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Limestone Fragmentation Analysis Using Real Time Digital Imaging

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 African Journal of Mining, Entrepreneurship and Natural Resource Management (AJMENRM)
ISSN: 2706-6002 Volume 1, Issue 2 (April 2020), PP 51-58
www.ajmenrm.ttu.ac.ke/

Limestone Fragmentation Analysis Using Real Time Digital

Imaging
Mutinda E Kiamba*, Erick Kinyua, Richard M Kasomo
Mining and Mineral Processing Engineering Department, School of Mines and Engineering, Taita Taveta
University, P.O. Box 635-80300, Voi, Kenya
*
Corresponding author: kiambaemmanuel@gmail.com
Abstract : Precise estimation of blasting rock fragments is of extraordinary essentialness in hard rock drill
and blast operations. The post-blast rock size appropriation can essentially impact the productivity of all the
proceeding mining works. Picture processing techniques are one of the most well-known strategies used to
quantify blast rock fragments size dissemination in mines paying little mind to analysis for absence of exactness
to fragment fine particles and other saw inadequacies. The present act of gathering rock fragmentation
information for picture processing is profoundly manual and furnishes information with low transient and
spatial goals. Utilizing drones for gathering excellent pictures of rock parts cannot just improve the nature of
the picture information yet additionally computerize the information assortment process. Eventually, constant
obtaining of high worldly and spatial-goals information dependent on drone innovation will give a wide scope
of chances for both improving shoot structure without intruding on the production procedure. This research
work is to determine fragment size distribution utilizing imaging by camera mount drone and Kuz-Ram model so
as to improve the general handling of blasted material. This work likewise features the advantages of real-time
investigation as far as both expectation precision and time. Rock sections from a several blasts were shot by a
camera connected to drone, and the fragment size distribution were created in practically real-time. The after-
blast investigation was likewise done utilizing Kuz-Ram model and the outcomes contrasted with the drone
technique. Considering the blast parameters, the outcome can additionally be utilized for advancement of
models and frameworks which better foresee and examinations blast fragmentation in mines.
Keywords - Blasting, Kuz-rams model, digital imaging, drone

1. INTRODUCTION
Estimating post-blast rock fragmentation is essential to hard rock mining tasks. Blasting in limestone
mining activities acts to diminish the size of rock sections so facilitate the treatment of the pieces in the
downstream mining and comminution works. The stone size conveyance initiated by blast impacts the
effectiveness of all downstream mining and comminution forms [2]. It has been indicated that rock
fragmentation can impact the volumetric and pressing properties of the stone (e.g., the fill factor and mass
volume) and, therefore, the effectiveness of materials handling at the site [11]. So also, there have been various
investigations that exhibit the immediate impact of the stone size dispersion took care of into the devastating and
pounding forms on vitality utilization, throughput rates and efficiency of these procedures [13]. Because of these
effects, the estimation of post-blast fragment sizes is a significant measurement in streamlining of mining
activity in hard rock excavation. It is proposed that ongoing fragment particle size distribution estimation ought
to be executed to improve shoot plan after some time with the objective of creating an ideal stone size
conveyance for downstream procedures [11].

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Since the commencement of mining, there have been numerous techniques created for assessing rock
size particle distribution. The regular strategies are: visual perception, sifter examination and picture
investigation. Visual perception includes investigating the stone heap and abstractly making a decision about the
nature of the blast [8]. This emotional strategy can prompt incorrect outcomes. Strainer examination includes
taking an example of the stone heap being considered and going it through a progression of various size sifter
plate. The stone size dissemination is determined by estimating the mass or volume of the stone material that

