FOUNDATION 2: Cells

Cellular Development
Stem Cells
The inner cell mass (ICM) in the blastocyst goes on to become the embryo. These
are called stem cells- embryonic stem cells, which can go on to become any other
cell type hence called pluripotent stem cells. They help to grow an embryo into a
human.

Somatic cells replenish cells that need maintaining and are a different type of stem
cell, e.g., epidermal stem cells that replenish our epethiliator skin cells.

To be a stem cell, the cell needs to be able to self-renew (at least one cell even after
division maintains itself as a stem cell for the future) and to have a high capacity
for differentiation. Unipotent stem cells – one type of future cell differentiation,
Multipotent – one family of cell type e.g., haematopoetic stem cells – RBCs
WBCs, such multipotent stem cells are found in bones, cartilage, adipose etc.

Self-Renewal strategies: Obligate asymmetrical replication – a division of the stem

cell to daughter cells differentiated and stem cells (like mother cells). Stochastic
Differentiation-If one stem cell undergoes differentiation into two specialized cells
then a neighbor stem cell will see this and undergo mitosis and produce two stem
cells.

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSC) induced a few specific genes into already
differentiated cells to revert them back to a pluripotent stem cell-like an embryonic
stem cell. E.g., regenerative medicine prints organs via this technique to transplant
into people who need them – no immune rejection.

Cord blood – multipotent and pluripotent stem cells

Cellular Communication
Direct – Macrophage presenting antigen on MHC-II to a helper T cell.
Specific- synapse b/w to neural cells
Vicinity- Mast cells produce histamine for surrounding cells.
Large scale unspecific – hormones into bloodstream.

Mitochondria, apoptosis, and oxidative stress

Necrosis- unprogrammed uncontrolled cell death
Apoptosis- programmed cell death[ could be due to dna damage, embryonic
development – fingers, toes, immune cell death due to infection , disruption of cell
to cell signal, ROS reactive oxygen species [superoxide anion - oxygen molecule,
neutrally charged hydroxide molecule- hydroxide radical, hydrogen peroxide] 4%
of oxygen impropery reduced hence creates ROS – which needs antioxidants to
trap these ros]
When signals for apoptosis are given, BCL2 Family dysregulation on the outer
membrane makes it permeable to cytochrome c from the intermembrane space to
enter the cytoplasm, activating caspases-specifically breaks down proteins after the
aspartate residue, breaks these proteins down with a cysteine residue. Apoptosis is
caspase mediated that is very structured , and essentially control and orchestrate
the degradation of proteins , also activate other enzymes like nucleases that can
break down DNA, hence large scale polymer degradation can be recycled by
surrounding cells- to reuse aa and nucleotides.

Cellular Specialization
Cues – Internal – transcription factors or mRNA precursors. Asymmetrical cell
division – causes two different cell fates from one stem cell (by one having
transcription factors and one not) and symmetric cell division causes two identical
cell fates from the same stem cell.
Cues- External – Induction – a group of cells encourages another group to
differentiate either by diffusion/gap junction-connexon protein/direct contact.
Forms eyes/ears by this.
Goal—is to change the gene expression.

Telomere and Cell senescence

Hayflick Limit – 60 times the DNA can be replicated before DNA damage can
cause harm to the daughter cells [ by getting faulty DNA] with no telomeres.
Hence cells enter senescent stage.
Some cells like stem cells have telomerase and hence can protect themselves from
DNA damage.
Cancer cells can start to express the telomerase and escape senesce and start
dividing uncontrollably.
Some cells are post-mitotic – undivided but not senescent e.g., neural cells – with
DNA damage they can also become senescent.

Cellular Movement
Flagellum of the sperm – microtubules and dynein protein
Neutrophils are attracted to the position of help needed by recognizing signals
from other cells ( cytokines etc.)
Cytoskeletal model of movement – Actin ‘leading edge’ the front and microtubule
(flexible state – rudder and fixed state- anchor)
Membrane flow model of movement – endocytosis – plasma membrane from the
back to the leading to extend the cell membrane by exocytosis and endocytosis
from the membrane where there is integrin protein – helps to anchor the plasma
membrane.