
bending of coleoptile.
Auxin was isolated by F.W. Went from oat
seedlings.
Bakane' (foolish seeding) disease of rice seedlings,
was caused by fungus Gibberella fujikuroi.
The active substances were identified as gibberellic
acid.
F. Skoog and his co-workers observed that callus
from tobacco stems required extracts of vascular
tissues, yeast extract, coconut milk or DNA to
proliferate.
During mid-1960s three independent researchers
reported inhibitor-B, abscission II and dormin.
All the three were found chemically identical. It
was named abscisic acid (ABA).
Cousins confirmed the release of volatile
substance from ripened oranges that hastened the
ripening of unripened bananas. This substance was
identified as ethylene.
Cytokinins
Specific effects on cytokinesis
w Help overcome apical dominance.
Discovered as kinetin (modified from of
adenine) Zeatin from corn-kernels and
coconut milk.
Helps produce new leaves, chloroplasts in
leaves, lateral shoot growth and
adventitious shoot formation.
T
Auxins first isolated from human urine
W
Produced by the growing apices of the stem and
roots.
Natural auxins- IAA and indole butyric acid (IBA)
j
Synthetic auxins- NAA (naphthalene acetic acid)
and 2, 4-D (2, 4 dichlorophenoxyacetic)
Initiate rooting in stem cuttings a
Promote followering e.g., in pineapples.
E
Induce parthenocarpy, e.g., in tomatoes.
2,4-D, widely used to kill dicotyledonous weeds.
w
Controls xylem differrentation.
gibberellins w
GA 3 is most extensively studied form.
Causes increase in length of axis, used to increase
the length of grapes stalks.
Cause fruits like apple to elongate, improve shape
Delay senescence. E
Speed up malting process in brewing industry.
Spraying juvenile conifers with GAs hastens
maturity period
BOLTING
Increases length of sugarcane stem
promotes bolting {internode elongation} in beet,
cabbages.
w
w
Promote nutrient mobilisation
w
Delay of leaf senescence.
 Ethylene

Synthesised in tissues undergoing senescence and Root growth and root hair formation
ripening fruits.
Initiate flowering in pineapples, mango
Horizontal growth of seedlings, swelling of axis,
apical hook formation in dicot seedlings. Widely used compound as source of ethylene
is ethephone.
Breaks seed and bud dormancy, initiates Hastens fruit ripening in tomatoes and apples
germination.
Accelerates abscission in flowers and fruits
Promotes rapid internode/petiole elongation
(thinning of cotton, cherry, walnut).
in Tat
Abscisic acid PHOTOPERIODISM w
Inhibitor of plant growth and metabolism. Long day plants : require exposure to
w light for a period exceeding a critical
Inhibits seed germination. duration before the flowering is initiated
Stimulates the closure of stomata we Short day plants : must be exposed to
light for a period less than this critical
increases tolerance to stresses (stress
duration
hormone).
a Day-neutral plants : no such correlation
Role in seed development, maturation
and dormancy. between exposure to light and flowering

I
Acts as an antagonist to GAs.
Site of perception of light/dark duration
are the leaves..
VERNALISATION
Flowering dependent on exposure to low
temperature
Some food plants, wheat, barley, rye have
winter and spring varieties.
Winter varieties: planted in autumn, over
winter come out as small seedlings, resume
growth in the spring, harvested around mid-
summer.

Biennials are monocarpic plants that

flower and die in the second season.
e.g., Sugerbeet, cabbages, carrots
 Chapter

16 DIGESTION AND
ABSORPTION
Conversion of complex food substances to simple
Alimentary Canal
absorbable forms is called digestion.
Human digestive system
digestive system
Alimentary canal and the associated glands. Alimentary Canal Associated glands
(Mouth to anus)
1. teeth 981 7 Monophyodont Salivary glands
Mouth Liver
embedded in a socket of jaw bone; (Thecodont) Teeth
Humans have two sets of teeth during their lifetime
Oral cavity Pancreas (Mixed
(Diphyodont) Muscular
tongue gland)
32 permanent teeth which are of four different types
Pharynx
(Heterodont dentition), namely, incisors (I), canine (C),
premolars (PM ) and molars (M); dental formula in human Oesophagous
(adult) is 2123/2123; in child is (2102/2102) Duodenum
The hard chewing surface of the teeth, made up of
I
Stomach Jejunum
enamel, helps in the mastication of food.
Small Intestine Ileum
2. Tongue
Caecum

L
freely movable muscular organ attached to the Large Intestine
floor of the oral cavity by the frenulum. Colon
Anus
Rectum
3. Pharynx & Oesophagus
pharynx which serves as a common passage for food and air.
oesophagus is a thin, long tube which extends posteriorly to a 'J' shaped bag like structure called stomach.
muscular sphincter (gastro-oesophageal) regulates the opening of oesophagus into the stomach.

4. Stomach 6. Large intestine w

upper left portion o f the abdominal cavity, has four major
parts -a cardiac portion; fundic region, antrum, pyloric
portion
Body Pylorus
consists of caecum, colon and rectum.
Caecum is a small blind sac which hosts some symbiotic
microorganisms.
vermiform appendix is a vestigial organ, arises from caecum.

E
5. Small intestine colon is divided into four parts -an ascending, a transverse ,
three regions; a 'C' shaped duodenum, a long coiled a descending part and sigmoid part.
jejunum; highly coiled ileum sigmoid part opens into the rectum which opens out
The opening of the stomach into the duodenum is guarded through the anus
by the pyloric sphincter.

TOPIC 2. HISTOLOGY OF ALIMENTARY CANAL

Serosa outermost layer
Muscularis; smooth muscles; In the stomach an oblique

I
muscle layer is found inner to the circular muscle layer
Submucosal Iayer
Mucosa.

I
Irregular folds (rugae) in the stomach and small finger-like
foldings (transverse folds) called villi in the small intestine.
Villi are absent in stomach.
 microvilli giving a brush border appearance. The wall of alimentary canal (outer to inner)
Villi are supplied with a network of
capillaries and a large lymph vessel called 1. Serosa 2. Muscularis 3. Submucosa ®4 Mucosa
the lacteal. Loose connective tissue
Mucosal epithelium has goblet cells, also Longitudinal
Mesothelium (outer)
forms glands in the stomach (gastric Nerve, blood and lymph vessel
(Epithelium of
glands) and crypts in between the bases of Visceral organ) Circular (Inner) Glands are present
villi in the intestine (crypts of Lieberkuhn).
w w t o
BrumorsGland
TOPIC 3. DIGESTIVE GLANDS
1. Salivary glands 2. LIver
Three pairs of salivary glands, the parotids, the sub-maxillary Largest gland of the body; two lobes.
/sub -mandibular (lower jaw); sublingual (below the tongue). lobule is covered by a thin connective tissue sheath called
the Glisson's capsule. w
The bile is stored and concentrated in a thin muscular sac
3. Pancreas w called the gall bladder.
(both exocrine and endocrine) situated between the (cystic duct) along with the hepatic duct forms the
limbs of the 'C' shaped duodenum. common bile duct.
exocrine portion secretes an alkaline pancreatic juice bile duct and the pancreatic duct open together into the
endocrine portion secretes hormones, insulin and duodenum as the common hepato-pancreatic duct; guarded
glucagon. by the sphincter of Oddi.