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Limestone Fragmentation Analysis Using Real Time Digital Imaging
remaining parts on every plate. This strategy produces progressively reliable outcomes; be that as it may, it is
increasingly costly, tedious and in specific cases unrealistic to proceed as the example rock size distribution may
not be measurably illustrative of the entire stone heap [9]. Picture investigation strategies have been created with
the ascent of computer picture handling and examination devices. Directing picture investigation includes taking
2D photographs, sound system pictures or 3D laser sweeps of the stone heap, and preparing these pictures to
decide fragment sizes [13]. Picture investigation methods empower down to earth, quick, and moderately
precise estimation of rock fragment sizes. Be that as it may, the accompanying impediments of picture
investigation have been recognized [11]:
 Delineation of particles may be constrained because of crumbling and combination of particles.
 Transformation of surface estimations of particles into volumes may not be illustrative of the particles
being tested.
 The goals of the picture framework are restricted contrasted with that of strainer investigation.
Precision of the fine’s locales utilizing picture investigation can be extremely low if the picture caught
isn't of high resolution.
 Mesh sizes doled out to certain stone sizes in picture investigation might be unique in relation to that
allocated in sieving because of the impact of fragment shape.
 A steady thickness is commonly applied to all fragment measures with the goal that volume
disseminations in picture investigation are legitimately identified with mass appropriations.

In an investigation of picture examination precision, [13] found that picture investigation strategies
brought about a blunder of under 30% in the coarse area of the stone size dissemination. In a similar report, a
mistake of under 85-100% was determined for the fine locale which implies that picture investigation isn't
dependable for fine particles [10]. Notwithstanding these constraints, picture investigation is as yet the most
widely recognized strategy used to gauge rock fragmentation in mines. The most well-known picture
examination method applied in mines utilizes 2D fixed cameras found (I) at the base of a stone heap, (ii) on
scoops and truck cans, (iii) at smasher stations, or on transports in the preparing plant to catch photographs [3].
These 2D picture examination procedures have the accompanying confinements:
(i) Fixed digital camera situated at the base of a garbage heap:
 Operators must place scaling objects on the stone heap.
 Photos must be taken a good way off of under 20m from the stone heap. This can interfere with
ongoing production operation and may put professionals in danger.
 The state of the fragment heap can impact the precision of the picture investigation.
 Only a constrained dataset can be gathered from a fixed area.
 Dust, haze, downpour, day off particulates can impede the picture taken.
 Lighting conditions can definitely affect the consequences of the picture examination.
(ii) Fixed single camera mounted on scoop blasts or truck basins [3]:
 Provision of Shielding is needed to shield the camera from environmental elements.
 Lighting may not be controlled satisfactorily.
 Breakdown of truck or excavator means no information will be gathered.
 Imaging a similar material on different occasions inclinations the outcomes.
 Vibration from operating equipment can impact the nature of pictures.
 There is need to introduce a camera with an unmistakable view at a point of view that is opposite to the
scoop pail, which can be troublesome.
(iii)Fixed single camera introduced in smasher stations:
 Detailed covering of pictures is required.
 The object used for scaling must be noticeable in picture.
 Difficult to coordinate material with source.
 Large measure of residue age discourages the picture.
 Imaging a similar point of view on numerous occasions predispositions the outcomes.

To beat a portion of these impediments, 3D estimation methods have been recommended that
utilization LIDAR stations or sound system cameras to capture pictures [3]. Utilizing 3D estimations for rock
fracture investigation wipes out the requirement for scale questions and decreases the mistake created by the
state of the sludge heap. On the off chance that estimations are taken with a LIDAR station, at that point the
blunder delivered by lopsided and imperfect lighting conditions can be dispensed with [6] too. While these
strategies lessen the confinements forced by 2D photographs, there are still perspectives that can be improved.
One case of this is the huge catch time required to take definite pictures with a LIDAR framework [3]. Another
constraint of these 3D imaging strategies is that they are as of now restricted to catching pictures from a fixed

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Limestone Fragmentation Analysis Using Real Time Digital Imaging
area since movement obscure can essentially streamline the 3D information, making fragment depiction
troublesome [6].

