FİZİK LABORATUARI GÜVENLİK KURALLARI

1. Acil Durumda Yapacaklar. Yangın söndürücünün yerini öğrenin. Her türlü kaza, yaralanma
gibi durumları laboratuar sorumlusuna bildiriniz.
2. Deneyleri Gösterildiği Gibi Yapın. Deney prosedürleri dışında herhangi bir uygulama
yapmayınız. Laboratuar sorumlusunun uyarılarına ve yönlendirmelerine uyunuz.
3. Deneyleri Yapmak Üzere Gerektiği Gibi Hazırlıklar Yapın. Laboratuar kitabınızda
yapacağınız deney ile ilgili yazılan bilgileri okuyup anlamaya çalışın. Deneye başlamadan
once karşılaşabileceğiniz problemler hakkında bilgi sahibi olunuz.
4. Gerekli Olduğu Durumlarda Güvenliğinizi Sağlayacak Ekipmanları Kullanın. Gözlük ve
eldiven gibi gereçleri gerekli olduğu zaman muhakkak kullanınız.
5. Laboratuardaki Güvenliği Sağlayacak Sorumlulukta Hareket Edin. Laboratuarda gerek
sizin gerekse diğer kişilerin güvenliğini tehlikeye sokacak ani ve sorumsu hareketlerden
kaçınınız.
6. Her Zaman Uygun Kıyafetler Giyin. Sandalet, şort, takı gibi laboraturda güvenliğinizi
tehlikeye sokacak giysileri kullanmamaya özen gösteriniz.
7. Laboratuarlarda Sigara İçmek, Laboratuarlara Yiyecek ve İçecekle Girmek Yasaktır.

PHYSICS LABORATORY SAFETY RULES

1. Know What To Do In Case Of An Emergency. Observe the locations of the fire extinguisher. Report all
accidents, injuries, and close calls to the instructor immediately.
2. Perform All Experiments As Directed. Do not do anything which is not part of an approved experimental
procedure. Follow all instructions given by your laboratory instructor.
3. Be Properly Prepared To Do The Experiment. Read all written procedures in advance and understand what
you are going to do. Know the hazards before you do the experiments.
4. If Instructed To Do So, Wear The Appropriate Protective Equipment. This may include eye protection
and/or gloves.
5. Act In A Responsible Manner At All Times. No horseplay will occur in the lab or experimental area.
6. Always Wear Appropriate Clothing To Lab. No sandals, shorts, and limit jewelry. Tie back long hair to keep
it away from moving objects.
7. Smoking, Eating, Drinking In The Lab Or Experimental Work Area Is Prohibited In All Laboratories.

1
 PHY 102EL/ 1 BASIC MEASUREMENTS
AND OHM'S LAW
AIM : To learn how to use voltmeter, amperemeter (ammeter), ohmmeter
and to test the validity of Ohm’s Law.
INSTRUMENTS & : Voltmeter, amperemeter, various resistors, lamp, zener diode and
MATERIALS power supply.

INTRODUCTION

Basic Measurements
The most commonly used equipments in the electric laboratories are ampere meters, voltmeters,
and ohmmeters. These devices are combined into one instrument called a multimeter or
AVOmeter (ampere-volt-ohm meter). Thus, we need some information about their principles and
method of usage.
Ampere meter is used to measure the current flowing through a conductor. To
measure the current we have to connect the ampere meter in series, thus its internal
resistance causes to increase the total resistance of the circuit. Therefore, a good ampere
meter should have a very low internal resistance, ideally zero. A device which has such a low
internal resistance can be easily damaged if it is subjected to a potential difference directly.
Even a very small potential difference will lead to a high current flowing through the ampere
meter which can damage the device.

(a) (c)
Figure 1. a) True connection for current measurement b) True connection for potential
measurement ,

Voltmeter is used for measuring the potential difference between the two points in any
circuit. It is connected to the circuit in parallel. The internal resistance of a voltmeter should be
very high, ideally infinite, so that no current can flow through it when it is connected to the
circuit.
To make measurement, first we set the device in its largest unit, and then make a
measurement. If the change on the scale is too small to realize, we decrease the unit one by one
until the change is readable. If it is still unreadable in the smallest unit of the device, we say that
the magnitude of the measured unit is out of range of this device.
Ohmmeter is used to directly measure the resistance of a resistor. This equipment is
based on the Ohm’s Law. No external power source is needed for measuring the resistance.

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 1) İnput jacks
2) DC voltage measurementsetting
3) AC voltage measurementsetting
4) Current measurement setting
5) Resistance measurement setting
6) Calibration switch for resistance
measurement

Figure 3 Properties of the analog AVOmeter.

Ohm’s Law
If a potential difference V is applied to the terminals of a metallic conductor, a current I passes
through it. The ratio of potential difference to current is defined as resistance, R. The unit for R is
ohms, [Ω].

V
R Ohm’s law (1)
I

The amount of current passing through the resistance depends on the potential difference applied
to two terminals of the resistance.

EXPERIMENT

Basic Measurements
1. Measure the resistors on the board for the different ranges, determine which range is the most
proper for each resistor, and fill in the Table 1.

Table 1
Resistor x1 x10 x100 x1k x10k Error
1 k ohm
2.2 k ohm
4.7 k ohm

Ohm’s Law
2. Current-voltage behavior of the resistance
a) Use the circuit shown in the Fig. 4.
b) By changing the value of voltage applied, measure the potential difference on, and current
passing through the resistance and fill in the Table 2.
c) Plot I=f(V) graph. Obtain the value of resistance from the slope of graph.
d) Calculate the absolute error for the resistance that you calculated.

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 Table 2
V (……) I (……)

Figure 4 Circuit for measuring I-V characteristic of the resistor.

4
REPORT:

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6
 PHY 102EL/ 2 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES
AIM : Investigation of the equipotential surfaces and the electric field lines
for a uniform electric field produced by two point charges, one
point charge and a parallel plate, two parallel plates and concentric
placed two rings
INSTRUMENTS & : Avometer, electrodes, various plates, experiment pool, pen (or
MATERIALS pencil), several pieces of paper.

INTRODUCTION
Physical quantities are classified in two main groups; scalar and vectorial. For example, the
temperature of a room may be different at each point in the room. Since the temperature is a scalar
quantity, the temperature of the room can be measured by a thermometer, and completely specified
by a number. But, vectorial quantities such as the electric field are completely specified by both
magnitude and direction.
The electric field at some point caused by a charge distribution can be found by placing a
test charge at that point and measuring the force acting on that test charge. (F=qE, where F is the
force, q is the test charge and E is the electric field.)
The electric field lines for a positive point charge and a negative point charge is shown in
Fig. 1. One way of visualizing electric field lines or patterns is to draw lines pointing in the same
direction as the electric field vector at any point. The relationship between these lines and the electric
field is as follows:
i. At each point, the electric field vector is tangent to the electric field line.
ii. The strength of the electric field depends on the number of lines per unit area through a
surface perpendicular to the lines in that region.
Thus the magnitude of the electric field, E is large when the field lines are close together and
small when they are apart.
The lines begin on positive charges and terminate at negative charges or at infinity. The
electric field in either case (Fig.1 (a) or (b)) becomes more intense near the charge since the lines are
close to each other.