TOPIC 4. DIGESTION OF FOOD w

Buccal cavity performs two major functions, mastication of food & facilitation of swallowing.
The teeth and the tongue with the help of saliva masticate and mix up the food thoroughly.
Mucus in saliva helps in lubricating and adhering the masticated food particles into a bolus.
bolus is then conveyed into the pharynx and then into the oesophagus by swallowing or deglutition.
The gastro-oesophageal sphincter controls the passage of food into the stomach.

1. Saliva
Saliva (Physiological barrier)
30 per cent of starch is hydrolysed here by salivary contains
amylase (optimum pH 6. 8) into a disaccharide -maltose
1500mL

Sallvary Amylase
Starch Maltose a
Lysozyme acts as an antibacterial agent Na+, K+, Cl–, HCO3–
O
Salivary amylase
O
Lysozyme

2. Gastric juice

Gastric glands; w stores the food for 4- 5 hours. w

(i) Mucus neck cells which secrete mucus w food mixes by the churning movements of its muscular
(ii) Peptic or chief cells (zymogen cells) which secrete the wall and is called the chyme.
proenzymes pepsinogen & prorennin. pH (pH 1 .8) optimal for pepsins.
(iii) Parietal or oxyntic cells which secret HCI and intrinsic Rennin of infants helps in the digestion of milk proteins
factor (factor essential for absorption of vitamin B 12 ) casein
e Small amounts of lipases are also secreted by gastric
glands.
 3. Digestion in Small Intestine
movements by the muscular is layer, help in a thorough mixing up of the food and
facilitate digestion.
bile, pancreatic juice and the intestinal juice are released into the small intestine.

Pancreatic juice Bile Juice

Pancreatic juice contains No enzymes
Enterokinare helps in emulsification of fats, breaking
down of the fats into very small micelles

I
Trypsionogen Amylases Procarboxy peptidase Intestinal juice
The intestinal mucosal epithelium has goblet
Chymotrypsinogen Lipases Nucleases cells which secrete mucus
secretions of the brush border cells of the
mucosa along with the secretions of the goblet
cells constitute the intestinal juice .
Enterokinase
Trypsinogen Trypsin (pH 7.8) for enzymatic activities. Sub-mucosal
Intestinal Juice
Trypsin glands {Brunner's glands) also help in this.
Chymotrypsinogen Chymotrypsin simple substances thus are absorbed in the
Trypsin jejunum and Ileum
Procarboxypeptidase Carboxypeptidase

Proteins Trypsin / Chymotrypsin

The functions of large
Peptones
Proteoses
O
Dipeptides intestine are e
(i) Absorption of some water, minerals and

Trypsin, chymotrypsin & carboxypeptidase are proteolytic enzymes.

certain drugs, e
(ii) Secretion of mucus which helps in
adhering the waste (undigested) particles
together and lubricating it for an easy
Amylase
passage.
Polysaccharides (starch) Disaccharides. e
The undigested, unabsorbed substances called
Nucleases a faeces
Nucleic acids Nucleotides Nucleosides temporarily stored in the rectum till
Lipases defaecation.
Fats Diglycerides Monoglycerides

Intestinal Juice cotains

Dipeptidases
Dipeptides Aminoacids
Maltase
Maltose Glucose + Glucose Nucleosidases
Lactase
Lactose Glucose + Galactose Disaccharidases
Sucrase Lipases Maltase
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
Nucleotidases Nucleosidases Dipeptidases Lactase
Nucleotides Nucleosides Sugar + Bases
Enterokinase Sucrase

intestinal Juice or
sucks entericus
TOPIC 5. REGULATION OF DIGESTION
Neural and hormonal control
muscular activities - moderated by neural
mechanisms,
Hormonal control - by the local hormones produced
by the gastric and intestinal mucosa.
gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK) and gastric
inhibitory peptide (GJP).
wGastrin - secreted from duodenum - stimulates
stomach for secretion of hydrochloric acid and
pepsinogen.
CCK - secreted from duodenum - causes
w contraction of gall Bladder, secretion of
pancreatic enzymes; bile juice
w GIP - inhibits gastric secretion and motility.

ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED PRODUCTS Sciretin

passive, active or facilitated transport mechanisms.
electrolytes like chloride ions are generally absorbed by
simple diffusion.
Transport of water depends upon the osmotic gradient.
amino acids, monosaccharides like glucose, electrolytes
like Na+ are absorbed into the blood by active
transport.
Fatty acids and glycerol incorporated into small
droplets called micelles which move into the intestinal
mucosa re-formed into very small protein coated fat
globules called the chylomicrons (triglycerides);
Transported into the lymph vessels (lacteals) in the villi.
lymph vessels release the absorbed substances into the
blood stream.
Absorption of substances takes place in alimentary canal
mouth, stomach, small intestine
maximum absorption occurs in the small intestine
Most of the water is absorbed in large intestine.
The absorbed substances finally reach the tissues which
utilise them for their activities. This process is called
assimilation.
The egestion of faeces to the outside through the anal
opening (defaecation) carried out by a mass peristaltic
movement.

Summary of Absorption in different parts of Digestive System

Mouth : Certain drugs coming in contact with w

the mucosa of mouth and lower side of the
tongue are absorbed into the blood capillaries
lining them.
w
Stomach : Absorption of water, simple sugars,
and alcohol etc. takes place.
Small intestine : Principal organ for absorption of nutrients. The
digestion is completed here and the final products of digestion
such as glucose, fructose, fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids are
absorbed through the mucosa into the blood stream and lymph.
TLarge intestine : Absorption of water, some minerals and drugs
takes place.

topic 7. DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Jaundice: deposition of bile pigments, eyes and skin becomes yellow

É
Vomiting: ejection of stomach contents through the mouth vomit centre in the medulla.
Diarrhoea: Abnormal frequency of bowel movement
Constipation: bowel movements irregularly.
Indigestion: feeling of fullness. Causes are inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, foo d poisoning,
over eating, and spicy food.
Physiological values of carbohydrates, proteins and fats are 4 Kcal/gm, 4 Kcal/gm, 9 Kcal/gm

Giv T
T Kwashiorkar
T
Marasmus U I yy
deficiency of proteins and calories protein deficiency (Q 2009) unaccompanied by
infants less than a year in age, calorie deficiency.
happens if the mother has second pregnancy or childbirth more than one year in age
when the older infant is still too young wasting of muscles, thinning of limbs, failure of
impairs growth; replacement of tissue proteins; skin growth and brain development
becomes dry some fat is still left under the skin; extensive

I
growth and development of brain and mental faculties are oedema and swelling of body parts are seen
impaired .
 Chapter
Breathing and Exchange
17 of Gases
Topic 1. RESPIRATORY ORGANS human RESPIRATORY system
Lower invertebrates like sponges, coelenterates, flatworms, etc., External Nostrils E

I
exchange O₂ with CO₂ by simple diffusion over their entire body surface.
Earthworms use their moist cuticle and insects have a network of tubes Nasal passage
(tracheal tubes).
Nasal chamber
Among vertebrates, fishes use gills while reptiles, birds and mammals
respire through lungs.
Nasopharynx
Amphibians like frogs can respire through moist skin
Larynx is a cartilaginuous box which helps in sound production and hence Larynx (through glottis) e
called the sound box.
Human have two lungs which are covered by a double layered pleura, Trachea
with pleural fluid between them.
1° Bronchi (left and right bronchi)
The part starting with the external nostrils upto the terminal bronchioles
constitute the conducting part whereas the alveoli and their ducts form 2° Bronchi a
the respiratory or exchange part of respiratory system.
3° Bronchi
The lungs are situated in the thoracic chamber
The thoracic chamber is formed by the vertebral column, the sternum, the Initial bronchioles
ribs and the dome-shaped diaphragm.
Terminal bronchioles a

