Life is a unique, complex organization of molecules, expressing through chemical

reactions which lead to growth, development, responsiveness, adaptation &

reproduction.

It is the increase in number, mass and size of cells.

In plants, growth by cell division occurs continuously throughout their life span.
In animals, growth is only up to a certain age. However, cell division occurs in certain tissues
to replace lost cells.
Non-living objects grow by accumulation of material on the surface. In living organisms,
growth is from inside.

It is the production of progeny having features similar to those of parents.

Organisms reproduce asexually and sexually.
Growth is the increase in cell number or mass. Hence in unicellular organisms, growth &
reproduction are same.
Many organisms do not reproduce (e.g. mules, worker bees, infertile human couples, etc).
Hence, reproduction is not a perfect defining characteristic of living organisms.
It is the sum total of all biochemical reactions taking place inside a living system.
Isolated metabolic reactions in vitro are not living things but are living reactions.

Organisms are made up of cells.

They may be unicellular or multicellular.

Molecules → cell organelles → cells → tissues → organs → organ system → organism.

The system of naming with two components (Binomial nomenclature) is proposed by Carolus
Linnaeus.
Botanical names are based on the rules provided in International Code for Botanical
Nomenclature (ICBN).
It is this ability of organisms to sense their environment and respond to the environmental
Zoological names are based on International Code for Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN).
stimuli (like light, water, temperature, other organisms, chemicals, pollutants, etc).
Therefore, all organisms are ‘aware’ of their surroundings.
Human is the only organism having self-consciousness.
 It is the aggregates of closely related species.
Classification involves hierarchy of steps in which each step
Genus Genus Genus Felis
represents a rank (taxonomic category or taxon). Solanum Panthera
All categories together constitute the taxonomic hierarchy. Potato Lion House Cat
Each taxon represents a unit of classification. {Panthera {Felis
leo} domesticus}
Tomato Leopard Jungle Cat
{P.pardus} {Felis chaus}
Brinjal Tiger
{P.tigris}

It is a group of related genera with less number of

similarities as compared to genus and species.

It is a group of individual organisms with Family Solanaceae Family Felidae

fundamental similarities. Genus Solanum Genus Panthera
It is the lowest category. E.g.
Genus Petunia Genus Felis.

Genus Datura

Generic name Specific epithet Common name

Mangifera indica Mango

Solanum tuberosum Potato

Solanum nigrum Nightshade It is the assemblage of related families.

Panthera leo Lion Order Polymoniales Order Carnivora

Panthera tigris Tiger Family Family Felidae
Caonvolvuaceae
Homo sapiens Modern man
Family Solanaceae Family Canidae
 It is the assemblage of related orders.

Class Class
Dicotyledonae Mammalia
Order Order Primata
Sapindales
Order Urticales Order
Carnivora

It is the assemblage of related classes.

In cases of plants the related classes
form division.

Phylum Chordata Division

Angiospermae
Class Amphibia Class
Dicotyledonae
Class Reptilia
Class Aves Class
Monocotyledonae
Class Mammalia

The assemblage of various Phyla/Division.

It is the highest category.

Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Animalia

Division Phylum Chordata

Angiospermae
Division Phylum Arthropoda
Gymnospermae
 These are specialized gardens having collections of living plants for reference and
identification purposes.
Each plant is labeled with its botanical name and family.
Common
Man Housefly Mango Wheat
name Famous botanical gardens
Biological Musca Royal Botanical Garden at Kew (England).
Homo sapiens Mangifera indica Triticum aestivum Indian Botanical Garden, Howrah (West Bengal, India).
name domestica
National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow (India).
Genus Homo Musca Mangifera Triticum

Family Hominidae Muscidae Anacardiaceae Poaceae

Order Primata Diptera Sapindales Poales

Class Mammalia Insecta Dicotyledonae Monocoty-ledonae

Phylum/
Chordata Arthropoda Angiospermae Angiospermae
Division

It is the device used to identify each species in a group of organisms based on similarities and
dissimilarities.
Keys are based on the contrasting characters generally in a pair called couplet. It represents the
choice made between two opposite options. This results in acceptance of only one and rejection of the
other.
Each statement in the key is called a lead.
 Museum is a collection of preserved plants and animals for study and reference. A museum
contains
Specimens preserved in preservative solutions in containers or jars.
Plant and animal specimens preserved as dry specimens.
Insects preserved in insect boxes after collecting, killing and pinning.
Stuffed larger animals like birds and mammals.
Collections of animal skeletons.

These are the places where live wild

animals are kept in protected
environments under human care.

It enables to learn about their food

habits and behaviour.

It is a store house (repository) of collected

plant specimens that are dried, pressed and
preserved on sheets and are arranged
according to universally accepted classification.

Herbarium sheets are labelled with information

about date and place of collection, English, local
and botanical names, family, collector’s name
etc.
These are the means of recording descriptions.

Flora:
It contains the actual account of habitat and distribution of plant species of a given area.
Manuals:
It helps in providing information for identification of names of species found in an area.
Monographs:
It contains information on any one taxon.
Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more scientific
basis for classification of organisms.
He classified plants into trees, shrubs & herbs and
animals into 2 groups, those which had red blood and
those that did not.

Aristotle

It is proposed by Linnaeus (1758).

This system classifies organisms into Two
Kingdoms- Plantae & Animalia.

Carl Linnaeus
 Prokaryotes, {Bacteria & Cyanobacteria}, & eukaryotes {fungi, mosses, ferns, gymnosperms
& angiosperms} were included under “plants”. It is based on the presence of cell wall, but
prokaryotes & eukaryotes are widely different in other features Bacteria are the most abundant
microorganisms.
It included unicellular & multicellular organisms in the same group
Hundreds of bacteria are present in a handful of
Example: Chlamydomonas & spirogyra were placed under algae soil.

It did not differentiate between heterotrophic Fungai & autotrophic green plants. Fungi have They also live in extreme habitats such as hot
chitinous cell wall while the green plants have cellulosic cell wall springs, deserts, snow & deep oceans.