(a) (b)

Figure 1. a) The electric field lines for a positive point charge, the lines are radially outward,
b) The electric field lines for a negative point charge, the lines are radially inward.

Following the rules given below one can draw the electric field lines for any charge distribution.
1. The lines must begin on positive charges and terminate at negative charges or at infinity.
2. The number of lines drawn leaving a positive charge or approaching a negative
charge is proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
3. Field lines cannot cross each other.

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Electric Potential
Electric potential is a scalar function of position therefore electrostatic phenomena can be
described in a simpler way-instead of dealing with the components of a vectorial quantity, one
deals with only the magnitude. The concept of electric field has a practical value when one needs
to measure the voltage between any two points in an electrical circuit. The potential difference
between two points, say points A and B, is directly related to the work done against the electric
force in order to push a test charge from the point A to the B.
A set of points of which the potential has the same value is called an equipotential surface.
Fig. 2(a) shows electric field lines (solid lines) and equipotential lines (broken lines) for a very
large sheet with a uniform charge distribution. The equipotential surfaces are parallel planes. Fig.
2(b) shows electric field lines (solid lines) and equipotential lines (broken lines) for a positive point
charge. The equipotential surfaces are concentric spheres.

- - - -- - - - - -

E +
E

+ + + + + + +

(a) (b)

Figure 2. Electric field and equipotential lines a)for a sheet charge distribution, b) for a positive
point charge.

NOTE: If we use an AC source, the above figures give only a snapshot of electric field lines because
of AC sources have no poles, i.e. the poles change sign with respect to time.

Gauss’ Law
Gauss’ law shows a relationship between a net charge within a volume and the electric flux through
the closed surface of this volume. The electric flux through the surface is defined as the product of
the area by the magnitude of the normal component of the electric field.
Gauss’ law represents the total electric field due to the charges inside the Gauss surfaces.
It states that the net electric flux through any closed Gauss surface is proportional to the net charge
  Q
inside this surface,  E  dS  inside , where 0 is the dielectric permittivity of vacuum. Net
0
charge is the sum of negative and positive charges within the closed surface.
A good electrical conductor such as silver, copper, aluminum contains free electrons. These
electrons can move without restraint within the volume of the metal. If such a conductor immersed
in an electric field, the free electrons move in a direction opposite to the direction of the electric field
and they continue moving until they reach the surface of the metal. When there is no net motion of
charge within the conductor, the conductor is said to be in electrostatic equilibrium. A conductor in
electrostatic equilibrium has the following properties.

1. The electric field is zero anywhere inside the conductor.

2. All the extra electric charge resides on the surface of the conductor.
3. The electric field at the surface of a conductor is normal to the surface.
4. If the conductor is irregularly shaped, charge tends to accumulate at sharp points. Since they
want to repel each other far away as far as possible.

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EXPERIMENT
The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 3.

24V

Figure 3. Experimental Setup

The basis of the technique depends on the motion of the charge carriers in the direction
of the electric field in a uniform conductor. To investigate any field experimentally, the electrodes
are used as the charges that causes this field and placed in an electrolyte with lower conductivity
such as water.
Suppose you are studying the equipotential surfaces due to two point charges placed at some
distance from each other. 24 volt potential difference is applied between two stationary electrodes B
and C. An electrode free to move is placed in the middle as a measuring electrode. If the switch A is
positioned at 1, voltmeter gives the potential difference between the electrode B and the measuring
electrode. When the switch A is positioned at 2 the voltmeter measures the potential difference
across the electrode C and the measuring electrode. The switch is used to increase the sensitivity
of the measurement. If the measurements are made at the 50V AC range of the voltmeter, the
switch may not be used. The switch should be used as follows: Electrode B is chosen as the
reference point and the switch A must be turned to position 1 (green led glows). Move the
measuring electrode towards B electrode until you read 2V when voltmeter is set to AC 10V range.
Mark the points where you read 2V on the voltmeter. In this case the potential difference between
these points and the electrode C is 22V. The measurements are repeated for 4, 6, 8 and 10 volts.
Use the information given above to measure the electrostatic equipotential surfaces and
electric force lines for the following configurations.
1. Put the electrodes B and C in the electrolyte as shown below, measure the equipotential
surfaces and the field lines for two point charges.

B C

2. Put the electrode C and the plate in place of electrode B as shown below. Measure the
equipotential surfaces and the field lines for a point charge and one plate. Use plastic pieces to
place the plate.

Explain the relation between the results obtained for (1) and (2).

9
3. Find the electric field lines for a cylindrical conductor. Explain your results by Gauss law. If
your set does not contain two cylindrical plates then do the measurement for two cylindrical
plates.

B C

4. Find the electric field lines for a parallel-plate capacitor.

Change the distance between the plates and repeat the measurement.

QUESTIONS
1. What is the scalar field? What is the vectorial field?
2. What is the relation between the electric field lines and the magnitude of the electric field?
3. What are the properties of the electric field lines?
4. Is electrical potential a scalar or a vectorial quantity?
5. What is the voltage?
6. What is the equipotantial surface?
7. What are the properties of conductors?
8. How can we obtain electric field lines using equipotential surfaces?
9. Are the field lines parallel to the plates near its edges?
10. How can one obtain an ideal parallel-plate capacitor?

10
REPORT

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12
 PHY 102EL/ 3 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS AND
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
AIM : To observe Kirhhoff’s Laws, to learn about Wheatstone
Bridge method to measure an unknown resistance.
INSTRUMENTS & : Amperemeter, voltmeter, power supply, known resistances,
MATERIALS unknown resistances and Wheatstone bridge kit.

INTRODUCTION

Every element used in an electric circuit is called as a circuit element. Each conducting end
coming out from a circuit element that provides an external connection is called a terminal. If
two or more circuit elements meet in a terminal, it is called node. For example, in the Fig. 1,
points B and E are the nodes.

A R1 I1 B I2 R2 C

I3
+
V R3
- R6
I5

F R5 I6 E I4 R4 D

Figure 1. An electrical circuit composed of a battery and resistances.

Any closed conducting path is called a loop. In Fig. 1, ABEFA and BCDEB paths are loops. To
measure the resistances in the Fig. 1, one can use the Ohm's Law.
V
R (1)
I
This states that the voltage (V) between the two points of a resistance, divided by the current (I)
passing through the resistance, will give the value of the resistance (R).

Kirchhoff’s Laws

Current Law: In an electric circuit, the sum of the incoming currents to a node is equal
to the sum of the outgoing currents from that node. For the point B in the Fig. 1

I1  I 2  I 3 (2)

and for the point E

I6  I4  I5 (3)

is satisfied.