Duct of Alveoli
topic 3. MECHANISM OF BREATHING
Alveoli
Breathing involves two stages siteofexchangeofGases
INSPIRATION w EXPIRATION w
Alveolar air rich in carbon dioxide expelled
Atmospheric air rich in oxygen drawn into lungs
out from the lungs
It is an active process w It is a passive process w
Inspiration occurs when intra-pulmonary pressure Expiration occurs when intra-pulmonary
is less than the atmospheric pressure. It is due to pressure is high than the atmospheric
negative pressure in the lungs pressure
w
It is initiated by: It is initiated by:
Contraction of diaphragm w Relaxation of diaphragm w
Increase in volume of the thoracic chamber in the Inter costal muscles, the diaphragm and
anterio-posterior axis sternum return to their normal position

Contraction of external inter-costal muscles and Reduction in the volume of thoracic

lifting up of the ribs and sternum chamber and overall pulmonary volume
w w
Increase in the volume of the thoracic chamber in Increase in intra pulmonary pressure to
the dorso-ventral axis more than the atmospheric pressure

Overall increase in thoracic volume leads to

increase in pulmonary volume and decrease in It leads to the expulsion of air from the
intra pulmonary pressure to less than lungs
atmospheric pressure
It forces atmospheric air to come into the lungs w
w
 RUcant bemeasured by spirometer't
Topic 4. RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES
VOLUME OF AIR
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES DEFINITION (NEET 2018)
500 ml;
Tidal Volume (TV) Air volume inspired (inhaled) or expired (exhaled) per breath 6000-8000 ml/min.

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) Extra volume of air one inhales (inspires) by forced inspiration 2500-3000 ml

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) Extra volume of air one exhales by forced expiration 1000-1100 ml

Residual Volume (RV) Volume of air remaining in lungs after forced exhalation 1100-1200 ml
It prevents collapsing of the lungs
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES
(SHOWS THE CAPACITY OF THE DEFINITION VOLUME OF AIR
LUNGS)

Inspiratory Capacity (IC) Total volume of air one inhales after normal exhalation 3000-3500 ml
It is the sum of tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume (TV+IRV)
w Total volume of air one exhales after normal inhalation
Expiratory Capacity (EC) It is the sum of tidal volume and 1500-1600 ml
expiratory reserve volume (TV+ERV)
w Volume of air remaining in lungs after normal exhalation (expiration)
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) It is the sum of expiratory reserve volume and residual volume (ERV+RV). 2100-2300 ml
It is the volume of air required to keep the lungs functioning in the normal
w condition

Maximum volume of air one can inhale after forceful exhalation or maximum
Vital Capacity (VC) (AIPMT 2009) volume of air one can exhale after forceful inhalation 3500-4500 ml
It is the sum of expiratory reserve volume, tidal volume and inspiratory reserve
w volume (ERV+TV+IRV)

Total volume of air accommodated in lungs after a forced inspiration.

Total Lung Capacity (TLC) It is the sum of vital capacity and residual volume (VC+RV) or 5000-6000 ml
w (ERV+TV+IRV + RV)

Volume of air present in the respiratory tract (nostrils to terminal bronchi) not
Dead air volume involved in the gaseous exchange. It is called dead space 150 ml

topic 4. EXCHANGE OF GASES w

Alveoli are the primary sites of exchange of gases.
Exchange of gases occur between blood and tissues. w
O₂ and CO₂ are exchange by simple diffusion.
The diffusion membrane is made up of three major w
layers namely,
159 104 95 40
7 40 40 65
POL 03 topic 5. TRANSPORT OF GASES
Air Alveoli Oat Or
100mL 5m20
Squamous epithelium of alveoli Blood
(Thickness is less than a

w
w
Diffusion membrane

millimetre)

w
Basement membrane
w
w
Endothelium of alveolar capillaries w
w

HALDANE EFFECT 100mL 4mi of

a BOHR EEFFECT 102 W

O HAMBURGER PHENOMENON Chloride

Shfft
TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE CHEMICAL REGULATION

CO₂ is carried by haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin A chemosensitive area is situated adjacent to the

(about 20-25 per cent).
This binding is related to the partial pressure of CO₂.
Partial pressure of O₂ is a major factor which could
affect this binding.
When pCO₂ is high and pO₂ is low as in the tissues, more
binding of carbon dioxide occurs whereas, when the pCO₂
is low and pO₂ is high as in the alveoli, dissociation of CO₂
from carbamino-haemoglobin takes place, i.e., CO₂ which
is bound to haemoglobin from the tissues is delivered at
the alveoli.
RBCs contain a very high concentration of the enzyme,
carbonic anhydrase. This enzyme facilitates the following
reaction
w (Sepia) – Molluscs.
CO₂ trapped as bicarbonate at the tissue level and
transported to the alveoli is released out as CO₂.
TRANSPORT OF oxygen
rhythm centre which is highly sensitive to CO₂ and
hydrogen ions.
Receptors associated with aortic arch and carotid
artery also can recognise changes in CO₂ and H⁺
concentration and send necessary signals to the
rhythm centre for remedial actions.
RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS
Hb occurs in RBCs of all vertebrates. Hb dissolved in
the plasma of earthworm and Nereis.
Haemocyanin contain Cu and occurs in plasma of
crustaceans (prawn), snails (Pila) and cephalopods
Vananium is present in the blood of
tunicates/urochordates.
topic 7. DISORDERS OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Haemoglobin is a red coloured iron containing pigment wAsthma difficulty in breathing due to inflammation
of bronchi and bronchioles.
present in the RBCs.
O₂ can bind with haemoglobin in a reversible manner to w Emphysema is a chronic disorder where alveolar
walls are damaged due to which respiratory surface
form oxyhaemoglobin.
is decreased. Caused by of this is cigarette smoking.
Each haemoglobin molecule can carry a maximum of four
Human protein alpha-1 antitrypsin is used to treat
molecules of O₂. Thus, chemical formula of oxyhaemoglobin
emphysema.
in Hb (O₂)₄. w
Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin is primarily related to w Occupational Respiratory Disorders
Damage to the lung caused by dust or fumes of
partial pressure of O₂.
substances inhaled by workers in certain industries,
A sigmoid curve is obtained when percentage saturation of
involving grinding or breaking of stone.
haemoglobin with O₂ is plotted against the pO₂. This curve
Long exposure can give rise to inflammation leading
is called the Oxygen dissociation curve and is highly useful
in studying the effect of factors like pCO₂, H⁺
concentration, etc., on binding of O₂ with haemoglobin.
to
to fibrosis.

This clearly indicates that O₂ gets bound to haemoglobin in

the lung surface and gets dissociated at the tissues.

topic 6. Regulation of respiration

In humans, respiration is under both nervous and chemical
regulation.
A specialized centre present in the medulla called
respiratory rhythm centre is primarily responsible for this
regulation.
Another centre present in the pons region of the brain
called pneumotaxic centre can moderate the functions of
the respiratory rhythm centre.
SHIFT TOWARDS RIGHT SHIFT TOWARDS LEFT

PCOLM POLL
post
High temp PEE
low temp

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CLASS RESUMES AT
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Chapter

18 Body Fluids and

Circulation
Blood is a special connective tissue consisting of -

Plasma

Straw coloured, viscous fluid constituting 55
per cent of blood. 90-92 per cent water and
6 to 8 per cent proteins which include
Fibrinogens: coagulation of blood.
Globulins: defense mechanisms albumins
Plasma also contains Na+, Ca++, Mg ++,
HCO3- Cl -, glucose, amino acids, lipids,
etc.
Plasma without the clotting factors is
serum.