Many are parasites.

It is proposed by R.H. Whittaker (1969).

It includes Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae & Animalia.

This classification is based on cell structure, thallus

organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction & phylogenetic
relationships.

R.H. Whittaker
Characters Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia Bacterial structure is very simple but they
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Non-cellular Present are complex in behaviour and show
Present
Cell wall (polysaccharide + Present in some (without Absent metabolic diversity.
(cellulose)
amino acid) cellulose)
Nuclear Some bacteria are autotrophic (synthesize
Absent Present Present Present Present
membrane food from inorganic substrates).
Body Multicellular, Tissue/organ/
Cellular Cellular Tissue/organ Majority are heterotrophs (they do not
organization loose tissue organ system
Autotrophic synthesize the food but depend on other
(photosynthetic & Autotrophic
Heterotrophic Heterotrophic organisms or on dead organic matter for
Mode of chemosynthetic) (photosynthetic) Autotrophic
(saprophytic (holozoic,
nutrition and heterotrophic and (photosynthetic) food).
or parasitic) saprophytic etc)
(saprophyte/ heterotrophic
parasite)
 They have chlorophyll a
similar to that of green
plants.

Cyanobacteria (blue-green
algae)

Unicellular, colonial or
filamentous, marine or
terrestrial algae.
They often form blooms in polluted water bodies.
The colonies are
generally surrounded by Some of them fix atmospheric N2 in specialized cells called
gelatinous sheath. heterocysts.
E.g. Nostoc & Anabaena.

They live in harshest habitats such as extreme salty

areas (halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles)
and marshy areas (methanogens). They oxidize inorganic substances such as
nitrates, nitrites & ammonia and use the
Archaebacteria have a different cell wall structure for released energy for their ATP production.
their survival in extreme conditions.
They play a great role in recycling nutrients
Methanogens are present in the guts of ruminant like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron & sulphur.
animals (cows, buffaloes etc). They produce methane
(biogas) from the dung of these animals.

Most abundant in nature

They have a rigid cell wall and a
flagellum (if motile).
They include Autotrophs
(photosynthetic &
chemosynthetic) and
Heterotrophs.
Majority are important decomposers
They are used to make curd from milk.
Production of antibiotics.
Fixing nitrogen in legume roots etc.
Some are pathogens causing damage to human beings,
crops, farm animals and pets. E.g. Cholera, typhoid, tetanus,
and citrus canker.
Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission.
It includes single-celled eukaryotes.
Under unfavourable conditions, they produce spores.
Protists are primarily aquatic.
They also reproduce by a sort of sexual reproduction by adopting a primitive type of DNA
It forms a link with plants, animals and fungi.
transfer from one bacterium to the other.
Cell contains well defined nucleus and other
membrane-bound organelles. Some have
flagella or cilia.
Reproduce asexually and sexually by a process
involving cell fusion & zygote formation.

They are found in fresh water and marine

environments.
They are microscopic and float passively in water
currents (plankton).
Most of them are photosynthetic.
It includes diatoms & golden algae (desmids).
They are organisms without a cell wall. Diatoms
They are the smallest living cells known. They have siliceous cell walls forming two thin
overlapping shells, which fit together as in a soap
They can survive without oxygen. box.
The cell wall deposit of diatoms over billions of
Many are pathogenic in animals and
years in their habitat is known as ‘diatomaceous
plants. earth’. This is used in polishing, filtration of oils and
syrups.
Diatoms are the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.

Mostly marine and photosynthetic.

They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red
depending on the main pigments in cells.
Cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer
surface.
Most of them have 2 flagella; one lies longitudinally and the
other transversely in a furrow between wall plates.
They are heterotrophs (predators or parasites).
Red dianoflagellates (E.g. Gonyaulax) undergo rapid They are believed to be primitive relatives of animals.
multiplication so that the sea appears red (red tides). Toxins
released by such large numbers can kill other marine
animals such as fishes. Amoeboid Flagellated Ciliated Sporozoans
Protozoans Protozoans Protozoans
Live in fresh Free-living or Aquatic, actively infectious spore-
water, sea water parasitic. move using cilia. like stage in their
or moist soil. They have They have a life cycle.
Mainly fresh water organisms found in stagnant water.
They move and flagella. cavity (gullet) E.g. Plasmodium
capture prey by Parasitic forms that opens to (malarial
Instead of cell wall, they have a protein rich layer called pellicle. It makes their body flexible. putting out
cause diseases outside. parasite) . It
pseudopodia
(false feet). like sleeping Due to the causes malaria.
They have 2 flagella, a short and a long one. E.g. Amoeba. sickness. movement of
E.g. cilia, water with
Marine forms
They are photosynthetic in the presence of have silica shells Trypanosoma food enters into
sunlight. When deprived of sunlight they behave on their surface. gullet.
like heterotrophs by predating on other smaller E.g. Paramecium
organisms.
Some are
parasites. E.g.
The pigments of euglenoids are identical to those Entamoeba.
of higher plants. E.g. Euglena.

They are saprophytic protists.

The body moves along decaying twigs and leaves
engulfing organic material.
Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation
called plasmodium which may grow and spread over
several feet.
During unfavourable conditions, the plasmodium
differentiates and forms fruiting bodies bearing spores
at their tips.
Spores possess true walls. They are extremely resistant
and survive for many years. The spores are dispersed by
air currents.
 Most fungi are saprophytes (absorb soluble
organic matter from dead substrates).
It is a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms. Some are parasites.
Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil and on animals and plants.
They prefer to grow in warm and humid places. Some live as symbionts – in association with
E.g. Bread Mould, Orange Rots, Mushroom, Toadstools etc. algae as lichens and with roots of higher plants
White spots on mustard leaves are due to a parasitic fungus
as mycorrhiza

The sexual cycle involves 3 steps:

Some fungi are the source of antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium.
Some unicellular fungi (e.g. Yeast) are used to make bread and beer.
Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals. E.g. wheat rust-causing Puccinia.
Plasmogamy: Fusion of protoplasm between two motile or non-motile gametes.
Karyogamy: Fusion of two nuclei.
Meiosis: Occurs in zygote resulting in haploid spores.