Voltage Law: Summation of all voltage differences in a given loop is zero. For ABEFA
loop in the Fig. 1

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 VAB  VBE  VEF  VFA  0 (4)

and for BCDEB loop

VBC  VCD  VDE  VEB  0 (5)
is satisfied.

Wheatstone Bridge
An accurate method for measuring a small resistance is the method of “Wheatstone Bridge”.
In practice, this method is used for measuring very small resistances. One of the four
resistances R1, R2, R3, and R 4, shown in Fig. 2 will be measured in this experiment.

R5

Figure 2. Wheatstone Bridge Circuit.

The battery is connected to the circuit with a resistance R5 in series to protect the rest of the
circuit from excessive currents. At least one of the known resistances must be variable. This
variable resistance is adjusted to zero the current passing through the amperemeter. Then
the points M and N must be at the same potential. If this condition is true, it is said for
the circuit to be balanced. At the balance, the potential drop from K to M is the same as
that from K to N, or

I1R1  I3R 3 and I2R 2  I4R 4 . (6)

Eq. 6 yields

I1R1 I 3 R3
 . (7)
I 2 R2 I 4 R4

However, if there is no current passing through the amperemeter, I1 = I2 and I3 = I4 . As a result

the equation reduces to

R4
R2  R1 . (8)
R3

R1, is a known resistance. R3 and R4 consist of a uniform wire equipped with a sliding contact
which can be adjusted to a balance in which no current passes through the amperemeter.
This contact divides the wire into two parts. For a resistance made from a wire, which is of
uniform cross section, the equation

14
 1
R  (9)
A

is satisfied, ( : specific resistance, l : length of the wire, A : cross sectional area of the
wire). Since R3 and R4 have the same specific resistance and cross sectional area, they will
cancel each other. Using the equation (9) for R3 and R4 in (8) gives

l4
R2  R1 (10)
l3

Here l4 is the length of the wire of R4 and l3 is that of R3.

EXPERIMENT

Do not apply voltage to the circuit before having the circuit controlled to the
authorized person.

1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law: Schematically representation of the Kirchhoff’s Law circuit is seen
in Fig. 1. By using the amperemeter of your experiment set, measure the incoming and
outgoing currents for the nodes B and E, and fill in Table 1.

Table 1. Measured Currents

I1 (…....) I2 (…....) I3 (…....) I4 (…....) I5 (…....) I6 (…....)

Check whether the equations I1  I 2  I 3 and I 6  I 4  I 5 given in (2) and (3) are satisfied
or not. Write down the results in the report section.

2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law: Measure all the potential differences in a given loop (ABEFA and
BCDEB) and fill in Table 2. Summation of all potential differences must be zero in a closed
loop. Do not forget that VMN = - VNM ( for any M and N points).

Table 2. Measured Voltages

ABEFA VAB (…....) VBE (…....) VEF (…....) VFA (…....)

BCDEB VBC (…....) VCD (…....) VDE (…....) VEB (…....)

Check whether the equations VAB + VBE + VEF + VFA = 0 and VBC + VCD + VDE +VEB = 0 given
in (4) and (5) are satisfied or not.

3. Find the each resistance used in the circuit by using the values in Table 1 and Table 2, with
the help of Equation 1. Note them in the Table 3.

Table 3. Measured Resistances

Rı (…....) R2 (…....) R3 (…....) R4 (…....) R5 (…....) R6 (…....)

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Wheatstone Bridge
4. Build up the circuit given in Fig. 2.

5. Adjusting the place of the point N to balance where no current passes through the
amperemeter and determine the balance point of the circuit.
6. Measure the lengths l3 and l4 at balance.

7. Use equation (10) to find the value of R2.

I4
( R2 )calculated  R1 = ……….
I3

8. Measure the value of the R2 by a multimeter

(R2 )measured = ……….

9. Using the equation given below, find percent error of your measurement.

Rmeasured  Rcalculated
% Error  100 
Rmeasured

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REPORT

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18
 PHY 102EL/ 4 CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF
A CAPACITOR
AIM : Observing the charging and discharging of a capacitor and finding
the time constant and the capacity.
INSTRUMENTS & : Capacitor, resistor, DC power supply, voltmeter, chronometer,
MATERIALS functional calculator

INTRODUCTION
Capacitors are circuit elements that can accumulate electrical charge. Usually they are composed
of two conductor plates separated by an insulator. The best known one is that has two parallel
plates with a surface area, A.
If a capacitor is connected to a DC power supply shown as in Fig.1, the charges will be
stored quickly over the plates. The plates will have equal number of charges with different sign.
The stored charge, Q, is proportional to the potential drop across the plates,

Q  CV . (1)

Here C is the proportionality constant and known as capacity with unit Farad, V is the potential
difference between two plates with unit Volt.
C R
a x b

V0
(V
Figure 1. RC circuit

Applying Kirchoff law to the circuit shown in Fig.1,

Vab  V0  Vax  Vxb  Q / C  IR (2)

can be written. The charge passing through the circuit in time dt will be dQ= Idt, here I is the
current with unit Ampere (A) . When this expression is substituted into Eq. (2), one can find the
differential equation.

Q dQ dQ Q V0
V0  R    0 (3)
C dt dt RC R

By solving this equation with respect to time we get the stored charge on each of the plates at
any time ,

Q  CV0 1- e-t /( RC )  (4)

Eq. (4) implies that Q approaches to CV0 as time elapses. For t=RC, the magnitude of the charge
reaches to the 1-(1/e) of its maximum value. Thus, the time at which the charge reaches almost

19
its maximum value depends on the capacity and the resistance. The magnitude of the current
passing through the circuit at this time (t=RC) can be found by taking the derivative of Eq. (4).
V -t / RC
I 0 e   (5)
R

As can be seen from the equation above, the current decays exponentially within time.

Discharging of a Capacitor Over a Resistance

The power supply should be removed, because the charged capacitor will perform like a power
supply. A charged capacitor with capacity C has a potential difference between the plates
V=Q/C. Therefore, if a resistance is connected at the ends of the charged capacitor, the capacitor
discharges over the resistor. In this case, the potential difference between the capacitor plates is
given to be VC =VR, and since VR =IR, the differential equation can be written as;
VC VR

C R

Figure 2. Discharge of a RC circuit

where I= -dQ/dt since the capacitor is discharging in this case.

From the solution of this equation, the charge on the capacitor can be found to be,

-t / RC 
Q  CV0e (7)

If we take the time derivative of Eq. (7) we can get the current at any time t
V0 -t / RC 
I  e (8)
R

The minus sign here shows that the direction of the current is opposite to that of the capacitor is
being charged. The expression RC, is the “time constant” of the circuit.

EXPERIMENT

Do not try to measure potential on the ampere scale of the avometer

to avoid blowing out it.