E
osmotic balance.
Albumins: osmotic balance
Formed Elements
Constitute 45 percent of the blood.

RBC s (Erythrocytes)
most abundant. w 12-16 g of haemoglobin in 100 ml blood w

5 - 5.5 million RBCs mm -3 w Role in transport of respiratory gases. w

Formed in red bone marrow. w Life span of 120 days

Devoid of nucleus, biconcave in shape. w Destroyed in the spleen (graveyard of RBCs).

Have red coloured, iron containing
protein called haemoglobin. w
wBC s (Leucocytes) w
w
6000-8000 mm⁻³ of blood. w Monocytes: (6-8 per cent), phagocytic cells

Short lived
w Basophils: least abundant (0.5-1 per cent),
secrete histamine, serotonin, heparin,
Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils are
involved in inflammatory reactions. w
granulocytes, lymphocytes and
monocytes are the agranulocytes. w Eosinophils (2-3 per cent) resist infections.

Neutrophils: most abundant (60-65 per Lymphocytes (20-25 per cent)

cent), kill microbes by phagocytosis. B and T lymphocytes are responsible for
w immune responses.
w
 Platelets (Thrombocytes)
produced from megakaryocytes in bone marrow.

1,500,00 - 3,500,00 platelets mm–3.

prothrombin thrombokinase Thrombin
w ABO grouping
Based on the presence or absence of two surface antigens A and B.
f
fibrinogen fibrin
Plasma contains two natural antibodies.

Blood groups and Donor Compatbility

w w
Antibodies in
Blood group Antigens of RBCs Donor’s group
Plasma

A A Anti-B or b A, O
B B Anti-A or a B, O
AB A, B nil AB, A, B, O
O Nil Anti-A, B O

'O' group individuals are 'universal donors'.

w O ABT
UD UR
'AB' individuals are 'universal recipients'.

Rh grouping w
Rh incompatibility between the Rh-ve blood
Rh antigen is observed on the surface of mother with Rh+ve blood of foetus leads
of RBCs of 80 per cent of humans to erythroblastosis foetalis.
(Rh+ve). When antigen is absent
(RH-ve).

COAGULATION OF BLOOD
Prevent excessive loss of blood. w
w w
Calcium ions play important role.

w e

e
 human circulatory system
TISSUE FLUID w Heart (mesodermally derived).

Fluid released out from capillaries is Protected by double walled pericardium.

called interstitial fluid or tissue fluid.
Two small upper chambers (atria)
Same mineral distribution as plasma.
two larger lower chambers (ventricles).

lymphatic system drains it back to veins. Tricuspid valve: between right atrium and

I
right ventricle
Lymph: colourless fluid containing Bicuspid or mitral valve: between left
specialised lymphocytes. atrium left ventricle.

NC EUSTACHIAN A Semilunar valves: openings of right and left

ventricles into pulmonary artery and aorta
VANE
CORONARY SINUS Thebasian Valves prevent backward flow.

Value

NODAL TISSUE W cardiac cycle O 8510

Specialised musculature distributed in 4 phases in a cardiac cycle:
heart.
W Joint Diastole: all four chambers are in relaxed
O Sino-atrial node (SAN): Right upper corner
of the right atrium
state.
Blood flows into ventricles.
Otsu
O Atrio - ventricular node (AVN): lower left
corner of the right atrium
W Atrial systole : SAN generates an action
potential and atria undergo contraction.
This increased the flow of blood into ventricles
Bundle of nodal fibres continues, passes
ATRIAL DIASTOLE 0.7sec
through atrio - ventricular septa, divides Ventricular systole : action potential
into a right and left bundle. conducted to ventricular side,
0.35L Ventricles contract, atria relax.

O Give rise to minute fibres throughout

ventricular musculature (Purkinje fibres).
Closure of tricuspid and bicuspid valves.
Semilunar valves open.

These fibres with right and left bundles `Ventricular diastole: ventricles relax closure of

I
bundle of His semilunar valves.
Tricuspid and bicuspid valves open.
Nodal musculature is autoexcitable. Blood moves freely to ventricles.

SAN generates maximum number of action

potentials, i.e., 70-75 min–1,

It is called the pacemaker (average 72 beats

min–1).
 Co SU X HR
This sequential event is called the cardiac Cardiac output = Stroke volume x Heart
cycle. rate.

Duration of a cardiac cycle is 0.8 seconds.
Each ventricle pumps out 70 mL blood/min
(stroke volume).
Cardiac output: volume of blood pumped out by
each ventricle per minute (5000 mL)
During cardiac cycle two prominent sounds
are produced.
First heart sound (lub): closure of the
tricuspid and bicuspid valves
Second heat sound (dub): closure of the
semilunar valves.

ELECTTROCARDIOGRAPH (ECG)

Machine (electro-cardiograph) used to

obtain an electrocardiogram (ECG).

Graphical representation of electrical

activity of heart.

Patient is connected with three electrical

leads (one to each wrist and to left
ankle)

P-wave: depolarisation of the atria

QRS complex: depolarisation of the ventricles
T-wave: (repolarisation).

Circulatory Pathways

EDT
Fishes have 2-chambered heart.

Pty
Amphibians reptiles (except crocodiles) 3-
chambered heart.

Birds and mammals 4-chambered heart.

Double Circulation
Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood received
by the left and right atria respectively passed
to two separate circulatory pathways
Pulmonary circulation: Blood pumped by the
right ventricle enters the pulmonary artery
Passed on to the lungs from where the
oxygenated blood is carried by the pulmonary
veins into the left atrium
Systemic circulation: left ventricle pumps
blood into the aorta
Oxygenated blood entering the aorta is
carried by capillaries to tissues from
where the deoxygenated blood emptied
into the right atrium.
 Hepatic portal system: Unique vascular
connection between the digestive tract and
liver
r Special coronary system of blood vessels for
circulation to cardiac musculature.
Neural centre in the medulla oblangata can
moderate the cardiac function through
autonomic nervous system (ANS).
Sympathetic nerves increase heart beat,
ventricular contraction and cardiac output.
Parasympathetic neural signals decrease the
heart beat, conduction of action potential
and cardiac output.
Adrenaline Thyroxine p
Vagal stimulation of
Acetylcholine I t
DISORDERS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
High Blood Pressure (Hypertension) w
Normal: 120 mm Hg systolic pressure and 80
mm Hg diastolic pressure.
If 140/90 mm Hg (140 over 90) or higher, it
shows hypertension.
Leads to heart diseases, affects vital organs.
r Coronary Artery Disease (atherosclerosis)
Deposits of calcium, fat, cholesterol and
fibrous tissues, makes arteries narrower.
Angina pectoris: acute chest pain when not
enough oxygen is reaching the heart muscle.
t Heart Failure: heart is not pumping blood
effectively enough
A Cardiac Arrest: heart stops beating,
Heart attack (Myocardial Infarction) : heart
muscle is suddenly damaged.
Chapter
Excretory Products &
19 Their Elimination
Topic 1. Introduction

Removal of metabolic wastes from the body.
Ammonia, urea and uric acid are the major
forms of nitrogenous wastes
Ammonia is the most toxic form requires large
amount of water for its elimination. Uric acid, being
the least toxic, can be removed with a minimum loss
of water.
Produced during metabolism of protein.