In rundown, the way toward utilizing cameras or LIDARs for post-blast rock fragment analysis is
profoundly manual and results in estimations that have low fleeting and spatial goals. Moreover, there is no
present work, as far as we could possibly know, which has concentrated on deciding an ideal picture assortment
strategy for rock fracture examination. To beat these confinements and to mechanize the information assortment
process, this paper presents the utilization of automaton innovation to lead constant stone fragmentation
examination [10].
As of late, ramble innovation has been acquainted into the mining condition with lead territory
reviewing, observing and volume computations [6]. These assignments are fundamental to the mining activity,
yet they don't use the entirety of the advantages that rambles UAVs can offer [10]. Automaton innovation can
possibly give securing of high-goals information which can be gainful in impact configuration, factory
activities, and other mine-to process advancement battles. Furthermore, automatons can give information
securing quick and regularly, which improves the factual unwavering quality of estimations.
This examination work additionally talked about Kuz-Ram and adjusted Rosin Rammler models in
foreseeing limestone fragmentation. The examination work was led and a few models have been created for the
expectation of piece size disseminations from explicit impact plans. Kuz-Ram and adjusted the Rosin–Rammler
model were picked for these examination work because of the accompanying reasons: Kuz-Ram is the most
generally utilized models in mechanical applications, The information required as contribution for these models
are simpler to assemble, The embraced Rosin–Rammler model was utilize-ed to foresee the portion of materials
held on the screen.

2.1. The Kuznetsov Equation

The measure of breakage that happens with a known amount of explosive energy can be estimated
using the Kuznets’s equation. The original question, developed by kuznetsov 1978, was modified by
Cunningham for ANFO base explosive [4].
0.633
  115 
X m  AK 0.8 0
QE.167  
S 
 ANFO  (1)
Where X m is the mean fragmentation size (cm), A the rock factor (or blastability index), K the powder factor or
specific charge (kg of explosive/m3 of rock), QE the mass of explosive being used (kg), S ANFO the relative
weight strength of the explosive relative to ANFO.
The blastability index is calculated from an equation originally developed by Lilly [8]. It is used to modify the
average fragmentation base on the rock type and blast direction [10].
A  0.06RMD  JF  RDI  HF  (2)
Where A is the blastability index, RMD the rock mass description, JF the joint factor, RDI the rock density
index and HF the hardness factor.
These factors are calculated from geological data such as; in-situ, block size, jointing spacing, joint orientation,
and rock specific gravity, young’s modulus unconfined compressive strength etc.
Powder factor K or specific charge is the mass of the explosive being used (kg) to break a cubic meter volume
of rock [8].
Q
K E (3)
V0
Where QE is the mass of explosive being used (kg), V0 the rock volume (m3) broken per blast hole
V0  burden( B) * spacing ( S ) * bench height( H )

2.2. The Rosin & Rammler Equation

The size distribution of the material is calculated from the Rosin & Rammler question especially in
mineral processing are (Rosin& Rammler 1933)

y  1001  e x / xc  
 n
(4)
 
Where y is the percentage of the material less than the size x (%)  diameter of fragment (cm)
xc the characteristic size (cm), n the Rosin & Rammler exponent e the base of natural logarithm. Since
the kuznetsov formula gives the screen size X m for which 50% of the material would pass, the characteristic

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Limestone Fragmentation Analysis Using Real Time Digital Imaging
size is calculated from the average size for use in the Rosin & Rammler equation by substituting X  X m and
y  0.5 into Equation (4) one find that ,
 
 Xm 
Xc   1 
(5)
 
 0.693 
n

The average particle size of the material obtained from a blasting operation is not enough information
explaining the efficiency of the operation. Thus, uniform particle size distribution is an important parameter that
has to be considered. This can be obtained from the adapted Rosin–Rammler equation (6).