1. First check whether the capacitor is charged with a voltmeter. If it is charged, short-circuit its
terminals for 10-15 seconds. You can contact the poles of the capacitor using a resistor to
short-circuit the capacitor.

2. Adjust the DC power supply to 8V. Be sure the DC power supply is not connected to the RC
circuit.

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3. You can see the RC circuit design on your board as it represented in Fig.1. The resistor value
is given to be 2.2 k Keep the power supply turned off while connecting the power supply to
the board to avoid any charge on the capacitor before measuring. Read the potential
difference across the capacitor at every 30 seconds for 7 minutes and fill in Table 1. Connect
the two given cables to the poles of the capacitor and the voltmeter as parallel to measure the
potential difference.

Table 1.
t (sn) V (Volt) t (sn) V (Volt) t (sn) V (Volt)
0 150 300
30 180 330
60 210 360
90 240 390
120 270 420

In the case of a fail, arising from any disconnection, wrong setting etc, short-circuit the
capacitor and restart the experiment.

4. In this step we will analyze the discharging of the capacitor. Set up the circuit shown in Fig.
2. To do this step, disconnect the power supply cables from its place and connect them
together Start your time for discharge process as soon as you disconnect the power supply
(or connect the cables together) Read the potential drop across the capacitor at every 30
seconds for 7 minutes and fill in Table 2.

Table 2.
t (sn) V (Volt) t (sn) V (Volt) t (sn) V (Volt)
0 150 300
30 180 330
60 210 360
90 240 390
120 270 420

5. Taking the natural logarithms of the values given in Table 2, fill in Table 3.

Table 3.
t (sn) lnV (Volt) t (sn) lnV (Volt) t (sn) lnV (Volt)
0 150 300
30 180 330
60 210 360
90 240 390
120 270 420

6. Using the values in Table 3, plot ln Vc versus t. Scale your graphic as big as possible. Using
your data draw the “fit line” among them.

7. Take two points on your “fit line”, and find the slope. The two points MUST not be of your
data. Compute the slope of this line, which is the inverse time constant (RC) of the circuit.

8. Compute C using the time constant you found.

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 Check List

1. Be sure the capacitor is discharged before starting the experiment. Don’t forget to
contact the poles of the capacitor over a resistor to make short-circuit the capacitor.
2. Be sure power supply cables were not connected to the RC circuit while you adjust the
power supply to 8V DC.
3. Be sure the cables were well connected and were not disconnected during charging and
discharging.
4. Don’t forget to fill all the blank spaces on the tables with your experimental data.
5. Be sure you used the third table data for your plot.
6. Be sure you determine the slope of the line choosing two point on your best fit line.
7. Don’t forget to calculate the percentage error.

Questions
1. What if the AC power supply is replaced by a DC power supply to charge the capacitor?
2. What happens if no resistance is connected to the circuit during charging and discharging of
the circuit?
3. What is the aim of using capacitors on circuits?
4. What can happen if a capacitor breaks down on a circuit?

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REPORT

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 PHY 102EL/ 5 OSCILLOSCOPE AND SIGNAL
GENERATOR
AIM : Gain the ability of making the basic adjustment of an
oscilloscope and function generator, and make DC and AC
voltage measurement using these devices.
INSTRUMENTS & : An oscilloscope, a function generator, and a battery.
MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION
The oscilloscope is one of the most versatile electronic test equipment. It is capable of
displaying a graph of amplitude versus time and many other properties such as phase,
voltage, and frequency. The oscilloscope consist of a cathode tube, fluorescent display,
horizontal and vertical deflection plates, electronic control unit, input terminals and lots of
control buttons, switches and potentiometers.

Figure 1. Principle of an oscilloscope

It is possible to apply the potential to the horizontal deflection plates, either

externally or internally where the sweep rate can be adjusted from the controls on the
oscilloscope. The potential applied to the vertical deflection plate is applied externally.
The internal circuit of the oscilloscope and the control on the panels can arrange the
screen, so that we will be able to see the applied waveform even if their amplitudes change
in many orders of magnitude. If the potential to the horizontal deflection plates is applied
externally, the oscilloscope works at X-Y MODE. Otherwise it works at VERTICAL
MODE.
In the vertical mode, Channel 1 and Channel 2 can be handled for two different signals
meanwhile. There are also Oscilloscopes available which have more than 2 channels.

25
 Figure 2: Oscilloscope

Figure 3: Oscilloscope probe

CONTROLS AND INDICATORS ON THE OSCILLOSCOPE

General Controls
1 ON indicator: Lights when oscilloscope is on.
3 POWER Pushbutton: Turns the oscilloscope on and off.
4 INTENSITY control: Adjusts the brightness of trace.
5 TRACE ROTATION Control: Adjusts to maintain trace at the horizontal plane.
6 FOCUS Control: Adjusts trace focus.
9 GND Terminal: Oscilloscope chassis ground jack, and earth ground via three-wire AC
power cord.
10 CAL Terminal: Terminal provides 2V p-p, 1KHz (nominal) square wave signal.

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Vertical Controls
12 VERtical MODE Switch: Selects vertical display mode. Four position lever switch with
the following positions:
CH1: Displays the channel 1 by itself.
CH2/X-Y: CH2: Displays the channel 2 by itself, or X-Y: control and Trigger SOURCE
switch to enable X-Y display mode.
DUAL: displays the channel 1 and channel 2 signals simultaneously.
ADD: The inputs from channel 1 and channel 2 are summed and displayed as a single signal.
If the channel POSition/PULL INVert control is pulled out, the input from channel 2 is
subtracted from channel 1 and the difference is displayed as a single signal.
13 CH1 AC-GND-DC Switch:
AC: Channel 1input signal is coactively coupled; dc component is blocked.
GND: Opens signal path and grounds input to vertical amplifier. This provides a zero-volt
base line.
DC: Direct coupling of channel 1 input signal; both ac and dc component of signal produce
vertical deflection.
14 CH1 (X) Input Jack: Vertical input for channel 1, X-axis input for X-Y operation.
15 CH1 (X) VOLTS/DIV Control: Vertical attenuator for channel 1. Provides step
adjustment of vertical sensitivity.
16 CH 1 VARiable/PULL X5 control:
VARiable: Rotation provides vernier adjustment of channel 1 vertical sensitivity.
PULL X5: When pulled out, increases vertical sensitivity by a factor of five.
17 CH1 POSition/PULL ALT TRIGger Control:
POSition: Adjusts vertical position of channel 1 trace.
PULL ALT: Used in conjunction with the Trigger SOURCE switch to activate alternate
triggering.
18 CH2 POSition/PULL INVert Control:
POSition: Adjusts vertical position of channel 2 trace. In X-Y operation, rotation adjusts
vertical position of X-Y display.
PULL INVert: When pushed in, the polarity of the channel 2 is normal. When pushed out, the
polarity of the channel 2 is reversed, thus inverting the waveform.
19 CH2 (X) VOLTS/DIV Control: Vertical attenuator for channel 2. Provides step
adjustment of vertical sensitivity.
20 CH2 VARiable/PULL X5 Control:
VARiable: Rotation provides vernier adjustment of channel 2 vertical sensitivity.
PULL X5: When pulled out, increases vertical sensitivity by a factor of five.
21 CH2 (Y) Input Jack: Vertical input for channel 2, Y-axis input for X-Y operation.