Penicillium Yeast Puccinia

Except yeasts, fungi are filamentous. Their bodies consist of long, slender thread-like structures
called hyphae.
The network of hyphae is known as mycelium.
Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with
multinucleated cytoplasm. These are called
coenocytic hyphae. Others have septae or
cross walls in hyphae.
Fungal cell wall is made of chitin &
polysaccharides Based on the morphology of mycelium, mode of spore formation and fruiting bodies, Fungi
are classified into various classes.

Sexual reproduction :- Zygospores
Asexual reproduction Takes place by zoospores
are formed by fusion of two
(motile) or by aplanospores (non-motile).
gametes.
These are produced in sporangium.
These gametes are isogamous
(similar) or anisogamous or
oogamous (dissimilar).
Includes mushrooms, bracket fungi or
puffballs.
They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps
and in living plant bodies as parasites (e.g.
rusts & smuts).
Mycelium is branched & septate.
The asexual spores are generally not found,
but vegetative reproduction by fragmentation
is common.

Sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy occurs by fusion of two vegetative or somatic cells of
different strains or genotypes. The resultant structure is dikaryotic. It gives rise to basidium.
Karyogamy & meiosis occur in basidium producing 4 basidiospores exogenously.
Basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps.
E.g. Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut) and Puccinia (rust fungus).

Unicellular (e.g. yeast, Sacharomyces) or multicellular (e.g. Penicillium).

They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous (growing on dung). Sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy
Mycelium is branched and septate. occurs by fusion of two vegetative or somatic
cells of different strains or genotypes. The
resultant structure is dikaryotic. It gives rise
Asexual reproduction to basidium.
By conidia produced Karyogamy & meiosis occur in basidium
exogenously on the producing 4 basidiospores exogenously.
special mycelium Basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called
called conidiophores. basidiocarps.
Conidia germinate to E.g. Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut)
produce mycelium. and Puccinia (rust fungus).

Deuteromycetes reproduce only by asexual

spores (conidia).
Mycelium is septate and branched.
Sexual reproduction Some are saprophytes or parasites. Majority
By ascospores produced endogenously in sac like asci (sing. ascus). Asci are arranged to form are decomposers of litter and help in mineral
ascocarps (fruiting bodies). cycling.
Examples E.g. Alternaria, Colletotrichum and
Aspergillus, Claviceps & Neurospora. Trichoderma.
Neurospora is used in biochemical and genetic work.
Many members like morels & buffles are edible and are delicacies.
 It includes all plants (eukaryotic chlorophyll- In five-kingdom classification, acellular organisms (viruses & viroids) and lichens are not
mentioned.
containing organisms with cellulosic cell wall).
Viruses are non-cellular and not truly ‘living’. So they are not included in five-kingdom
Some are partially heterotrophic such as the classification.
insectivorous plants (e.g. Bladderwort and Venus Viruses have an inert crystalline structure outside the living cell.
Viruses are obligate parasites.
fly trap) or parasites (e.g. Cuscuta). When they infect a cell they take over the machinery of host cell to replicate themselves,
Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, killing the host.
gymnosperms & angiosperms.

Life cycle of plants has two distinct phases – the

diploid sporophytic & the haploid gametophytic –
Louis Pasteur : Gave the name ‘virus’ {means venom or
poisonous fluid}
that alternate with each other.
The lengths of the haploid and diploid phases, and
whether these phases are free living or dependent
on others, vary among different groups in plants.
This phenomenon is called alternation of
generation. D.J Ivanowsky : Discovered virus. He recognised certain microbes
that cause mosaic disease of tobacco. They were smaller than
bacteria because they passed through bacteria – proof filters

M.W. Beijernick : Demonstrated that the extract of the infected

They are multicellular, heterotrophic,eukaryotic organisms without cell wall plants of tobacco could cause infection in healthy plants and
called the fluid as ‘Contagium vivium fluidum’ {infectious living
They directrly or indirectly depend on plants for food. They digest food in an internal cavity fluid}
and store food reserves as glycogen or fat. Mode of nutrition is holozoic {ingestion of food}
They have a definite growth and pattern and grow into adults that have a definite shape and
size
Higher forms show sensory and neuromotor mechanism
Most of them are capablkeof locomotion
W.M. Stanley : Showed that viruses could be crystallized and
Sexual reproduction is by copulation of male and female followed by embryological crystals consist largely of proteins
development
A virus is a nucleoprotein, i.e, it has a protein
coat (capsid) & genetic material (RNA or
DNA).
No virus contains both RNA & DNA.
The genetic material is infectious.

Generally, viruses that infect plants have

single stranded RNA.
Viruses that infect animals have either single
or double stranded RNA or double stranded
DNA.
Bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria)
usually have double stranded DNA. The protein coat (capsid) made of small
subunits (capsomeres) protects nucleic
acid.
Capsomeres are arranged in helical or
polyhedral geometric forms.

Viroid: It is an infectious agent with a free low molecular

weight RNA and no protein coat.
These are smaller than viruses.
It is discovered by T.O. Diener (1971). He found that it
caused potato spindle tuber disease.

Lichens: Lichens are

symbiotic associations
(mutually useful
associations) between algae
Polyhedral & fungi.
geometric The algal component is
called phycobiont
(autotrophic) and fungal
Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small pox, component is mycobiont T.O. Diener
herpes, influenza & AIDS. (heterotrophic).
Helical In plants, the symptoms can be mosaic formation,
leaf rolling & curling, yellowing & vein clearing,
dwarfing & stunted growth.

Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi provide

shelter and absorb mineral nutrients and water
for its partner.

Lichens are very good Pollution indicators.