2.3. The adapted Rosin–Rammler equation

The adapted Rosin–Rammler equation is given by
  x  
n

R m  exp  0.693     (6)
  x m  
 
Where R m  mass fraction retained on screen opening – boulders, x  screen opening; n  uniformity index,
usually between 0.7 and 2. The uniformity coefficient is calculated by Cunningham, established the applicable
uniformity taking into consideration the impact of such factors as: blast geometry, hole diameter, burden,
spacing, hole lengths and drilling accuracy [4]. The exponent n for the Rosin % Rammler equation is estimated
as follows
 S
 1 
 B  B 1  W  L 
n   2.2  14    (7)
 D   2  B  H 
 
Where B is the blasting burden (m); S, the blast hole spacing (m); W, the standard deviation of drilling
accuracy (m); D, the blast hole diameter (mm); L, the total charge length (m); H, the bench height (m) [4].
The pre-blast forecast utilizing Kuz-Ram, equipment decisions, site setup, and the technique used to
direct both Kuz -Ram and picture examination discussed in the proceeding subsections. This research work
paper likewise examines the outcomes, the advantages of using ramble innovation for rock fragment estimation,
and the picture examination procedure that was created to accomplish ideal picture investigation results. This
research work was done at East African Portland Cement Company (EAPCC) Bissel quarry. The quarry is
located in Kajiado County south of Nairobi, 9 Km off Namanga -Nairobi road near Bissel town as shown in
figure 1.

Fig. 1: Bissel quarry location (Source: google maps)

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 Limestone Fragmentation Analysis Using Real Time Digital Imaging

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This paper predicted blast fragments using Kuz ram model and compared the blast performance using
real time image analysis systems as elaborated in subsection 3.1 and 3.2.

3.1. Blast Fragmentation Prediction Using Empirical Formulae

Data for Blast Fragmentation Prediction Using Empirical Formulae were obtained from the Bissel
quarry of the East African Portland Cement Company Limited (EAPCC). They were acquired through field
measurements and extraction from the geological files and documents from the mine. The data include the
geometric blast design and explosive data of the lasts studied and rock parameters of the pits where the study
was conducted as shown in table 1 and table 2.

Table 1: Rock and Explosive Parameters at Bissel Quarry

Parameter Value
Bulk density (tonnes/m3) 2.51
Volume of blasted rock per drill hole (m3) 165
Nature of Blasted face Highly rugged
Average quantity per hole (kg/hole) 57
Powder factor (kg/m3) 0.3 varies
Loading density (kg/m) 9.5
Average charge length (m) 7.0
Stemming (m) 4.0
Base charge height (m) 1.0
Column charge height (m) 6.0
(S)Relative weight strength of explosives (ANFO) 100
Fly rock factor 1 for normal blasting

Table 1: Geometric Blast Parameters

Parameter Value
Spacing (m) 3.0
Bench height (m) 10.0
Burden (m) 3.0
Average hole depth (m) 11.0
Hole diameter (mm) 150.0
Average final stemming height (m) 4.0
Drilling deviation(m) 0.015
Average sub drill length (m) 1.0
Blasting pattern Rectangular

3.2. Fragmentation Analysis through automated image

This system consisted of integrated systems to make image analysis faster and more accurate as
described below.

3.2.1. Global positioning system

The open air apply drone lab was furnished with a movement catch camera framework for exact
automaton restriction and control. This economically accessible framework utilizes ten 4-megapixel Vicon MX-
F40 cameras. For more field work, the camera-based framework can be supplanted by standard (differential)
GPS, a concurrent restriction and mapping (SLAM) arrangement utilizing installed cameras for limitation [16],
or novel elective confinement strategies, for example, the ones dependent on ultra-wideband [10].

3.2.2. Blasted Rock fragment

Blast rock parts from the quarry were utilized following blast before any messing could occur and, in
any event, during Mucking [11]. To utilize this strainer investigation standard in the measurable examination of
the manual and robotized picture investigation techniques, a stone size circulation bend was fit to the gathered
information. Rosin-Rammler work was seen as a great fit to the information and anticipated the coarse locale of
information significantly more precisely.

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Limestone Fragmentation Analysis Using Real Time Digital Imaging
3.2.3. Drone specifications
An industrially accessible automaton with incorporated camera, the Parrot Bebop 2, was utilized in this
exploration work. Table III records the principle determinations of the automaton. This automaton had the
capacity to catch high-goals photographs and recordings, which are fundamental for precise picture
examination. It likewise has a GPS collector, which makes it fit for utilize open air field look into [5]. In this
exploration, the automaton communicated a protected Wi-Fi system to get control orders and transmit the
photographs and video stream to the Robot Operating System (ROS).