22 CH2 AC-GND-DC Switch:

AC: Channel 2 input signal is coactively coupled; dc component is blocked.
GND: Opens signal path and grounds input to vertical amplifier. This provides a zero-volt
base line.
DC: Direct coupling of channel 2 input signal; both ac and dc component of signal produce
vertical deflection.

Horizontal Controls
23 A min Time Base TIME/DIV Control: Provides step selection of sweep rate for the main
time base.
26 VARiable Sweep Control: Rotation of control is vernier adjustment for sweep rate.
27 POSition/PULL X10 Control: POSition: horizontal (x) position control. PULL X10: Selects
ten times magnification when pulled.
29 X-Y Switch: Used with the VERTical MODE switch and Trigger SOURCE switch to select

27
X-Y operation mode. The channel 1 input becomes the x-axis and the channel 2 input becomes
the y-axis.

Triggering Controls
30 HOLDOFF/PULL CHOP control:
HOLDOFF: Rotation adjusts hold off time.
PULL CHOP: when this switch is pulled out in the dual-trace mode,, the channel 1 and channel
2sweeps are chopped and displayed simultaneously. When it is pushed in , the two sweeps are
alternately displayed, one after the other.
31 Trigger SOURCE Switch: Selects source of sweep trigger. Four-position lever switch with
the following positions:
CH1/X-Y/ALT: Causes the channel 1 input signal to become the sweep trigger, regardless of the
VERTical MODE switch setting.
X-Y: Used with two other switches to enable the X-Y mode.
ALT: Used with the channel 1 POSition/PULL ALTernate TRIGger control to enable alternate
trigger.
CH2: The channel 2 signal becomes the sweep trigger regardless of the VERTical MODE switch
setting.
LINE: Signal derived from the input line voltage (50/60 Hz) becomes trigger.
EXT: Signal from EXTernal TRIGger jack become sweep trigger.
32 Trigger COUPLING Switch: Selects trigger coupling. Four-position lever switch with the
following positions:
AUTO: Selects automatic trigger mode.
NORM: Selects normal triggered sweep operation.
TV-V: Used for triggering from vertical sync pulses (lo-pass dc).
TV-H: Used for triggering from horizontal sync pulses (hi-pass dc).
33 TRIGGER LEVEL/PULL(-) SLOPE Control:
TRIGger LEVEL: Trigger level adjustment; determines the point on the trigger waveform where
the sweep is triggered.
PULL(-) SLOPE: Two-position push-pull switch. The “in” position selects a positive-going
slope and the “out” position selects a negative-going slope as trigger point for main sweep.
34 EXTernal TRIGger Jack: External Trigger input for single and dual trace operation.

28
 Figure 4: Signal Generator

Controls And Indicators on the Signal Generator

1 Power Switch: The power switch applies to the function generator.

2 Power On Indicator: A Led is used to indicate when power is applied to the function
generator.
3 RANGE Switch: Seven fixed decades of frequency are provided by the RANGE pushbutton
switch.
4 FUNCTION Switch: Pushbutton switches provide selection of square, triangle, or sine
waveforms.
5 MULTIPLIER: The MULTIPLIER is a variable potentiometer allowing frequency setting
between fixed ranges.
6 DUTY CONTROL: time symmetry of the OUTPUT waveforms, as well as the TTL PULSE
output, is controlled by the DUTY potentiometer.
7 RAMP/ PULSE INVERTER: A pushbutton switch is provided to invert the time symmetry
set by the DUTY control.
8 DC OFFSET: A DC OFFSET control is provided to allow the DC level of the OUTPUT
waveforms to be set as desired.
9 AMPLITUDE: the AMPLITUDE control provides 20db of attenuation of the output
waveform selected by the FUNCTION switch.
10 ATT: When the switch is push, in addition to 20db provided by amplitude control, a
maximum of 40 db of attenuation, at the output.
11 OUTPUT: Square, triangle, sine, ramp and pulse waveforms are provided at up to 20V p-p
amplitude ( open circuit) at the OUTPUT.
12 VCF INPUT: A VCF (voltage controlled frequency) input is provided for externally
sweeping the frequency.
13 pulse OUTPUT: The PLSE OUTPUT is a TTL output signal suitable for driven TTL logic.

29
EXPERIMENT

Measuring DC Voltages
1. Be sure that the plug of the oscilloscope is plugged in and turn it on. Open circuit the
Channel 1 input by putting [13] in GND position. Select the Channel 1 mode using [12] and
[31]. Check that the [16], [20] and [26] fine tune potentiometers are turned towards the arrow
to Cal position.
2. If nothing is on the screen, use [17] and [27] to make the trace, input the visible region from
vertical and horizontal direction respectively. Check [4] and [6] for proper intensity and
focus, be aware that these controls are not turned off totally.
3. If a point trace which passes from left to right is visible, adjust [23] so that it becomes a
continuous line. Center this line on the axis using [17] and [27].
4. Plug the oscilloscope probe on [14] Channel 1. The black wire or the other braided copper
sheath of the oscilloscope cable (Fig. 1) is connected to the chassis of the oscilloscope. This
is the reference probe. Red wire or the core of the oscilloscope cable is the live probe and
this probe is to be connected to the point of interest.
5. Connect the black reference to the (-) terminal of the battery and the red probe to the (+)
terminal of the battery. Change [13] to DC and look for the change on the oscilloscope
screen. If there is a little change or the trace disappears from the screen, use [15] to fit the
trace to the screen. The trace is no more at the vertical center, it is a little above. The
difference will give us the potential of the battery. Notice the value VOLTS/DIV; [15] and
the DIV; the trace passes through over the center.
Potential of the Battery = VOLTS/DIV x DIV
6. Set [13] to AC and notice the difference. Passes the trace again through (zero) the center? If
[13] is set AC; input is coactively coupled, and the DC component of the signal applied to
Channel 1 will be blocked. If a DC power supply were used instead of a battery, a small
changing signal would be observed, and the amount (magnitude) of this change is a measure
of the quality of the DC power supply.
7. Set [13] again to GND. Write down the measured and calculated values to your experiment
booklet.