TOPIC 2. EXCRETORY PRODUCTS ORNITHINECYCLE

1. Ammonotelism 2. Ureotelism
1. Excreting ammonia 1. Mammals, many terrestrial amphibians
and marine fishes
2. Bony fishes, aquatic amphibians and
2. Ammonia produced by metabolism is converted
aquatic insects
into urea in the liver & eliminated by kidney.
3. Excreted by diffusion or through gill
surfaces
4. Kidneys do not play any significant role

3. Uricotelism
• Reptiles, birds, land snails and insects
excrete nitrogenous wastes as uric acid in
the form of pellet or paste with minimum
loss of water.
TOPIC 3. EXCRETORY STRUCTURES
• In invertebrates, structures are simple tubular • Nephridia : earthworms and other annelids.
forms while vertebrates have complex tubular
organs called kidneys. • Malpighian tubules: insects including cockroaches.
• Antennal glands or green glands: crustaceans like
• Protonephridia or flame cells in Platyhelminthes prawn
(Flatworms), rotifers, some annelids and the
cephalochordate - Amphioxus.

TOPIC 4. HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

• One pair of metanephric kidneys, one pair of
ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra.
• Kidneys are reddish brown, bean shaped
structures close to the dorsal inner wall of the
abdominal cavity.

• 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in width, 2-3 cm

thickness average weight of 120-170 g.
• Towards centre of the inner concave surface of

the kidney is a notch called hilum through which

ureter, blood vessels and nerves enter.

• Inner to the hilum is a funnel shaped space called

the renal pelvis with projections called calyces.
• Two zones, outer cortex and an inner medulla.
• Medulla is divided into a few conical masses
(medullary pyramids)

• Cortex extends in between the medullary

pyramids as renal columns called Columns of
Bertini.
o
 Topic 5. Nephron
Two parts - the glomerulus and the renal tubule.
Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries formed by the
different arteriole
Blood is carried away by an efferent arteriole.
Double walled cup-like structure called Bowman's
capsule,
Glomerulus along with Bowman's capsule, is called
the malpighian body or renal corpuscle.
w w
The Malpighian body or renal corpuscle, PCT and
DCT of the nephron are situated in the cortical
region of the kidney whereas the loop of Henle dips
into the medulla.
In majority of nephrons, the loop of Henle is too
short and extends only very little into the medulla,
are called cortical nephrons.
TOPIC 6. URINE FORMATION
1. Glomerular Filtration : non-selective process.
• First step in urine formation.
• 1100-1200 ml of blood is filtered by the kidneys per
minute
• Through 3 layers, the endothelium of glomerular blood
vessels, the epithelium of Bowman's capsule and a
basement membrane between these two layers.
• Epithelial cells of Bowman's capsule leave some
minute spaces called filtration slits or slit pores.
• All the constituents of the plasma except the proteins
pass onto the lumen of the Bowman's capsule. Hence
known as process of ultra filtration.
• GFR in a healthy individual is approximately
125ml/minute, i.e., 180 litres per day.
3. Secretion :
• Tubular cells secrete substances like
H+, K+ and ammonia into the filtrate.
TOPIC 7. FUNCTION OF THE TUBULES
1. Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
• Lined by simple cuboidal brush border epithelium
• 70-80 percent of electrolytes and water are
reabsorbed by this segment.
• Secretion of hydrogen ions, ammonia and potassium
ions into the filterate.
w
w
In some of the nephrons, the loop of Henle is
very long and runs deep into the medulla, are
called juxta medullary nephrons.
A minute vessel of this network runs parallel
to the Henle's loop forming a ' U ' shaped vasa
recta.
Vasa recta is absent or highly reduced in
cortical nephrons.
• JGA is a region formed by cellular modifications in
the distal convoluted tubule and the afferent
arteriole at the location of their contact.
• A fall in GFR can activate the JG cells to release
renin
2. Reabsorption :
• Filtrate formed per day [180 litres per day) urine
released (1.5 litres),
99 per cent of the filtrate has to be reabsorbed by
the renal tubules.
• Substances like glucose, amino acids, Na+, etc., in
the filtrate are reabsorbed actively while nitrogenous
wastes are absorbed by passive transport.
• Reabsorption of water also occurs passively.
2. Henle's Loop
• Reabsorption is minimum in its ascending limb.
• Plays a significant role in the maintenance of high
osmolarity of medullary interstitial fluid.
• The descending limb of loop of Henle is permeable
to water but impermeable to electrolytes.
• The ascending limb is impermeable to water but
allows transport of electrolytes actively or
passively.
3. Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) 4. Collecting Duct
Conditional reabsorption of Na+ and water takes Extends from the cortex of the kidney to the inner
place in this segment. parts of the medulla.

Reabsorption of HCO₃ – selective secretion of Large amounts of water could be reabsorbed under
hydrogen and potassium ions and NH₃- to maintain the influence of ADH to produce a concentrated
pH. urine.

Allows passage of small amounts of urea into the

medullary interstitium

Maintenance of pH and ionic balance selective

secretion of H⁺ and K⁺ ions.

TOPIC 8. MECHANISM OF CONCENTRATION OF THE FILTRATE

Henle's loop and vasa recta play a significant role in

this.

Proximity between the Henle's loop and vasa recta, as

well as the counter current in them help in maintaining
an increasing osmolarity towards the inner medullary
interstitium, i.e., from 300 mOsmol L⁻¹ in the cortex to
about 1200 mOsmol L⁻¹ in the inner medulla

Mainly caused by NaCl and urea.

Transport of substances facilitated by the special

arrangement of Henle's loop and vasa recta is called
the counter current mechanism.
• Maintain a concentration gradient in the medullary
interstitium.
Helps in an easy passage of water from the
collecting tubule thereby concentrating the
filtrate (urine).
Produce urine nearly four times concentrated
than the initial filtrate formed.

TOPIC 9. REGULATION OF KIDNEY FUNCTIONs

Hormonal feedback mechanisms

1. Control by ADH • ADH facilitates water reabsorption from

latter parts of the tubule, preventing diuresis.
• Osmoreceptors in the body are activated by
changes in blood volume, body fluid volume and • Increase in body fluid volume can switch off
ionic concentration. the osmoreceptors
• Stimulate the hypothalamus to release • Constrictory effects on blood vessels.
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)É or vasopressin
from the neurohypophysis .
function
2 Control by JGA
• A fall in glomerular blood flow/glomerular blood
pressure/GFR can activate the JG cells to release renin
• Renin- Angiotensin mechanism.
3. Control by ANF
1. Increase in blood flow to atria the can cause the 3. check on the renin-angiotensin mechanism
release of Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF).

2. Causes vasodilation and decreases the blood

pressure.

TOPIC 10. MICTURITION

1. Process of release of urine is called micturition,
abd the neural mechanisms causing it is called the
micturition renex.

2. 1 to 1. 5 litres of urine excreted per day.

3. Urine is light yellow coloured watery fluid which

is slightly acidic (pH 6.0)

4. 25-30 gm of urea is excreted out per day.

5. Highest concentration of urea is found in

hepatic vein
6. Presence of glucose (Glycosuria) and ketone bodies
(Ketonuria) in urine are indicative of Diabetes Mellitus.