They do not grow in polluted areas. Potato spindle tuber disease
 Earliest systems of classification.
They were based on vegetative characters or
superficial morphological characters such as habit,
colour, number and shape of leaves, etc.
Linnaeus’s artificial system of classification was based
on the androecium structure.
Drawbacks:
They separated the closely related species since they
were based on a few characteristics.
Equal weightage to vegetative & sexual
characteristics. This is not acceptable since the
vegetative characters are more easily affected by
environment. Carl Linnaeus

These are based on natural

affinities among organisms.
It considers external features and
internal features (ultrastructure,
anatomy, embryology &
phytochemistry).
E.g. Classification for flowering
plants given by George Bentham &
Joseph Dalton Hooker.

George Bentham Joseph Dalton Hooker

 Simple, thalloid, autotrophic, chlorophyll-bearing and
aquatic (fresh water & marine) organisms.

These are based on evolutionary
relationships among the organisms.
This assumes that organisms in the same
taxa have a common ancestor.
They also occur in moist stones, soils & wood.
Some occur in association with fungi (lichen) and
animals (e.g. on sloth bear).
Lichens

Moss
Algae On Sloth hair
Numerical Taxonomy: It is based on all observable
characteristics. It is carried out using computers. The form and size of algae is highly
Number & codes are assigned to all the characters and variable.
the data are processed. Thus hundreds of characters can Microscopic unicellular forms: E.g.
be equally considered. Chlamydomonas.
Colonial forms: E.g. Volvox.
Cytotaxonomy: It is based on cytological information like Spirogyra Ulothrix Filamentous forms: E.g. Ulothrix
chromosome number, structure, behaviour etc. and Spirogyra.

Chemotaxonomy: It uses the chemical constituents of

the plant.

Chalmydomonas Volvox

Vegetative reproduction:
By fragmentation. Each fragment develops into a thallus.
Asexual reproduction:
By the production of spores.
E.g. zoospores (most common). They are flagellated
(motile). They germinate to give rise to new plants.
Sexual reproduction:
Through fusion of two gametes.
Sexual reproduction is many types:
Isogamous: Fusion of gametes similar in size.
They may be flagellated (e.g. Chlamydomonas) or
non-flagellated (non-motile, e.g. Spirogyra).
Anisogamous: Fusion of two gametes dissimilar
in size.
E.g. Some species of Chlamydomonas.
Oogamous: Fusion between one large, non-motile
(static) female gamete and a smaller, motile male
gamete.
E.g. Volvox, Fucus.

Through photosynthesis, they fix half of the total CO2 on earth and increase the level of dissolved
oxygen.
They are primary producers and the basis of the food cycles of all aquatic animals
About 70 species of marine algae are used as food.
E.g. Porphyra, Laminaria &Sargassum.
Agar (from Gelidium & Gracilaria) is used to grow microbes and in ice-creams & jellies.
Some marine brown & red algae
produce hydrocolloids (water holding
substances). E.g. algin (brown algae)
& carrageen (red algae). These are
used commercially.
Protein-rich unicellular algae like
Chlorella & Spirullina are used as food
supplements by space travellers.
Unicellular, colonial or filamentous.
Usually grass green due to the pigments
chlorophyll a & b in chloroplasts.
The chloroplasts may be discoid, plate-like,
reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon-
shaped in different species
Most of them have one or more
pyrenoids (storage bodies) located in
chloroplasts. Pyrenoids contain
protein besides starch.
Some algae store food as oil droplets.
They have rigid cell wall made of an
inner cellulose layer and an outer
pectose layer.
 Most of them have one or more pyrenoids (storage bodies) located in chloroplasts.
Pyrenoids contain protein besides starch.
Some algae store food as oil droplets.
They have rigid cell wall made of an inner cellulose layer and an outer pectose layer.
E.g. Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra & Chara.
They are mostly marine forms.
They show great variation in size & form. They range from simple branched, filamentous
forms (E.g. Ectocarpus) to profusely branched forms (e.g. kelps- 100 m in height).
They have chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids & xanthophylls.
They vary in colour from olive green to brown depending upon the amount of a xanthophyll
pigment, fucoxanthin.

Chlamydomonas Volvox

Most of them have one or more pyrenoids (storage bodies) located in chloroplasts. Pyrenoids
contain protein besides starch.
Some algae store food as oil droplets.
They have rigid cell wall made of an inner cellulose layer and an outer pectose layer.
E.g. Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra & Chara.
Food is stored as complex carbohydrates (laminarin or mannitol).
The vegetative cells have a cellulosic wall covered by a gelatinous coating of algin.
Protoplast contains plastids, central vacuole and nucleus.
Plant body is attached to substratum by a holdfast, and has a stalk (stipe) and leaf like
photosynthetic organ (frond).
E.g. Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Laminaria, Sargassum & Fucus.

Ulothrix
Reproduction
Vegetative reproduction: By
fragmentation or by formation
of different types of spores.
Asexual reproduction: By
flagellated zoospores produced
in zoosporangia.
Sexual reproduction: Isogamous,
anisogamous or oogamous.
Reproduction
Vegetative reproduction: By
Spirogyra Chara fragmentation.
Asexual reproduction: By pear-
shaped biflagellate zoospores
(have 2 unequal laterally
attached flagella).
Sexual reproduction: Isogamous,
anisogamous or oogamous. Union of
gametes occurs in water or within the
oogonium (oogamous species).
Gametes are pear-shaped (pyriform)
bearing 2 laterally attached flagella.
Sargassum
 Chlorophyceae Phaeophyceae Rhodophyceae

Common name Green algae Brown algae Red algae

Major Chlorophyll a, c, Chlorophyll a, d,
They have red thalli due to the red pigment, r- Chlorophyll a, b
pigments Fucoxanthin Phycoerythrin
phycoerythrin.
Stored food Starch Mannitol, laminarin Floridean Starch
Majority are marine especially in warmer areas.
They occur in both well-lighted regions close to Cell wall Cellulose Cellulose and algin Cellulose

the surface of water and at great depths in Flagellar

oceans where relatively little light penetrates. number &
2-8, equal, apical 2, unequal, lateral Absent
position of
Most of them are multicellular. insertion
Fresh water, salt Fresh water (some),
Some have complex body organisation.
Habitat water & brackish
Fresh water (rare), salt
salt water (most) &
water & brackish water
The food is stored as floridean starch which is structurally very similar to amylopectin & water brackish water

glycogen.