Measuring AC Voltages
1. Plug in the power cord of the Function Generator to the main. Open it (1). Check that (9) is
not pulled out and (10) is not pressed. Set the signal type to sine using (4). Select the nearest
value to the desired 100 Hz frequency using (3). (5) is the multiplier coefficient of the
frequency, for 100 Hz set it simply to 1.0 . (6) Should turned towards to CAL, (8) and (9)
should be centered.
Note: 1K=1000, 1M=1000K
2. Plug the output (11) of the function generator to the Channel 1 of the oscilloscope using
suitable cables and probes. Be aware to connect the ground to ground, and core to core.
3. Center the trace on the oscilloscope screen and set [13]’to AC position. Notice the trace on
the screen. If no remarkable deviation is observed in vertical axes use [15], if a broaden trace
or very rapidly changing trace is visible in the horizontal axes use [23] to adjust the screen so
that a sine is visible on the screen. Make the trace steady using [33]
4. Using [15] and [23] adjust the screen so that one or two full period of the applied signal is
visible on the screen. Notice the values of [15] and [23].
Amplitude of the applied signal = VOLTS/DIV x (amplitude of the sine signal on the
screen in DIV)
The amplitude of the applied signal can be adjusted from (9). For smaller amplitudes (mV)
(9) can be pulled and (10) can be pushed
Period of the applied signal = TIME/DIV x (period of the sine signal on the screen in DIV).
To adjust the applied signal exactly to 100 Hz (5) Multiplier can be gently tuned.

30
 Note: frequency =1/ period
5. Record the values you noticed, the calculations and the waveforms on your experiment
booklet.
6. Similarly set and measure the following signals;
2 KHz 12V peak to peak sine wave,
30 KHz 50 mV peak to peak triangle wave,
600 KHz 100 mV in amplitude square wave,
2 MHz 1 V in amplitude sine wave, do the required calculations and plotting on your
experiment booklet. Set [13] again to GND.

Lissajous Patterns
1. In this part of the experiment, two function generators will be used.
2. Set the oscilloscope to X-Y mode using [12], [29] and [31]. Plug a second probe to [21]
Channel 2 terminal. [23] becomes useless at this settings. Input at Channel 1 becomes the
x-axes, input at Channel 2 becomes the y-axes.
3. Set the two function generator to 50 Hz sine wave at nearly the same amplitude. Apply the
outputs of the function generators to Channel 1 and Channel 2. Using the setting on the
oscilloscope obtain a steady shape on the screen. Plot the shape on the screen into your
experiment booklet.
4. Fix the function generator connected to Channel 2 at 50 Hz and set the frequency of the
function generator which is connected to Channel 1, to 25Hz, 30 Hz, 75 Hz, 100 Hz and
150 Hz in turn. Plot the shape on the screen into your experiment booklet. Figure out the
relation between the ratio of the frequency and the shapes obtained.

Signal at
50 Hz 50 Hz 50 Hz 50 Hz 50 Hz 50 Hz
CH1
Signal at
25 Hz 30 Hz 50 Hz 75 Hz 100 Hz 150 Hz
CH2
fCH2 / fCH1 0.5 0.6 1 1.5 2 3

31
REPORT

32
33
 PHY 102EL/ 6 RC AND RL CIRCUITS
AIM : Analyzing the step response of RL and RC circuits, and
determining L and C.
INSTRUMENTS & : Signal generator, oscilloscope, resistor, inductor, and capacitor.
MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION

RC Circuit
Let the charge on the capacitor seen in Fig. 1 be initially zero and the period of the signal
generator long enough to charge and discharge the capacitor completely in each cycle.

C
V

Figure 1. RC circuit

The capacitor starts to be charged when the square signal is on. Kirchhoff’s voltage law to find
the accumulated charge;

Q
  IR  0 (1)
C

where  is the potential difference applied to the circuit. Recalling that I  dQ / dt , Eq. (1) can
be rewritten as ;

dQ Q 
   0. (2)
dt RC R

This is a linear inhomogeneous differential equation. In a couple of steps, the solution can be
obtained as,


Q  Q0 1  et / c  (3)

where  C  RC is the time constant of the circuit and Q0  V0C is the saturation value of Q .
When t   C , the capacitor has been charged to a fraction ( 1  1 , about 63 %) of its saturation
e
value. This solution implies that as time elapses, Q converges to Q0 . To see what happens after
the capacitor is saturated to Q0 and square signal goes to the low state, (that is the state where no
voltage is supplied to the circuit), simply take   0 in Eq. (2).

34
 dQ Q
 0 (4)
dt  c

This equation is easier to solve than (2) and the solution is:

Q  Q0et / C (5)

This solution tells us that, the capacitor discharges through the resistor and Q decays to zero.
Capacitor voltage has the same exponential character as Q (recall VC  Q / C ).
Using Eq. (3) and Eq. (5), the curve of VC versus t can be plotted as in Fig. 2.

(a)

1,0
VC

(b)

0,5

0,0
0 10 20 30 40

T t

Figure 2. (a) Square signal from the generator and (b) the potential drop VC across the capacitor
versus time.

The time it takes for the charge of a capacitor to reduce to half of its initial value ( Q0 / 2 ) is
called half life of the circuit. Let us denote this by T . When t  T , the charge Q will be half of
Q0 . Substituting these statements into Eq. (4), we have,

Q0
 Q0eT / c (6)
2

and solving this equation for T yields;

T   C ln 2 (7)

Eq. (7) can be used to compute C , when T and R are known.

35
RL Circuit

L
ε

Figure 3. RL circuit

To derive an expression for the potential drop across the inductor when the square signal in Fig.
3 is on,we need the current as a function of time. For this, let us again write the Kirchhoff
equation;

  IR  Vl  0 (8)

where Vl , is the potential difference induced across the inductor and its magnitude is given by,

dI
Vl  L (9)
dt

Eq. (8) can be rewritten as,

dI IR 
  0 (10)
dt L L

The solution to this equation can be written as


I
R
1  e  t / L
(11)

where  L  L / R is known as the time constant of the circuit, which determines the rate of
increase. This solution means that I starts to increase from zero to its saturation value  / R .
When the square signal drops to 0, taking   0 in Eq. (10), the solution can be written as;


I et / L (12)
R

In both cases (   0 and   0 ) the inductor voltage Vl given by Eq. (9) can be evaluated using
Eq. (11) and Eq. (12). In the first case where   0 , Eq. (11) and Eq. (9) together give;

Vl   et / L (13)

36
Eq. (13) indicates that, the inductor voltage jumps to  at the same instant as the square signal
does, and then decays exponentially to zero. In the second case where   0 , again Eq. (12) and
Eq. (9) together give;

Vl   et / L (14)

This solution indicates that Vl first jumps to (   ) and then decays to 0. Eq. (13) and Eq. (14),
are plotted in Fig. 4. Half life of Vl can be found using Eq. (13) or Eq. (14) as,

T   L ln 2 (15)

Eq. (15) can be used to compute L , when T and R are known.