TOPIC 11. ROLE OF OTHER ORGANS IN EXCRETION

Lungs, liver and skin also help in the elimination of
excretory wastes.
Lungs remove large amounts of CO₂ (200 mL/minute)
Liver secretes bile-containing substances like bilirubin,
biliverdin, cholesterol, degraded steroid hormones,
vitamins and drugs.
Sweat and sebaceous glands can eliminate certain
substances through their secretions.
Sweat is a watery fluid containing NaCl, small
amounts of urea, lactic acid, etc.
Sebaceous glands eliminate substances like
sterols, hydrocarbons and waxes through sebum.
This secretion provides oily covering for the skin.
Small amounts of nitrogenous wastes could be
eliminated through saliva too.

TOPIC 12. DISORDERS OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

1.Renal/Kidney failure Haemodialysis

Kidney transplantation is the ultimate

method in the correction of acute
renal failure (kidney failure).

w
2 . Renal calculi w
• Insoluble mass of crystallised salts
(oxalates, etc.) formed within the kidney.

3. Glomerulonephritis
• Inflammation of glomeruli of
kidney.
Chapter

20 Locomotion
and Movement
INTRODUCTION
Animals and plants exhibit a wide range of Movements result in a change of place o r location.
movements. Such voluntary movements are called locomotion.

TYPES OF MOVEMENT
Type of movement in human body MUSCLE
Mesodermal origin.

40-50 percent of the body weight have special

properties like excitability, contractility,
extensibility and elasticity.

É Made of many long, cylindrical fibres composed of

numerous fine fibrils, called myofibrils.

Muscle fibres contract (shorten) in response to

I
Locomotion require s a perfect coordinated stimulation, then relax (lengthen) & return to
activity of muscular, skeletal and neural systems. their uncontracted state.

types of muscles
Skeletal (striated) muscles Visceral (Non-striated) muscles Cardiac muscles

SKELETAL MUSCLE
Made of a number of muscle bundles or fascicles held
together by a common collagenous connective tissue
layer called fascia.

Muscle fibre is the anatomical unit of muscle.

Total number of muscle in human body - 639.

Largest muscle - Gluteus maximus

Smallest muscle – Stapedius

Longest muscle – Sartorius

 Muscle Fibre
Lined by the plasma membrane Syncitium
called sarcolemma.
Presence of a large number of
Sarcoplasmic reticulum is the parallelly arranged filaments in
store house of calcium ions. the sarcoplasm called
myofilaments or myofibrils.
I 0 A Each myofibril has alternate dark and light bands on it.

feat
1
0 O
tail
O g The portion of the myofibril between two successive 'Z' lines is
considered sarcomere.

112 I BANDIABAND t 112 IBANDA

C D
Structure of Contractile Proteins

lengthof Sarcomere t
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION 1Band 1
ABAND SAME
Hzoned
Sliding filament theory which states that
W
contraction of a muscle fibre takes place by the
sliding of the thin filaments over the thick
filaments
w
Signal sent by (CNS) via a motor neuron.

Motor neuron along with the muscle fibres w

constitute a motor unit junction between a motor w
neuron and the sarcolemma of the muscle fibre is
called the neuromuscular junction or motor-end
plate.

A neural signal reaching this junction releases a

neurotransmitter (Acetylcholine) which generates
an action potential in the sarcolemma.
Spreads through the muscle fibre and causes the
re lease of calcium ions into the sarcoplasm.
Increase in Ca++ level leads to the binding of calcium with a
subunit of troponin on actin filaments and thereby remove the
masking of active sites for myosin.
W
Utilising the energy from ATP hydrolysis, the myosin
head now binds to the exposed active sites on actin
to form a cross bridge.

'Z' line attached to these actins are also pulled

inwards thereby causing a shortening of the
sarcomere, i.e., contraction.
w w
During shortening of the muscle, i. e. 'I' bands get s fast
reduced.'A' bands retain the length. H-zone also
t o
reduced
To
The process continues till the Ca++ ions are pumped
back to the sarcoplasmic cisternae resulting in the
masking of actin filaments. causes the return of 'Z'
lines back to their original position, i.e .,
relaxation. Tactic And
Repeated activation of the muscles can lead to the
accumulation of lactic acid due to anaerobic
breakdown of glycogen in them, causing fatigue.

SKELETAL SYSTEM w
In human beings , this system is
made up of 206 bones and a
few cartilages.

Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones

O t we

distributed along the main axis of

the body.

Thus the skull consists or 29 bones as

Cranial bones. - 8
Facial bones. - 14 In C Atlas
Hyoid bones. - 1 w
a a
Ear ossiclcs - 6 C2Axis
29
Axial skeleton (80 bones)
Vertebral column of man is made u p of 33 bones but is
consists of only 26 vertebrae because 5 sacral vertebrae
fused to for m one sacrum & 4 coccygeal vertebrae fused 1. Skull - 29 (8, 14, 1, 6)
to form one coccyx. 2. Vertebral - 26 (7, 12, 5, 1, 1)
column
26 serially arranged units called vertebrae. 3. Sternum - 1
4. Ribs - 24 (7, 3, 2) × 2
First vertebra is the atlas and it articulates 80
with the occipital condyles

Ribs
O Appendicular skeleton (126 bones)
n Fore limb (30 bones)
12 pairs of ribs . Each rib is a thin flat bone

ventrally to the sternum. I

connected dorsally to the vertebral column and
1. Fore limb - 60 (30 × 2) w 1. Humerus - 1

E
2. Hind limb - 60 (30 × 2) 2. Radius - 1
Biccphalic 3. Pectoral girdle - 04 (2 × 2) 3. Ulna - 1
4. Pelvic girdle - 02 4. Carpals - 8

O
First seven pairs of ribs are called true ribs. 126 (wrist bones)
5. Metacarpals - 5
Dorsally, attached to the thoracic Vertebrae (palm bones)
ventrally connected to the sternum with the help 6. Phalanges
of hyaline cartilage..
W (digits) - 14
30
 The 8th , 9th and 10th pair s of ribs do not articulate Hind limb (30 bones)
directly with the sternum but join t he seventh rib with

I
the help of hyaline cartilage. These are called 1. Femur (thigh bone) - 1
vertebrochondral (false) ribs. 2. Tibia - 1
3. Fibula - 1
Last 2 pairs (11th and 12th) of ribs are not connected 4. Tarsals (ankle bones) - 7
ventrally and are therefore, called floating ribs. 5. Metatarsals - 5
6. Phalanges (digits). - 14
7. Patella (cup-shaped) - 1
30

Pectoral Girdle/shoulder girdle

Consists of a clavicle and a scapula. a is a depression called the glenoid
Below the acromion

I
cavity which articulates with the head of the humerus to
Scapula is present in dorsal part of thorax w form the shoulder joint.
between the second an d the seventh ribs.

Clavicle is a long slender bone with two curvatures. This

Dorsal, triangular body of scapula called the
bone is commonly called the collar bone.
acromion. The clavicle articulates with this.

JOINTS
PELVIC GIRDLE
Two coxal bones.

Each coxal bone is formed by the fusion of

three bones - ilium, ischium and pubis.
v
At the point of fusion of the above bones
is a cavity called acetabulum to which the
thigh bone articulates.
t O
The two halves of the pelvic girdle meet
ventrally to form the pubic symphysis
containing fibrous cartilage.

DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR
AND SKELETAL SYSTEM
w
w
Myasthenia gravis : Auto immune disorder
affecting neuromuscular junction leading to a
fatigue, weakening and paralysis of skeletal w w
muscle.

MUSCULAR DYSTROPY Genetic

Tutany low ca't

Osteoporosis Estrogen I
Rheumatoid arthritis Pannu
Gouty Arthritis URICAUD
Accumulation in Joint
Chapter

21
neural control
and coordination
All the functions of the body are integrated, coordinated & regulated by the neuro-endocrine system of the body.