Table 3: Parrot Bebop 2 particulars [12].

Video resolution 1920 x 1080 pixels, 30 casings for every second
Flight duration Approximate 20 minutes
Weight 500 g
Streak storage 8 GB
Networking Wi-Fi MIMO Dual Band 2.4 &5 GHz
Working range Based on Wi-Fi controller gadget, up to 2 km
Camera resolution 14 megapixels
Battery Lithium polymer 2700 mAh

3.2.4. Image processing of blasted rock

For these examinations, Split-Desktop, an industry standard programming for picture investigation in
mining [14], was utilized. Live pictures that were caught from the drone video stream were automatically
brought into Split-Desktop and fragmentation size distribution was registered utilizing fitting macros and
computerization contents. When the picture examination was finished, rock size dissemination data was sent out
from Split-Desktop to MATLAB for factual investigation [15]. To be able to properly analyze the particle size
distribution, scale objects were placed on the muck pile as a source of perspective. The primary programming
parameters, for example, the fines factor, were adjusted utilizing sifter investigation information. The degree of
fines factor, utilized for each picture, was 10% and the size of scale object was set to 0.24 M.

3.2.5. Robot Operating System (ROS)

The open-source Robot Operating System (ROS) was picked to go about as the focal programming hub
of the examination arrangement. ROS is an adaptable programming system for composing robot programming
that has been generally received [1]. In these tests, ROS utilizes significant level way plan and genuine position
and direction estimations from the worldwide situating framework to send low-level speed and direction orders
remotely to the automaton. ROS itself gets sensor information from the UAV and communicates it to the system
for the resulting picture investigation [5].

3.2.6. MATLAB® Robotics System Toolbox™ (RST)

The MATLAB Robotics System Toolbox goes about as a connection between Robotic Operating
System and Split-Desktop while giving factual examination to the administrator progressively [5]. The RST was
utilized to obtain and spare communicated pictures, call a large scale to run picture examination on Split-
Desktop, and import the fragment size distribution by Split-Desktop for measurable investigation [12]. Table III
Parrot Bebop 2 specifications.

3.3. Fragmentation Prediction through automated image analysis Procedure

The procedure utilized is as described below
 scale objects were placed in position and drone fragmentation analysis system initiated as shown in
Figure 2;
 when the systems were ready and conditions safe to fly, takeoff command was sent;
 the drone moved along the predefined path taking photos of the blasted material;
 immediately the photos were taken they were relayed to the MATLAB for analysis;
 once the drone returns to the point of origin, analysis was finished;
 Rock size distribution results were saved On the MATLAB window, after poor quality images were
filtering out.

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Limestone Fragmentation Analysis Using Real Time Digital Imaging

Fig. 2: Blasted material with scale objects in place

The Image processing system is shown in the flow sheet in Figure 3.

Fig. 3: Drone image analysis system layout.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Rock fragmentation prediction using collected data
After the blast data was obtained, the geometric, explosive and rock parameters were used to predict
the fragment size distribution for the performed blasts while the images were used in determining the after-blast
fragments size distribution. The prediction was done using the Kuz-Ram and adapted the Rosin–Rammler model
using developed excel Calculator model.
Volume of boulder produced per hole =volume of rock blasted per hole x % of boulders produced
165x0.1625=26.81m³,
Tonnage of large boulders= volume of total boulders x bulk density
26.81x2.51=57.65 tonnes per hole
Total tonnage of boulders per round of blast=Tonnage of large boulders x number of holes
57.65x20=1152.94tonnes per round.
Explosive charge length (l)
l = Blast hole length +sub drill– stemming length (Konya and Walter, 1990).
© 2020, AJMENRM All Rights Reserved www.ajmenrm.ttu.ac.ke/ 7 | Page
Limestone Fragmentation Analysis Using Real Time Digital Imaging
= 10m – 3.3m+1.2m = 7.9mapproximate 8 m
QE the mass of explosive being used (kg), QE=volume x density
2
h x 840kg/m3
2
x8m x 840kg/m3

