When a beam is loaded by forces and couples, internal stresses arise in the bar.

In general, both
normal and shearing stresses will occur. In order to determine the magnitude of these stresses at any
section of the beam, it is necessary to know the resultant force and moment acting at that section.
These may be found by applying the equations of static equilibrium.

Suppose several concentrated forces act on a simple beam as in Fig. 1-1(a). It is desired to study the
internal stresses across the section at D, located at a distance x from the left end of the beam. To do
this let us consider the beam to be cut at D and the portion of the beam to the right of D removed. The
portion removed must then be replaced by the effect it exerted upon the portion to the left of D and
this effect will consist of a vertical shearing force together with a moment as represented by V and M,
respectively, in the free-body diagram of the left portion of the beam shown in Fig. 1-1(b).
The force V and the couple M hold the left portion of the bar in equilibrium under the action of the
forces R1, P1, P2. The quantities V and M are taken to be positive if they have the senses indicated
above.

Resisting Moment
The couple M shown in Fig. 1-1(b) at section D is called the resisting moment. The magnitude of M
may be found by use of a statics equation which states that the sum of the moments of all forces about
an axis through D and perpendicular to the plane of the page is zero. Thus

Thus the resisting moment M is the moment at point D created by the moments of the reaction at A
and the applied forces P1 and P2. The resisting moment M is due to stresses that are distributed over
the vertical section at D. These stresses act in a horizontal direction and are tensile in certain portions
of the cross section and compressive in others. Their nature will be discussed in detail in Chapter 7.

Resisting Shear
The vertical force V shown in Fig. 1-1(b) is called the resisting shear at section D. For equilibrium of
forces in the vertical direction,


This force V is actually the resultant of shearing stresses distributed over the vertical section at D. The
nature of these stresses will be studied later.

Bending Moment
The algebraic sum of the moments of the external forces to one side of the section D about an axis
through D is called the bending moment at D. This is represented by
for the loading considered above. Thus the bending moment is opposite in direction to the resisting
moment but is of the same magnitude. It is usually denoted by M also. Ordinarily the bending moment
rather than the resisting moment is used in calculations because it can be represented directly in terms
of the external loads.
Shearing Force
The algebraic sum of all the vertical forces to one side, say the left side, of section D is called the
shearing force at that section. This is represented by R1 – P1 – P2 for the above loading. The shearing
force is opposite in direction to the resisting shear but of the same magnitude. Usually it is denoted by
V. It is ordinarily used in calculations, rather than the resisting shear.
Sign Conventions
The customary sign conventions for shearing force and bending moment are represented below. Thus
a force that tends to bend the beam so that it is concave upward is said to produce a positive bending
moment.
A force that tends to shear the left portion of the beam upward with respect to the right portion is said
to produce a positive shearing force.

An easier method for determining the algebraic sign of the bending moment at any section is to say
that upward external forces produce positive bending moments, downward forces yield negative
bending moments.

Shear and Moment Equations with Diagrams

Usually it is convenient to introduce a coordinate system along the beam, with the origin at one end of
the beam. It will be desirable to know the shearing force and bending moment at all sections along the
beam and for this purpose two equations are written, one specifying the shearing force V as a function
of the distance, say x, from one end of the beam, the other giving the bending moment M as a function
of x.
The plots of the equations for V and M are known as shearing force and bending moment diagrams,
respectively. In these plots the abscissas (horizontals) indicate the position of the section along the
beam and the ordinates (verticals) represent the values of the shearing force and bending moment,
respectively.
Thus these diagrams represent graphically the variation of shearing force and bending moment at any
section along the length of the bar. From these plots it is quite easy to determine the maximum value
of each of these quantities.
A simple beam with a varying load indicated by w(x) is sketched below. The coordinate system with
origin at the left end A is established and distances to various sections in the beam are denoted by the
variable x. Let us derive relationships between w(x), V(x), and M(x) at any section of the beam, shown
below. The beam is subjected to any type of transverse load of the general form shown in Fig. 1,2(a).
Simple supports are illustrated but the following consideration holds for all types of beams. We will
isolate from the beam the element of length dx shown and draw a free-body diagram of it. The
shearing force V acts on the left side of the element, and in passing through the distance dx the
shearing force V will in general change to V dV. The bending moment M acts on the left side of the
element and M dM on the right side. Since dx is

extremely small, the applied load may be taken as uniform over the top of the beam and equal to w.
The free body diagram of this element thus appears as in Fig. 1-2(b). For equilibrium of moments
about O, we have


Since the last term consists of the product of two differentials, it is negligible compared with the other
terms
involving only one differential. Hence

 
Thus the shearing force is equal to the rate of change of the bending moment with respect to x.
This equation will prove to be of considerable value in drawing shearing force and bending moment
diagrams. For example, from this equation it is evident that if the sketching force is positive at a
certain section
of the beam then the slope of the bending moment diagram is also positive at that point. Also, it
demonstrates
that an abrupt change in shear, corresponding to a concentrated force, is accompanied by an abrupt
change
in the slope of the bending moment diagram.
Further, at those points where the shear is zero, the slope of the bending moment diagram is zero. At
those
points where the tangent to the moment diagram is horizontal, the moment may have a maximum or
minimum value. This follows from the usual calculus technique of obtaining maximum or minimum
values of a
function by equating the first derivative of the function to zero. Thus in Fig. 6-9 if the curves shown
represent
portions of a bending moment diagram then critical values may occur at points A and B.
To establish the direction of concavity at a point such as A or B, we may form the second derivative of
M with respect to x, that is, d2M/dx2. If the value of this second derivative is positive, then the moment
diagram is concave upward, as at A, and the moment assumes a minimum value. If the second
derivative is negative,
the moment diagram is concave downward, as at B, and the moment assumes a maximum value.
However, it is to be carefully noted that the calculus method of obtaining critical values by use of the
first derivative does not indicate possible maximum values at a cusp-like point in the moment
diagram, if one occurs, such as that shown at C. If such a point is present, the moment there must be
determined numerically and then compared to other values that are possibly critical.
Lastly, for vertical equilibrium of the element we have

This relation will be of value in establishing shearing force diagrams.