NEURON
Three major parts - cell body, dendrites and axon. Axon is a long fibre, the distal end of which is
branched.
Cell body cytoplasm with typical cell organelles
certain granular bodies called Nissl's granules.
Each branch terminates as a bulb-like structure

I
called synaptic knob which possess synaptic
Short fibres which branch repeatedly and project
vesicles containing chemicals called
out of the cell body also contain Nissl's granules
neurotransmitters.
are called dendrites. They transmit impulses
towards the cell body.
It transmit nerve impulses away from the cell
body to a synapse or to a neuro-muscular
junction.

Type of axons
Myelinated nerve fibres have Schwann cells, Unmyelinated nerve fibre enclosed by a
which form a myelin sheath around the axon. Schwann cell that does not form a myelin

Gaps between two adjacent myelin sheaths
are called nodes of Ranvier which are found in
spinal and cranial nerves.
I
sheath around the axon and are found in
autonomous and the somatic neural systems

GENERATION AND CONDUCTION

Types of the neurons OF NERVE IMPULSE
Pseudounipolar neurons Ion channels are present on the neural membrane,
A single process arises from the cyton which are selectively permeable to different ions.
& then divides into axon & dendrite Dorsal
Eg.: dorsal root ganglia of spinal nerves. Root When a neuron is not conducting any impulse, i.e.,
ganglion resting, the axonal membrane is comparatively more
permeable to potassium ions (K⁺), less permeable to
Na⁺ and impermeable to negatively charged proteins
present in the axoplasm.

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 SALTATORY CONDUCTION
Ionic gradients maintained by the active transport of ions
by the sodium-potassium pump which transports 3Na +
outwards for 2K+ into the cell.
As a result, the outer surface of the axonal membrane
possesses a positive charge while its inner surface
becomes negatively charged and therefore is polarised.
The electrical potential difference across the resting
plasma membrane is called as the resting potential
(–70mV).
EYE
Two types of photoreceptor cells, namely, rods and
cones.
Contain the light-sensitive proteins called the
photopigments.
Daylight vision/colour vision is function of cones and
the twilight (scotopic) vision is the function of the
rods.
The rods contain a purplish-red protein called the
rhodopsin or visual purple, which contains a
derivative of Vitamin A.
There are three types of cones which respond to
red, green and blue lights.
When these cones are stimulated equally, a
sensation of white light is produced.
NodeofRanvier
AP IMPULSE
TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES
Through junctions called synapses.
There are two types: 1. Electrical
synapses and 2. Chemical synapses
Electrical synapses allows quick
transmission, both membranes are in
close contact. They are rare in our
body.
Chemical synapses
Photoreceptor cells are not present in region medial
to and slightly above the posterior pole of the eye
ball from where optic nerves leave the eye and the
retinal blood vessels enter It is called the blind spot.
At the posterior pole of the eye lateral to the blind
spot, there is a yellowish pigmented spot called
macula lutea with a central pit called the fovea,
where only the cones are densely packed, and the
visual acuity (resolution) is the greatest.
The space between the cornea and the lens is called
the aqueous chamber and contains a thin watery fluid
called aqueous humor.
7s Canal ofsodium
The space between the lens and the retina is called
the vitreous chamber and is filled with a transparent
gel called vitreous humor.
 Meninges Duran atty
HUMAN BRAIN Arachnoid
Forebrain Pia Matter
Midbrain Cells of Corpora Quadriginia
Corabi aqueduct
Hind Brain

poIMedulla corebulum
2 t
d
Involuntary
Phamotaxic

MIDBRAIN t PONS Medulla Brain Stem

Corpus callosum

Neuroglial all
r
Oligodendrocytes
Astrocytes
throats
Scavenger
Blood brain
INTERNEURON
Bang
ABSENT
Monosynap
Reflex
I
Polysynaptic
Mechanism of Vision Eye Defects
Light reflected from an object ---- enters 1. Myopia- (Short sightedness)
the eye through cornea & lens ---- focus
on retina ---- dissociation of retinal from Person can not clearly see the distant objects.
opsin ---- changes in membrane
permeability ---- generates potential Correction is by concave lens.
differences (impulse) in photoreceptor
cells (rods & cones) ---- generates action 2. Hypermetropia (Far-sightedness)
potentials in ganglion cells through bipolar
cells ---- impulses are transmitted by optic Person can not see near object clearly.
nerves to brain (visual cortex) ---- impulses
are analyzed and the image is recognized Correction is by convex lens.
based on earlier memory and experience --
-- vision. 3. Presbyopia (Old age far-
sightedness)
5. Glaucoma (Kalamotia)
4. Cataract (Safaid Motia)
Increased intraocular pressure due to the
blockage of canal of Schlemm. Lens loses its transparency and become opaque.
6. Astigmastism
Irregular cornea of lens.

Correction is by cylindrical lens

THE EAR
Statoacoustic organ.
Cochlea
1. Outer Ear
Coiled portion of labyrinth
EAR The organ of corti is a structure located on the
basilar membrane which contains hair cells that
act as auditory receptors.

The hair cells are present in rows on the

internal side of the organ of corti, which have
stercocilia on apex, above which tectorial
membrane is present.

nystatin

o O O O

Membranous labyrinth is divided into 3 parts: (i) Cochlea, (ii)

8
S
Otolith organs (Saccule & Utricle), (iii) Semicircular canals(3)

Apparatus
Vestibular DynamicBalance
 Mechanism of Hearing
Pinna collects sound waves ---- waves pass through ear---- relayed to the tympanic
membrane ---- tympanic membrane vibrates ---- vibrations transmit to ear ossicles &

I
oval window ---- perilymph in the vestibular canal vibrates ---- vibrations reach the scala
tympani and force the basilar membrane to vibrate ---- hair endings of sensory hair cells
press against tectorial membrane ---- sensory hair cells are excited ---- auditory nerve
carries impulses to auditory centre of the brain ---- hearing.

Receptors
Nose For receiving the sense of smell -has
olfactory receptors.
Made up of olfactory epithelium.
The neurons of the olfactory epithelium
extend from the outside environment
directly into a pair of broad bean-sized
organs, called olfactory bulb.
Bowman's glands are the mucus glands that
are found below the olfactory membrane
which secrete mucus. (CBSE 2006)
The chemical senses of gustation (taste) and
olfactory (smell) are functionally similar and
interrelated.
Tongue detect taste through taste buds,
containing gustatory receptors.
Chapter
Chemical Coordination
22
& Integration
The neural system and the endocrine system jointly coordinate and regulate the physiological functions in the body.