(a)

1,0
Vl
0,5 (b)
0,0

-0,5

-1,0
0 10 20 30 40

t
T

Figure 4. (a) Square signal from the generator and (b) potential drop Vl across the inductor (b)
versus time

EXPERIMENT
1. Adjust the square signal to a frequency appropriate for observing full charge and discharge
of the capacitor.
2. Set up the circuit seen in Fig. 1. Power your circuit and observe the input and output signals
using both channels of the scope. Make sure that the generator and the scope are commonly
grounded.
3. Measure half life of Vc and compute C using Eq. (7).
4. Repeat the same procedure for the RL circuit seen in Fig. 3 and compute L using Eq. (15).

Questions
1. Why the plates of a capacitor are charged in equal amounts when fed by a DC power supply?
2. Sketch the impedance of a capacitor versus time when connected to a DC power supply.
3. Why an inductor impedes varying current?
4. Sketch the impedance of an inductor versus time when connected to a DC power supply.
37
REPORT

38
39
 PHY 102EL/ 7 SERIAL ALTERNATING CURRENT
CIRCUIT
AIM : Examining the behavior of resistor, inductor and capacitor in an
alternating current circuit and estimating the capacitance and
inductance.
INSTRUMENTS & : Oscilloscope, transformer, capacitor, inductor, resistor.
MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION

Waves & Phasor

On the complex plane, complex number z  x  j y ( j   1 ) can be represented as a vector,
whose components are x  z cos θ and y  z sin θ , where z  zz  x  y is the absolute
* 2 2

value or the modulus of z. Then, using Euler’s relation e j  cos θ  j sin  , z can be obtained as
z  z e j .
Im

|z|
Im[z]
θ Re

Re[z]

Figure 1. Complex plane, and the vector representation of a complex number.

In this sense, complex numbers are able to represent wave functions. A wave function
yt   Asinωt  Φ can be written as

    
yt   Im Ae j ωt Φ   Im e jt Ae jΦ  Im e jt ~
y  (1)

where, the complex number ~ y  Ae j is called the phasor of y(t). The phasor representation of
two sinusoidal waves is shown in Fig. 2. As seen from the figure, the phase difference between
the waves is 90o at any instant for this situation.

B sin(ωt  )
t

A sin(ωt)

Figure 2. Two sinusoidal functions and corresponding phasors.

40
Serial RLC Circuit

R L

VT(t) C
I(t)  I0 sin(ω t)

Figure 3. Serial RLC circuit.

The voltage drops across the resistance, R, the inductor, L, and the capacitor, C, are given by

VR t   RI t   RI 0 sint  (2a)

dI t   
VL t   Vr  Vl  rI t   L  rI 0 sin t   LI 0 sin t   (2b)
dt   2

qt  I 0  
VC t    sin t   (2c)
C C  2

respectively and the corresponding phasors are given by Eq. (3),

VR  RI 0 (3a)

VL  Vr  Vl (3b)

Vr  rI 0 (3c)

Vl   LI 0e j 2 (3d)

I 0  j 2
VC  e . (3e)
C

The phasors given by Eq. (3), are sketched in Fig. 4. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the
RLC circuit in Fig.3,

VT  VR  VL  VC (4)

is obtained.
As can be readily verified, Kirchhoff’s voltage law is also valid for the phasors of these
voltage drops. Hence, in terms of the phasors,

VT  VR  Vr  Vl  VC (5)
is satisfied.

41
 Im

VL Vl
VC
VL
VT

 L Re
VR Vr
VR VC

Figure 4. Demonstration of the related phasors of serial RLC circuit and Kirchhoff’s voltage
law on the complex plane.

The vector sum shown in Fig.4 is named the phasor diagram. For the special cases of the
RLC circuit, the phasor diagrams are plotted using only the related phasors;
~ ~ ~
RL  VT  VR  VL
~ ~ ~
RC  VT  VR  VC
~ ~ ~
LC  VT  VL  VC

EXPERIMENT

I. Measurements in RC Circuit
1. Set up the RC circuit as shown in Fig. 5 and apply an AC emf in the form of V  V0 sin t 
where  = 2πf .
~
VR

~
~ VC R C
VT
V

Figure 5. Schematic representation of RC circuit and the related phasor diagram.

2. Replacing R by different resistors, measure the voltages and fill in Table 1.

Table 1
R () VT (V) VR (V) VC (V) C (F)  (….)

42
 VC
3. Using Eq. (2a) and I   VCC , solving for C gives ;
Xc
VR
C (6)
RVC 

tan  
Vc
(7)
VR

C is the capacitance in farads and  is the phase angle in radians between the current and
the voltage. Calculate the capacitance and  for each case and fill in Table I. Calculate the
average of C.

C average =………..

II. Measurements in RL Circuit

Set up the RL circuit as shown in Fig. 6 and apply again an AC emf in the same form.
4. Replacing R by different resistors, measure the voltages and fill in Table 2.

~
R L VT
~
VL Vl
V
 L
~ L~
VR Vr

Figure 6. Schematic representation of RL circuit and the related phasor diagram

Table 2
R () VT (V) VR (V) VL (V) L (H) L (….)  (….)

VL Vr
5. Using Eq. (2a), I   and the phasor diagram above, the following equations can be
L r
obtained;
VT2  VL2  VR2  2VLVR cosL  (8)

Vl  VL sinL  (9)

Vr  VL cosL  (10)
Solving for L, r and L gives us

43
 VL R sin L 
L (11)
VR

VL R cosL 
r (12)
VR

V  VL  VR
2 2 2
cosL   T (13)
2VLVR

Vl
sin    (14)
VT

L is the inductance of the inductor in units Henry, r is the internal resistance of the inductor
in ohms,  is the phase angle in radians between the current and the voltage of the circuit
and L is the angle in radians between the current and the voltage of the inductor. Calculate
L, r,  and  L for each case and fill in Table 2. Calculate the averages of L and r.

L average = …………….
r average = …………….

III. Measurements in RLC Circuit

6. Set up the RLC circuit as shown in Fig. 7 and fill in Table 3.

Im
V
~
VL
~ Vl
VT

 L Re
~ ~ ~
VR Vr VC

Figure 7. Schematic represantation of RLC circuit and the related phasor diagram.
VR , L  VL  VR
2 2 2

cosL   (15)
2VLVR

7. From Eqs. (9), (10), and (15) and the phasor diagram for RLC circuit, the following equation
for , which is the phase angle between the current and the voltage of the circuit, can be
obtained;

VL sin L   VC
tan   (16)
VL cosL   VR

44
Using Eqs. (6), (11), (12), (15), and (16), calculate the capacitance C, inductance L, internal
resistance of the inductor r, , and  L, for each case and fill in Table 3. Take the average of C,
L, and r.

Table 3
R () VT (V) VR (V) VL (V) VC (V) VRL (V) L (H) C (F) L (…)  (…)

C average = ……………
L average = ……………
r average = ……………
Does VRL equal to VR+VL? Why?