E.g. Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Gracilaria and Gelidium.

Reproduction
Vegetative reproduction:
By fragmentation.
Asexual reproduction:
By non-motile spores.
Sexual reproduction:

Oogamous. By non-motile
gametes. It has complex post
fertilisation developments.
Gracilaria Gelidium
 Zygotes do not undergo meiosis immediately.
They produce a multicellular body called a
sporophyte.
They are called amphibians of the plant kingdom
because they can live in soil but need water for Sporophyte is not free-living but attached to the
sexual reproduction. photosynthetic gametophyte and derives
They occur in damp, humid and shaded localities. nourishment from it. Some cells of the
sporophyte undergo meiosis to produce haploid
Body is more spores. These spores germinate to form
differentiated than that gametophyte.
of algae. It is thallus-
like and prostrate or
erect, and attached to
the substratum by
unicellular or
multicellular rhizoids.
They lack true roots, Some mosses provide food for herbaceous mammals, birds etc.
stem or leaves. Species of Sphagnum (a moss) provide peat. It is used as fuel. It has water holding
They may possess root-
like, leaf-like or stem- capacity so that used as packing material for trans-shipment of living material.
like structures.
The main plant body is
haploid. It produces They are ecologically
gametes, hence is important because of their
called a gametophyte. role in plant succession on
bare rocks/soil. Mosses
along with lichens
decompose rocks making
the substrate suitable for
the growth of higher plants.

Since mosses form dense

mats on the soil, they can
prevent soil erosion.

The sex organs in bryophytes are multicellular.

Male sex organ (antheridium) produces biflagellate antherozoids.
Female sex organ (archegonium) is flask-shaped and produces a single egg.

Antherozoids are released to water and meet archegonium.

Primary succession Dense mat of mosses on soil
An antherozoid fuses with the egg to form zygote.
They grow usually in moist, shady habitats such The predominant stage of the life cycle of a
as banks of streams, marshy ground, damp soil, moss is the gametophyte.
bark of trees and deep in the woods. It consists of two stages:
Their plant body is thalloid. E.g. Marchantia. First stage: Protonema stage
Thallus is dorsi-ventral and closely appressed to Second stage: Leafy stage
the substrate.
The leafy members have tiny leaf-like Protonema stage: It develops directly from
appendages in two rows on the stem-like a spore. It is a creeping, green, branched
structures. and frequently filamentous stage.
Leafy stage: It develops from the secondary
protonema as a lateral bud. They consist of
Asexual reproduction upright, slender axes bearing spirally
By fragmentation of thalli, or by the formation of arranged leaves. They are attached to soil
gemmae (sing. gemma). through multicellular and branched
Gemmae are green, multicellular, asexual buds that rhizoids. This stage bears the sex organs.
develop in small receptacles (gemma cups) on the thalli.
The gemmae are detached from the parent body and Vegetative reproduction
germinate to form new individuals. By fragmentation and budding in the secondary
protonema
Sexual reproduction
The antheridia & archegonia are produced at the
apex of leafy shoots.
After fertilisation, zygote develops to a sporophyte
having a foot, seta & capsule.
The sporophyte in mosses is more elaborate than
that in liverworts.
The capsule contains spores. Spores are formed
after meiosis.
Mosses have an elaborate mechanism of spore
dispersal.

Sexual reproduction
Male and female sex organs are
produced on the same or different
thalli.
Sporophyte is differentiated into a
foot, seta and capsule.
After meiosis, spores are produced
within the capsule.
These spores germinate to form free-
living gametophytes
 They include The sporophytes bear
sporangia that are subtended
horsetails and by leaf-like appendages called
Sporangium
ferns. sporophylls
Sporophylls

In some cases, sporophylls form distinct compact

structures called strobili or cones (E.g.
They are found in cool, damp, shady places. Some flourish well in sandy-soil conditions. Selaginella, Equisetum).
Evolutionarily, they are the first terrestrial plants to possess vascular tissues (xylem &
phloem).
Sporophyte

Sporangia produce spores

by meiosis in spore
mother cells.

The spores germinate to

give inconspicuous, small,
In bryophytes, the dominant phase is the gametophyte. In pteridophytes, the dominant phase
multicellular, free-living,
(main plant body) is a sporophyte. It is differentiated into true root, stem and leaves. These
mostly photosynthetic
organs have well-differentiated vascular tissues.
thalloid gametophytes
The leaves in pteridophyta are small (microphylls) as in Selaginella or large (macrophylls) as
called prothallus
in ferns.

They are used for medicinal purposes.

They are used as soil-binders.
They are grown as ornamentals.
Prothallus requires cool, damp, shady places to
grow. Also, it needs water for fertilization. So,
the spread of pteridophytes is limited and
restricted to narrow geographical regions.
The gametophytes (prothallus) bear male and
female sex organs called antheridia and
archegonia, respectively

Water is needed for transfer of antherozoids

(male gametes from antheridia) to the mouth
of archegonium.
Antherozoid fuses with the egg in the
archegonium to form zygote.
Zygote develops to a multicellular well-
differentiated sporophyte.

Most of the pteridophytes produce similar kinds of spores (homosporous plants).

Others produce two kinds of spores, macro (mega) & micro spores. They are heterosporous.
E.g. Selaginella & Salvinia.

The megaspores & microspores germinate and

give rise to female and male gametophytes,
respectively. The female gametophytes are
retained on the parent sporophytes for variable
periods.

Within female gametophytes, zygotes develop

into young embryos. This event is a precursor to
the seed habit. It is considered as an important
step in evolution.
 Pinus roots with
mycorrhiza

Gymnosperms (gymnos: naked, sperma: seeds) are

plants in which the ovules are not enclosed by ovary
wall and remain exposed before and after fertilization.

Seeds that develop post-fertilization are not covered

(naked).

The roots are generally tap roots.