ENDOCRINE GLANDS ANd HORMONES HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Ductless glands secretions are called hormones. Pituitary, pineal, thyroid , adrenal , pancreas, parathyroid,
Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals, thymus and gonads (testis in males and ovary in females)
intercellular messengers, and are produced in GIT, kidney, heart also produce hormones.
trace amounts.
Pituitary gland
1. HYPOTHALAMUS
Group of neurosecretory cells called nuclei which produce Adenophypophysis Neurohypophysis
hormones of two types:
1. Releasing hormones (which stimulate secretion of
pituitary hormones eg. GnRH) Pars distalis or Pars Pars nervosa or
2. Inhibiting hormones (inhibit secretions of pituitary Anterior Pituitary intermedia Posterior pituitary
hormones eg. Somatostatin)
GH Oxytocin
They regulate synthesis and secretion of Pituitary
PRL MSH Vasoprcssin
Hormones through hypophyseal portal circulation
3. Oxytocin, vasopressin (ADH) through direct neural TSH (ADH)
secretion of posterior pituitary. ACTH

E
LH
FSH

2. THE PITUITARY GLAND Regulation of Spermatogenesis

The pituitary gland is located in a bony cavity called sella Hypothalamus
tursica of sphenoid bone and is attached to hypothalamus by
a stalk. GnRH
Over secretion of GH causes Gigantism, low secretion of GH
causes pituitary dwarfism. Anterior pituitary or Pars distalis
Excess secretion of GH in adults especially in middle age can
result in severe disfigurement (especially of face) called Gonadotrophin (In Male)
Acromegaly.
In females, LH induces ovulation of fully mature follicles
(graafian follicles) and maintains the corpus luteum Luteinizing Follicle Stimulating
FSH stimulates growth and development of the ovarian Hormone (LH) Hormone (FSH)
follicles in females.
Neurohypophysis stores and releases 2 hormones: Oxytocin & Leydig cell Sertoli cells
vasopressin.
Oxytocin stimulates a vigorous contraction of uterus, also Androgen Some factors
known as milk ejection hormone
Spermatogenesis Spermiogenesis
Vasopressin causes resorption of water and electrolytes by
the distal tubules (diuresis) also called as anti-diuretic
hormone (ADH) .
'Diabetes Insipidus’ (hyposecretion of ADH) 4. THYROID GLAND
3. THE PINEAL GLAND
two lobes either side of the trachea.
Dorsal side of forebrain.
interconnected with a thin flap of connective tissue isthmus.
Secretes a hormone melatonin
composed of follicles and stromal tissues.
Regulation of a 24-hour (diurnal) rhythm of our body.
follicle is composed of follicular cells
Maintaining body temperature.
follicular cells synthesise two hormones, tetraiodothyronine
Metabolism, pigmentation, menstrual cycle as well as
or thyroxine (T₄ ) and triiodothyronine (T₃ ).
our defense capability.
Iodine is essential
 Thyroid Disorders
Hypothyroidism and enlargement of the thyroid gland, commonly called goitre due to deficiency of Iodine)
Cretinism: Hypothyroidism during pregnancy causes defective development and maturation of the growing baby leading to
stunted growth mental retardation, low intelligence quotient, abnormal skin, deaf-mutism, etc.
Myxoedema or Gull's disease: hypothyroidism in adult women, menstrual cycle become irregular.
Exophthalmic Goitre or Grave's disease : hyperthyroidism, enlargement of thyroid gland due to cancer of thyroid gland unit.
Causes protrusion of eye ball, increased BMR & weight loss.
Thyrocalcitonin (TCT) (by parafollicular cell); hypocalcaemic hormone, lower the blood calcium level.

5. PARATHYROID GLAND 6. THYMUS

Four parathyroid glands are on the back side of the thyroid
gland, one pair each in the two lobes of the thyroid gland.
Parathyroid hormone (PTH).
Increases the Ca²⁺ level of blood & stimulates the process
of bone resorption (dissolution/demineralisation).
Stimulates reabsorption of Ca⁺² by the renal tubules &
increases Ca²⁺ absorption from the digested food.
PTH is a hypercalcemic hormone
Hyposecretion of PTH (hypoparathyroidism) causes
hypocalcaemie tetany.
Lobular structure located on the ventral side of the heart
and the aorta, major role in the development of the
immune system. Secretes peptide hormones called
thymosins.
Major role in the differentiation of T-lymphocytes provide
cell-mediated immunity.
Production of antibodies to provide humoral immunity.
Degenerated in old individuals

7. ADRENAL GLAND Adrenal Medulla

Our body has one pail' of adrenal glands, one at the Increase alertness, pupilary dilation, piloerection (raising of
anterior part of each kidney (supra-renal glands). hairs), sweating etc.
Catecholamines also stimulate the breakdown of glycogen
breakdown of lipids and proteins. Then

Adrenal gland

Adrennl Cortex Adrenal medulla

(Outer) (Inner)

Catecholamines
Outer zona Middle Zona Inner
glomerulosa fasciculata Zonareticularls
(Mineralo- (Glucocorticoid) (Sex corticoid) Adrenaline or Noradrenaline or
corticoid) e epinephrine norepinephrine e

Emergency hormones or hormones of fight or flight

Adrenal cortex
Aldosterone acts mainly at the renal tubules and Androgenic steroids play a role in the growth of
stimulates the reabsorption of Na⁺ and water and axial hair, pubic hair and facial hair during puberty.
excretion of K⁺ and phosphate ions. Maintenance of Hyposecretion of adrenal cortex hormone alters
electrolytes, body fluid volume, osmotic pressure and carbohydrate metabolism causing acute weakness
blood pressure. fatigue leading to a disease called Addison's disease.
cortisol is the main glucocorticoid. Stimulate, Hypersecretion: cushing syndrome.
gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and proteolysis. Maintaining
the cardio-vascular system as well kidney functions.
Produces anti inflammatory reactions and suppresses
the immune response.
 9. TESTIS
8. Pancreas
Hyposecretion of Insulin - causes hyperglycemia Primary sex organ as well as an endocrine gland.
leads to a complex disorder called diabetes mellitus. The Leydig cells or interstitial cells, which are present
Loss of glucose through urine and formation of in the intertubular spaces produce a group of
harmful compounds known as ketone bodies. hormones called androgens mainly testosterone.
Main male hormone or androgen is testosterone.
Responsible for the puberty in male.
Pancreas Regulate the development, maturation and functions of
the male accessory sex organs like epididymis, vas
deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra etc.
Stimulate muscular growth, growth of facial and
Exocrine part Endocrine part
axillary hair, aggressiveness, low pitch of voice etc.
(98-99%) (1-2%)
Regulates the process of spermatogenesis
Influence the male sexual behaviour (libido).
Islets of Langerhans
Anabolic (synthetic) effects on protein and
carbohydrate metabolism.

alpha-cells beta-cells
Hepatocytes 11. HORMONES OF HEART AND KIDNEY.
Glucagon Hepatocytes Insulin
Atrial natriuretic factorw
Adipocytes
(ANF), which decreases blood
Hyperglycemic Hypoglycemic pressure. vasodilation)
w w The juxtaglomerular cells of kidney produce a peptide
w hormone called erythropoietin which stimulates
erythropoiesis (formation of RBC). calc trot
10. OVARY
NATURE OF HORMONE
Primary female sex organ
Peptide, polypeptide, protein hormones (e.g.,
Estrogen is synthesised and secreted mainly by the
insulin, glucagon, pituitary hormones, hypothalamic
growing ovarian follicles.
hormones, etc.), TCT, PTH, Thymosines.
After ovulation, the ruptured follicle is converted to a
Steroids (eg., cortisol, testosterone, estradiol and
structure called corpus luteum, which secretes mainly
progesterone)
progesterone.
Iodothyronines (thyroid hormones)
Estrogens stimulates the growth and activities of female
Amino-acid derivatives (eg., epinephrine)
secondary sex organs, development of growing ovarian
follicles, appearance of female secondary sex characters
e.g., mammary gland development.
Regulate female sexual behaviour.

t.me
anondmani00I
Progesterone supports pregnancy.
Progesterone also acts on the mammary glands and
stimulates the formation of alveoli (sac-like structures
which store milk) and milk secretion.
HARENGE NAHI
MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION
PROTEIN

e E