The results of the model calculator are shown in Figure 4, with the parameters in red representing the
calculated values while the rest are the values obtained from the quarry and entered to the calculator to predict
fragments size based from Kuz ram and Rosin Rammler empirical models.
It can be seen that the mean fragment size produced from the quarry blast was 45.15 cm, the percentage
of material retained on the crusher was 17.42%. The crusher gape of the quarry is 80cm. It means that 17.42%
of the limestone fragments were larger in size than the crusher gape. This represent the F90 from Split desktop
results as discussed in the next page.

Fig. 4: Fragmentation prediction using Kuz ram model

Five photographs were taken using the drone fragmentation analysis strategy to accomplish a similar
measure of cover and to catch a little (closer) and medium (more distant) scale estimation through holding two
distinct elevations over the heap.
From Figure 5, 5.96% of the material blasted were fines because they had size less than 10.16 cm, they
are therefore classified as fines. The mean fragmentation size was 52.98 cm and the top size was 108.15cm, the
boulders (materials with sizes greater 80cm) were 15.86%. This implies Kuz-Ram gave a good prediction for
the number of boulders.

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Limestone Fragmentation Analysis Using Real Time Digital Imaging

Fig. 5: Fragmentation Size Distribution Form Split Desktop

4.2. Discussion of benefits

During this examination the mechanized elevated fragmentation investigation framework was noted to
have various advantages. The principle advantage is that the automaton framework gathers and breaks down
advanced pictures quicker. This serves to diminish the expense to the administrator and empowers on-request,
ongoing, high-goals information assortment. On this, the framework gives results that are significantly
increasingly precise. Thus, the automaton framework is viewed as an important instrument for rock fracture
ongoing observing techniques (Precision Hawk 2016).
Current advantages provided by the drone framework are:
 Data assortment doesn't upset the production works.
 Drone is equipped for inspecting districts of intrigue that are in any case blocked off by a human
administrator.
 Results are accessible progressively permitting the continuous change of the drone's flight way to
streamline the aftereffects of the fragment investigation.
 Real-time results permit quick blast plan alteration and improvement.
 Surface testing mistakes are diminished with high-recurrence estimations (e.g., a drone’s estimation
crusade at regular intervals).
 Fragmentation examination goals can be balanced for various regions in the stone heap by flying nearer
or further away from the stone heap.
 Elements deterrent can be controlled and stayed away from.
 Additional information, for example, photogrammetry for volume estimation, can be gathered at the
same time as a component of the drone work.
 Sampling inclination can be controlled and outrageous anomalies can be sifted through during ongoing
imaging investigation.
 The administrator is kept out of mischief in a functioning mining condition. An automaton is extra; the
human administrator isn't.

5. CONCLUSION
The principle advantage being that drones can give information procurement quick and frequently,
which improves the factual unwavering quality of estimations and diminishes testing blunder, while not
interfering with production and ensuring safety of operators. The ongoing picture examination can frame a
strong corresponding framework to Kuz Ram forecasts so as to improve on blast planning and the general
execution of hard rock mining. Kuz Ram and Rosin Rammler being experimental models, which derives better
fragmentation from higher energy input, it is more about direction instead of precision. The outcomes acquired
act as beginning stage to give a review of what is required of a change in accordance with a previous blast plan.
It can consequently act as a datum for assessing various blast design, exploring the impact of changing certain
factors and foreseeing the size appropriation to be delivered by the new blast plan.

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 Limestone Fragmentation Analysis Using Real Time Digital Imaging
Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank CEMEREM organization for sponsoring this research work through Masters
Study scholarship. The authors appreciate Split-Engineering for facilitation of Split Desktop License which was
used in particle size analysis, the authors also wish to thank the East African Portland Cement Company
(EAPCC) for their assistance in this research work.

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