45
REPORT

46
47
 PHY 102EL/ 8 TRANSFORMER
AIM : Examining how a transformer works.
INSTRUMENTS & : Transformer, resistors, AVOmeter, and cables.
MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION
Transformer is a device used to carry electrical energy from one circuit to another, using
magnetic fields. It is made of two coils wound close together around on the same laminated soft-
iron core. The coil through which energy if fed into a transformer is called primary, which is
connected to a power supply, and the coil through which energy if fed out from a transformer is
called secondary, which is connected to a load. An alternating current in the primary produces
changing magnetic field which induces an electromotive force in the secondary.

(a) (b)

Figure 1. Schematic (a), and symbolic (b) representation of a transformer.

The magnetic flux Φ passing through the two coils is produced by the voltage V1, applied
to the terminals of the primary coil. Thus, according to Faraday's law the following
electromagnetic forces, ε1 and, ε2 are induced in the primary and secondary, respectively:

d
 1   N1 (1)
dt
d
 2  N2
dt

here, N1, and N2 are the number of windings on the primary and secondary.
Hence, the ratio of the emf's at the terminals of the primary and secondary (windings) is

 1 N1
 (2)
 2 N2

When the terminal of the secondary coil is open, the electromotor force ε1 at the terminal
of primary coil is equal but back to the V1 . In this case, no current flows along the primary coil,
too. ε2 is also equal to the V2 when there is no current flow in circuit. Thus, one obtains the
following relation:

V1 N
 1 (3)
V2 N 2

48
 When a resistor is connected across the terminal of secondary a current flows in this coil.
This current causes a back magnetic flux in the core as a result of the Faraday-Lenz's law. This
back magnetic flux tries to decrease the ε1. On the other hand since ε1 is equal to V1, the primary
sucks the current I1 out of power supply so as to get equilibrium, again as a result of the Faraday-
Lenz's law. If we neglect the energy lost in the coils because of heat energy produced by the
resistance of the wires, and by hysteresis and eddy currents in the core,

P1 = P2 (4)
V1I1 = V2I2

where P1, and P2 are the powers and, I1 and I2 are the currents in the primary and secondary,
respectively. Combining the Eq. (3) and Eq. (4) one can obtain the following relation:

V1 N I
 1  2 (5)
V2 N 2 I 1

A transformer can be used for increasing or decreasing the voltage, depending on the choice of
which one of the coils is primary.

EXPERIMENT

Figure 2. Transformer experiment circuit.

49
1. Turn off all switches on the bottom.
a) Choose secondary-1 terminal and apply voltages from 2 to 12 V at the terminal of
primary. Measure the VS1 values via AVOmeter. Then fill in table 1.
b) After choosing secondary-2 terminal, follow the same steps and fill in table 2.

Table 1. (NP vs. NS1) Table 2. (NP vs. NS2)

VP VS1 VP VS2
2 2
4 4
6 6
8 8
10 10
12 12

2. After choosing secondary-1 terminal, apply 10 V or 12 V at the terminal of primary. Turn

on the switch that is belongs to the resistor you will use.
a) Measure the voltage on RIN then calculate the VIN/ RIN for IP.
b) Measure the voltage on ROUT then calculate the VIN/ ROUT for IS1.
c) Follow these steps for all resistors on the bottom and fill in table 3.
d) After choosing secondary-2 terminal, follow the same steps and fill in table 4.

Table 3. (NS1 vs NP) Table 4. (NS2 vs NP)

IP IS1 IP IS2

3. Plot the graphs of VP versus VS1 and VP versus VS2 by using the tables, calculate the average
slopes to find the ratio of NP, to NS1 and NP, to NS2.
4. Plot the graphs of IP versus IS1 and IP versus IS2. By using this plots, calculate the average
slope ΔIP/ΔIS1 and ΔIP/ΔIS2 to find the ratio of the NP, to NS1 and NS2.
5. Calculate the error for the secondary-1 terminal and secondary-2 by using these results.

Questions

1. Have you observed that the Eq. (5) is valid? What can be the reason if there are some
conflicts?
2. What is the electromotive force?
3. What is the reason that the core of the transformer is made of a lot of insulated very thin
layers instead of being one block?

50
REPORT

51
52
53
APPENDIX B.
Some important points on drawing a graph

Names and units of axes:

The names and units of the axes must be

written on the axes clearly.

Scaling the axes:

mbig It is very important to scale the axes of a

graph according to data obtained in the
experiment. This is because the slope of
the graph will be more precise, when the
data is spread on a larger area of the
milimetric paper. After placing the axis
so that the whole paper is being used, the
coordinates of the starting point is named
(Vsmall, msmall). The mass axis is scaled
equally between msmall and mbig values.
Similarly, the volume axis is scaled
msmall equally between Vsmall and Vbig values.
The scales of the axes should not be
Vsmall Vbig expected to be the same.

Marking data obtained in the

experiment:

The data obtained in the experiment must

be marked on the graph clearly.
Never write and mark the values of the
data on the axes.
Don’t write the values around the data
points which you marked on the graph.
Don’t draw line between the data points
on the graph.
wrong
U (Volt)

I (Amper)

54
 Fitting:
Fit line
After marking the data obtained during
the experiment on the graph, you must fit
U (Volt)
the data to an appropriate function. For
example, since the relation between the
potential difference and the current is
known to be linear, a line is drawn using
the data points. In constructing a graph,
the least square method is used in order
to minimize the error. The method of
least squares says that the line drawn
between data points should be such that
I (Amper) the sum of the squares of perpendicular
distances from the data points to the line
is minimum.
The slope of the line is calculated using
the coordinates of any two points on the
line. It should be noted that data points
should not be used in determining the
slope because, otherwise, one would be
skipping error reduction. Another
important point that should be kept in
mind is that the coordinates of the points
are determined by reading the
corresponding values in the axes.

If you have huge or very small numbers,

you can multiply the axes with the
powers of 10.

55
APPENDIX C.
Analog Applications Training Set

1. ON/OFF
2. 12V – 0 – 12V AC Power Source
3. +18V / 0V / -18V DC Variable Power Source
4. Function Generator
5. Potentiometers (Variable Resistors)
6. Button (on-off)
7. Button (on – 0 – on)
8. 2x6 Position Comutator
9. (-5V) – 0 – (+5V) Symmetric DC Source
10. Breadboard
11. Adaptors
12. Lamps (12V)
13. Relay (DC 12V)
14. 8 – 2W Speaker
15. Ampermeter
16. Voltmeter

Cihazla ilgili bilgiler www.yildirimelektronik.com web adresinden alınmıştır.

56
APPENDIX D
THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS*

*University Physics, Young and Freedman, 12th ed.Addision-Wesley.

57
APPENDIX E
UNIT CONVERSION FACTORS*

*University Physics, Young and Freedman, 12th ed.Addision-Wesley.

58
APPENDIX F
FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL CONSTANTS and PREFIXES for POWERS of 10 *

*University Physics, Young and Freedman, 12th ed.Addision-Wesley.

59