Roots in some genera have fungal association in the form of mycorrhiza (E.g. Pinus).

In plants like Cycas, small specialized roots (coralloid roots) are associated with N2- fixing
cyanobacteria.
Gymnosperm ovule Angiosperm ovule

They include Stems are unbranched (Cycas) or branched (Pinus, Cedrus).

medium-
sized trees Leaves are simple or compound. They are well-adapted to withstand extreme temperature,
or tall trees humidity and wind.
and shrubs.
In Cycas, the pinnate leaves persist for a few years.

In conifers (Pinus, Cedrus etc.), the needle-like leaves reduce the surface area. Their thick
cuticle & sunken stomata also help to reduce water loss.
The
gymnosperm,
Sequoia (giant Gymnosperms are heterosporous. They produce haploid microspores and megaspores.
redwood) is the
tallest tree Some leaves are modified into sporophylls. They are compactly and spirally arranged along
species. an axis to form lax or strobili or cones.
 Sporophylls bear sporangia in which spores are produced.
Sporophylls are 2 types: Microsporophylls & Megasporophylls
Cycas: Female cone
Microsporophylls
They are arranged to male strobili
(microsporangiate).
Cycas They bear microsporangia.
The microspores develop into male gametophytes.
It is highly reduced and confined to only a limited
number of cells. This gametophyte is called a
pollen grain.
The pollen grains are developed within the
microsporangia.
Megasporophylls
They are arranged to female strobili (macrosporangiate).
They bear megasporangia (ovules).
Megasporangium mainly consists of a body called nucellus. It is protected by envelopes.
The megaspore mother cell is differentiated from a cell of the nucellus.
Megaspore mother cell undergoes
meiosis to form four megaspores.
One of the megaspores enclosed
within the Megasporangium
(nucellus) develops into a
multicellular female gametophyte
that bears two or more
archegonia.
The multicellular female
gametophyte is also retained
within megasporangium
The male or female cones may be borne on the same tree
(Pinus) or on different trees (Cycas).
Unlike bryophytes and pteridophytes, in gymnosperms, the
male and the female gametophytes do not have an
independent free-living existence. They remain within the
sporangia retained on the sporophytes.
 LIFE CYCLE OF GYMNOSPERMS

The pollen grain released from the microsporangium are carried in air
currents and meet the opening of the ovules.
The pollen tube carrying the male gametes grows towards archegonia in the
ovules and discharges their contents near the mouth of the archegonia.
After fertilization, zygote develops into an embryo and the ovules into seeds.
Animals are multicellular and heterotrophic.
Animal kingdom is most diverse than the plant kingdom.

Based on the organization of the cells, there are 3 levels of organization

Cellular level of organization: Cells are arranged as loose cell aggregates. E.g. sponges
Tissue level of organization: Cells are arranged into tissues. E.g. coelenterates, ctenophores
Organ level of organization: Tissues are arranged into organs and the organs are associated to
form organ systems. Each system performs a specific physiological function. E.g. All higher
animals (from platyhelminthes to chordates).
Organ systems of different animals show complexities. For example,
The digestive system of cnidarians and platyhelminthes is incomplete (only a single opening
functioning as mouth and anus). Complete digestive system has 2 openings (mouth and anus).
Circulatory system is 2 types (open and closed).

It is the arrangement of similar body parts on 2

sides of main axis of body.
Based on symmetry, animals are 2 types:
 Symmetry is 2 types:

Radial symmetry
Bilateral symmetry
Radial symmetry: Body can be divided into 2 similar parts by any plane along oral- aboral axis The layers of gastrula from which body organs
of body. E.g. some Sponges, Coelenterates, Echinoderms. are formed.
Based on the number of germ layers, animals
are 2 types- Diploblastic and Triploblastic.
Diploblastic animals: 2 germ layers- outer
ectoderm and inner endoderm. E.g. Sponges
and Coelenterates.
Triploblastic animals: 3 germ layers- Outer
ectoderm, middle mesoderm and inner
endoderm. E.g. Flat worms to mammals.

Bilateral symmetry: Body can be divided into 2 right and left halves by a section passing
through the longitudinal axis.
Such animal has
An upper or vertebral dorsal side
A lower ventral side
Left and right lateral sides
Anterior (cephalic) side and
Posterior (anal) side.
E.g. All vertebrates and many invertebrates. It is the space between body wall and gut wall.
Coelom separates the muscles of gut and body wall.
On the basis of nature of coelom animals are 3 types.
Acoelomate
Pseudocoelomate
Eucoelomate (True coelomate)
Acoelomate: No coelom. The space between
body wall and digestive cavity is filled with
matrix (parenchyma). E.g. Porifers,
Coelenterates and flat worms.
Pseudocoelomates: Here, blastocoel becomes
the coelom. It is not lined by peritoneal layer.
E.g. roundworms.

Eucoelomates (True coelomates): The

coelom in animals except the roundworms
arises from the mesoderm. Coelom is lined by
peritoneal layer and filled with coelomic fluid.
E.g. Annelids to mammals.
 Functions of coelom:
It accommodates visceral organs
Coelomic fluid provides moist environment to visceral organs
Acts as shock absorber
Levels of Germ
Friction is minimized. Symmetry Coelom Phylum
organisation layers
Asymmetrical
Cellular level Diploblastic Acoelomate Porifera
/ radial
Cnidaria
Tissue Diploblastic Radial Acoelomate
Ctenophora

Acoelomate Platyhelminthes
In some animals, the body is formed of
similar parts (segments or metameres).
Pseudocoelomate Aschelminthes
This segmentation is called metamerism.
E.g. Annelids, Arthropods. Organ/
Triploblastic Bilateral Annelida
Organ system
In vertebrates: only internal metamerism. Arthropoda
Mollusca
Coelomates
Echinodermata
Hemichordata
Chordata

Habit: Aquatic. Sedentary. Solitary or colonial.

