EXPLAIN INTERRUPT WITH EXAMPLE.

an interrupt is a mechanism that allows the microcontroller to pause its current execution
and respond to a specific event or condition. When an interrupt occurs, the microcontroller
temporarily suspends its ongoing tasks and transfers the control to a predefined interrupt
service routine (ISR) to handle the interrupt event. Once the ISR completes its execution, the
microcontroller resumes its normal operation.

A hardware error,eg.paper jam in the printer

The user has pressed <ctrl><alt><delete> to interrupt th current process.

1. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTERRUPT AND POLLING.

2. WRITE SEQUENCE OF STEPS OCCUR DURING INTERRUPT PROCESSING

 3. WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON INTERNAL & EXTERNAL HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE INTERRUPT.

Internal hardware interrupts, also known as hardware-generated interrupts, are triggered by

events that occur within the microcontroller itself. These events are typically associated with
the microcontroller's hardware peripherals, timers, or specific conditions such as arithmetic
errors or stack overflow.

Timer Overflow Interrupt - A timer peripheral within the microcontroller reaches its
maximum count value, causing an interrupt to be generated.

External hardware interrupts, also known as externally-generated interrupts, are triggered by

events from external hardware devices or signals connected to the microcontroller's input
pins. These interrupts are useful for responding to real-time events or external triggers, such
as button presses, sensor outputs, or communication events.

Button Press Interrupt - A push button switch connected to an input pin generates an
interrupt when pressed.

Software interrupts, also referred to as software-generated interrupts or software traps, are

initiated by software instructions or commands to trigger specific operations or to request
specific services from the microcontroller. These interrupts are typically used for system calls,
task scheduling, and communication between different software components

System Call Interrupt - A software instruction is executed, triggering a software interrupt.

4. WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON MASKABLE AND NONMASKABLE INTERRUPT.

A maskable interrupt is an interrupt that can be temporarily disabled or masked by the

microcontroller. When a maskable interrupt is disabled, it means that the microcontroller
ignores or inhibits the interrupt request, preventing it from interrupting the ongoing
execution. Maskable interrupts are typically used for events that are not time-critical or can
be deferred for later processing.

Peripheral Interrupt - An interrupt generated by a peripheral device, such as a UART

(Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter) or an SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface), can be a
maskable interrupt.

A non-maskable interrupt (NMI) is an interrupt that cannot be disabled or masked by the

microcontroller. NMIs are intended for critical events or conditions that require immediate
attention, regardless of the microcontroller's current state. These interrupts take precedence
over all other interrupts and must be handled promptly.

Power Failure Interrupt - An NMI can be triggered when a power failure or a low-voltage
condition is detected.
 5. EXPLAIN ABOUT 16*2 LCD WITH KEYS OR SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY.

16x2 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) is a type of alphanumeric display commonly used to
provide text-based output in microcontroller projects. It consists of 16 columns and 2 rows,
allowing for the display of up to 32 characters at a time. Each character is typically composed
of a 5x8 pixel matrix. In addition to the display capability, this type of LCD module often
includes a set of built-in keypad buttons or keys. These keys can be used as input devices to
receive user commands or to navigate through menus and options.

6. EXPLAIN INTERFACING RELAY AND BUZZER.

A relay is an electromagnetic switch that allows low-power signals from a microcontroller to

control higher-power devices or circuits. It is commonly used to control appliances, motors,
lights, and other electrical loads. The microcontroller activates the relay by providing a
control signal.

 Choose a suitable relay that matches the voltage and current requirements of your
load.
 Connect the relay's coil to a digital output pin of the microcontroller. Use a current-
limiting resistor if necessary.
 Connect the relay's contacts (normally open or normally closed) to the power supply
and the load you want to control.
 Write the necessary code in the microcontroller to set the output pin connected to
the relay coil to a logic level that activates the relay when required.
 When the microcontroller sets the output pin to the appropriate logic level, the relay
coil is energized, and the relay's contacts switch the connected load on or off.
A buzzer is an audio output device used to generate sound or alerts in various applications.
It is typically driven by a square wave signal from a microcontroller.

 Choose a suitable buzzer that matches your voltage and current requirements.
 Connect one terminal of the buzzer to a digital output pin of the microcontroller.
 Connect the other terminal of the buzzer to a suitable current-limiting resistor and
then to the ground (GND) or the microcontroller's ground reference.
 Write the necessary code in the microcontroller to set the output pin connected to
the buzzer to a logic level that generates the desired sound.
 By toggling the output pin high and low at a specific frequency or pattern, you can
produce sound from the buzzer. The frequency and duration of the sound can be
controlled by the timing and sequence of the output pin states
7. EXPLAIN LED INTERFACING WITH DIAGRAM.

4.1. WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON CCP MODE.

CCP (Capture/Compare/PWM) mode is a feature available in many microcontrollers that

allows precise timing measurements, waveform generation, and pulse width modulation
(PWM) output. It is commonly used in applications such as motor control, signal
measurement, and generating analog-like signals.

Capture: In capture mode, the CCP module can measure the time interval between external
events. It can capture the value of a timer at the occurrence of an external event, allowing
precise measurement of input signals' frequency, period, or duty cycle.