It is a supporting rod formed on the dorsal
side during embryonic development in some
animals. Animals with notochord are called
chordates and those without notochord are
called non-chordates.
Digestive system: Absent. Digestion is intracellular. Water
transport (canal system) to gather food.
Respiratory system: Absent. Respiration by canal system.
Circulatory system: Absent. Circulation by canal system.
Excretory system: Absent. Excretion by canal system.
Nervous system: Absent
 Other features:
Reproductive system:
Tentacles for food collection and defence.
Hermaphrodite.
Tentacles possess cnidoblasts (stinging cells) with
ARP by fragmentation.
poison filled capsule (nematocyst).
SRP by the formation of sperms and ova.
Cnidoblast is used to kill or paralyse the enemies &
Fertilization internal.
prey.
Development is indirect.

Other features: CNIDOBLAST

Millions of minute pores (ostia).

Body wall with outer layer of flat cells
(pinacocytes) and inner layer of flagellated cells
(choanocytes or collar cells).
Body is supported by spicules & spongin fibres.
Highest degree of regenerating capacity.

Polyp and Medusa are 2 kinds of body

forms.
Show polymorphism and alternation of
generation.

Habit: Aquatic. Solitary or colonial. Sessile or free

swimming.
Digestive system: Incomplete. Intracellular and
extracellular digestion.
Respiratory system: Absent
Circulatory system: Absent
Excretory system: Body surface
Nervous system: Only a network of neurons.

Reproductive system:
Polyp reproduces asexually (budding) and medusa sexually.
Fertilization external.
Development is indirect.
 Excretory system:
Habit: Marine, solitary and pelagic. Protonephridia with flame cells (solenocytes).
Ammonotelic
Digestive system: Incomplete. Intracellular & extracellular
digestion. Nervous system:
Ladder-like.
Respiratory system: Absent
A brain and nerve cords,
Circulatory system: Absent connected by transverse nerves.
Excretory system: Body surface Reproductive system:
Nervous system: Only a network of neurons. ARP by fragmentation and regeneration.
Reproductive system: Most are hermaphrodite.
Only SRP. In SRP fertilization is internal.
Hermaphrodite. Development is indirect
Fertilization external. Other features:
Development is indirect. Unsegmented flat leaf like body (except tape
Other features: worms).
Locomotion is by 8 vertical external rows of ciliated comb plates. The first group showing cephalization.
Tentacles present. Examples: Taenia solium, Planaria, Liver fluke
Shows Bioluminescence.

Habit: Parasites. Some are free-living. Mainly aquatic.

Digestive system:
Branched alimentary canal with mouth.
Anus absent.
In parasites alimentary canal absent.
Respiratory system: Absent
Circulatory system: Absent
 Nervous system: A pair of cerebral ganglia
(brain) and a double ventral nerve cord.
Habit: Free living or parasitic Reproductive system:
Digestive system: Earth worms and leeches are
Tubular alimentary canal with mouth, pharynx, hermaphrodites.
intestine and anus. Free swimming trochophore larva.
Mouth may possess teeth Other features: True segmentation.
Respiratory system: Absent Covered by thick cuticle.
Circulatory system: Absent Locomotory organs are setae or parapodia.
Excretory system: H-shaped Renett cells. Examples: Earthworm, Leech, Neries,
Ammonotelic Aphrodite, Chaetopterus
Nervous system: Consists of circumpharyngeal
ring with dorsal and ventral nerves.
Reproductive system:
SRP.
Internal fertilization.
Development is direct.
Other features:
Syncitial epidermis.
Thick cuticle.
Sexual dimorphism.
Examples: Ascaris, Ancylostoma,
Wuchereria, Enterobius

Habit: Cosmopolitan
Habit: Terrestrial, fresh water or marine or Digestive system:
parasitic. Well developed.
Mouth parts are different types.
Digestive system: Pharynx, oesophagus,
stomach, intestine. Respiratory system: Gills, trachea, book gills or book
lungs.
Respiratory system: Cutaneus respiration.
Some have branchial (gill) respiration Circulatory system: Open type
Circulatory system: Closed type Excretory system:
Either Antennary glands or Malpighian tubules or coxal
Excretory system: Nephridia. Aq. forms are
glands.
ammonotelic and terr. forms ureotelic.
Aq. forms are ammonotelic. Ter. forms are uricotelic.
Nervous system: A nerve ring followed by
a double ventral nerve cord, which is
ganglionated.
Reproductive system:
Sexes are separate.
External fertilization in aq.forms.
Internal fertilization in land forms.
Oviparous. Some are viviparous.
Other features:
Jointed appendages.
3 regions: head, thorax and abdomen.
Body is covered by cuticle.
Ecdysis (moulting) present.
Metamorphosis present.
Examples: Spider, Scorpion, Crab, Prawn,
Lepisma, insects etc.

Habit: Generally aquatic. Few are terrestrial.

Digestive system:
Well developed.
Salivary glands and liver present.
Respiratory system: Gills in aq.forms and pulmonary
sac in terrestrial forms.
Circulatory system: Open type
Excretory system:
Organs of Bojanus.
Ammonotelic or ureotelic.
Nervous system: Paired ganglia and their connectives.
Reproductive system:
Sexes are separate.
Development direct or indirect.
Larval forms are glochidium, trochophore and veliger.
Other features:
Body is divisible into head, visceral mass (visceral hump) &
foot.
Univalve or bivalve shell.
Mantle and radula present.
Examples: Pila, Achatina, Pinctada, Sepia, Loligo, Octopus,
 Other Features:
Body is covered with spines for protection.
Head absent.
Endoskeleton (ossicles) present.
Water vascular system for locomotion and
food capture.
Great power of autotomy and regeneration.
Examples: Star fish, Echinus,
Echinocardium, Antedon, Cucumaria

Habit: Exclusively marine.

Digestive system: Simple and complete.
Respiratory system: Dermal branchiae (gills) or
Habit: Marine
papulae and tube feet.
Digestive system: Complete
Circulatory system: Reduced
Respiratory system: Gills
Excretory system:
Diffusion through gills. Circulatory system: Open type
Ammonotelic Excretory system: Proboscis gland
Nervous system: Nervous system:
Circum oral nerve ring and some radiating nerves. Reproductive system: infra-epidermal type
No brain. Sexes are separate.
Reproductive system: Fertilization external.
Fertilization external. Development is indirect.
Development indirect. Other features: Cylindrical body composed of an
Ciliated free swimming larva. anterior proboscis, a collar and a long trunk.
, Examples: Balanoglossus, Saccoglossus
These are animals with
notochord, dorsal tubular
nerve cord and pharyngeal gill
slits.
Notochord is a flexible rod
located in the mid dorsal line
between the alimentary canal
and the nerve cord in the
embryo.

Chordata Non-chordata
Notochord is found in the embryonic stage Absent
Central nervous system is dorsal, hollow and single Ventral, solid and double
Pharyngeal gill slits present Absent
Ventral heart Dorsal heart (if present)
A post-anal tail is present Absent
Endoskeleton and exoskeleton present Only exoskeleton
Hepatic portal system present Absent
Marine
Marine Fresh water Aquarium
Heterocercal caudal fin
Exocoetus (flying fish) Labeo (Rohu) Betta (Fighting
Cartilaginous
Gill slits without operculum Hippocampus (sea horse) Catla (Katla) fish)
Skin with placoid scales
Sardine Clarias (Magur) Pterophyllum
Teeth are modified placoid scales which are
backwardly directed Mackeral Tilapia (Angel fish) etc.
No air bladder so they have to swim constantly to
Tuna Anabas (Climbing
avoid sinking
Sexes are separate. In males pelvic fins bear Remora (sucker fish) perch)
claspers
Pomfret
Internal fertilization
Many of them viviparous Cybium
E.g. Scoliodon (Dog fish), Pristis (Saw fish),
Carcharodon (Great white shark), Trygon (Sting
ray), Torpedo (have electric organ).

Marine and fresh water

Homocercal caudal fin
Bony endoskeleton
Terminal mouth
Gills (4 pairs) covered by an operculum on each side
Aquatic larval life and terrestrial adult life
Cycloid, ctenoid or ganoid scales For breeding they require a watery environment
Air bladder for buoyancy Pentadactyl limbs
Moist skin without scales
Sexes are separate A tympanum represents the ear
Fertilisation external Alimentary canal, urinary and reproductive tracts open into a common chamber (Cloaca)
which opens to exterior
Mostly oviparous Respiration is by gills (in larva), lungs and through skin.
Development direct 3-chambered heart (2 auricles + 1 ventricle)
Poikilotherms
Sexes are separate. Fertilisation external. Oviparous. Development is indirect
E.g. Bufo (Toad), Rana (Frog), Hyla (Tree frog), Salamandra (Salamander), Ichthyophis
(Limbless amphibia), Ambystoma (Tiger salamander), Rhacophorus (Flying frog)
Dry & cornified skin, epidermal scales or scutes Snakes and lizards shed their scales as skin
cast. Presence of mammary glands (milk producing glands).
Tympanum represents ear.
Limbs- 2 pairs (if present) 2 pairs of limbs for walking, running, climbing, burrowing, swimming or flying.
3-chambered heart (but a septum partially separates ventricle). Heart is 4-chambered in Skin with hair.
crocodiles.
Poikilotherms External ear (Pinnae)
Fertilisation internal Heterodont, thecodont, diphyodont.
Oviparous
Development is direct 4-chambered heart.
Examples: Homoiotherms.
Chelone (Turtle), Testudo (Tortoise)
Chameleon (Tree lizard), Calotes (Garden lizard) Respiration by lungs.
Crocodilus (Crocodile), Alligator, Gavialis (gharial) Sexes are separate.
Hemidactylus (Wall lizard), Sphenodon (Tautara), Draco (flying dragon or flying lizard),
Phrynosoma (horned lizard), Varanus (monitor), Fertilisation internal.
Poisonous snakes: Naja (Cobra), Bangarus (Krait), Vipera (Viper), Crotalus (rattle snake), Viviparous (except Echidna and Platypus).
Enhydrina (sea snake) etc.
Non-poisonous snakes: Python, Typhlos (blind snake), Dryophis (tree snake) Development is direct.
E.g. Ornithorhynchus (Platypus), Macropus (Kangaroo), Pteropus (flying fox), Camelus
(Camel), Macaca (Monkey), Rattus (Rat), Canis (dog), Felis (Cat), Elephas (Elephant), Equus
(Horse), Delphinus (Common Dolphin), Balaenoptera (blue whale), Panthera tigris (Tiger),
Panthera leo (lion)

Presence of feathers
Possess beak
Forelimbs are modified into wings
Hind limbs have scales and are modified for walking, swimming, or clasping tree branches
Skin is dry without glands except the oil gland at the base of tail
Long bones are hollow and pneumatic
Digestive tract with additional chambers, the crop and gizzard
Heart is 4-chambered
Homoiotherms (warm-blooded).
Double respiration. Air sacs connected to lungs.
No urinary bladder.
Fertilisation is internal.
Oviparous.
Development is direct.
E.g. Corvus (Crow), Columba (Pigeon), Psittacula (Parrot), Struthio (Ostrich), Pavo (Peacock),
Gullus (Fowl), Bubo, Aptenodytes (Penguin), Neophron (Vulture) etc.
 Protochordata (Acraniata)
Vertebrata (Craniata)
Urochordata (Tunicata) Cephalochordata

Notochord present Notochord extends from Possess notochord during the

only in larval tail head to tail region and is embryonic period
Body is covered by persistent throughout Notochord is replaced by a
test made up of the life cartilaginous or bony
tunicin Exclusively marine vertebral column in the adult
Exclusively marine Fish-like Ventral muscular heart
Retrogressive No definite coelom Kidneys for excretion and
metamorphosis Sexes are separate osmoregulation
Hermaphrodite E.g. Branchiostoma Paired appendages which
E.g. Ascidia, Salpa, (Amphioxus or Lancelet) may be fins or limbs
Doliolum.

Ascidia