Compare: In compare mode, the CCP module compares the value of a timer with a
predefined compare value. When the timer value matches the compare value, an interrupt
can be generated or an action can be triggered, allowing precise timing control and event
synchronization.

PWM (Pulse Width Modulation): In PWM mode, the CCP module generates a pulse-width
modulated signal with a configurable duty cycle. This mode is commonly used for controlling
the speed of motors, dimming LEDs, or generating analog-like signals.

4.2. WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON PWM MODE.

PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) mode is a widely used technique for generating analog-like
signals using a microcontroller or other digital devices. It allows precise control of the
average voltage or current delivered to a load by varying the duty cycle of a square wave
signal. In PWM mode, a digital output pin of the microcontroller is configured to generate a
square wave signal with a fixed frequency. The duty cycle of the signal determines the
average voltage or current level delivered to the load. The duty cycle represents the ratio of
the ON time (the duration the signal is HIGH) to the total period of the signal. PWM mode is
widely used in various applications such as motor speed control, LED dimming, audio
synthesis, and power regulation. It provides an effective means of generating precise analog-
like signals using digital devices and is a fundamental technique in modern microcontroller-
based systems.

4.3. EXPLAIN DC MOTOR SPPED CONTROL WITH CCP.

Motor Driver Circuit: To control the DC motor, you need a motor driver circuit that can
handle the current and voltage requirements of the motor.

Configure CCP Module: In your microcontroller, configure the CCP module to generate a
PWM signal.

Connect CCP Output Pin to Motor Driver: Connect the output pin of the CCP module to the
input pin of the motor driver circuit responsible for controlling the speed of the motor.

Write the Code: In the microcontroller's code, set the duty cycle of the PWM signal based on
the desired speed of the motor.

Compile and Upload: Compile the code and upload it to the microcontroller.
Test and Adjust: Apply power to the microcontroller and monitor the motor's speed.

4.4. EXPLAIN STEPPER MOTOR INTERFACING WITH PIC .

Select a Stepper Motor: Choose a stepper motor that meets the requirements of your
application, such as torque, step angle, and voltage rating.

Choose a Stepper Motor Driver: Select a stepper motor driver that can handle the current
and voltage requirements of the stepper motor.

Connect Control Signals: Connect the control signals from the PIC microcontroller to the
stepper motor driver.

Direction Control: Connect a digital output pin from the microcontroller to the direction
control input of the stepper motor driver.

Step Pulse: Connect another digital output pin from the microcontroller to the step control
input of the stepper motor driver.

Microstepping (Optional): If your stepper motor driver supports microstepping, you may
need additional control signals, such as MS1, MS2, MS3, to set the microstepping mode.

Write the Code: In the microcontroller's code, control the stepper motor by toggling the
direction control signal and sending step pulses.

Compile and Upload: Compile the code and upload it to the PIC microcontroller

Test and Verify: Apply power to the microcontroller and stepper motor driver. Execute the
code to control the stepper motor and observe its movement
4.5. EXPLAIN UART PROTOCOL IN DETAIL.

Start Bit: The transmission begins with a start bit, which is always logic LOW (0). It signals the
receiver that a new data frame is starting

Data Bits: UART allows for the transmission of data in various configurations, typically 7 or 8
data bits per frame.

Parity Bit (Optional): An optional parity bit can be included for error detection. The parity bit
is set to ensure that the total number of logic HIGH (1) bits in the data frame (including the
parity bit) is even (even parity) or odd (odd parity)

Stop Bit(s): One or two stop bits are used to signal the end of a data frame. The stop bit(s) is
always logic HIGH (1)
4.6. WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON RS232 PROTOCOL.
4.7. WRITE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SPI.

4.8. WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON I2C PROTOCOL.

5.1. EXPLAIN BASIC FEATURES OF ADC.

5.2. EXPLAIN INTERFACING OF ADC & DAC 0808 WITH PIC.

Connect the power and ground pins of the ADC to appropriate voltage levels and
common ground with the PIC microcontroller.
Connect the analog input signal that needs to be converted to the input pin(s) of the
ADC.
Connect the control pins of the ADC to the corresponding GPIO pins of the PIC
microcontroller. These control pins include chip select (CS), clock (CLK), and data
input/output (DIN/DOUT) pins.
Configure the GPIO pins as outputs and set them to the appropriate initial state (e.g.,
CS high, CLK low).
Implement the control and data transfer mechanism in the firmware. This typically
involves sending control signals and clock pulses to the ADC to initiate and control
the conversion process.
Read the digital output data from the ADC after the conversion process completes.
This may involve reading the data from the ADC's output register or using a serial
interface (SPI or I2C) to receive the data.

Connect the power and ground pins of the DAC0808 to appropriate voltage levels
and common ground with the PIC microcontroller.
Connect the control pins of the DAC0808 (e.g., chip select, data latch, and clock) to
the corresponding GPIO pins of the PIC microcontroller.
Connect the digital output pins of the PIC microcontroller to the data inputs (DB0-
DB7) of the DAC0808.
Configure the GPIO pins as outputs and set them to the appropriate initial state (e.g.,
chip select high, clock low).
Implement the control and data transfer mechanism in the firmware. This typically
involves sending control signals and clock pulses to the DAC0808 to latch the digital
data and initiate the conversion process.
Send the desired digital data to the DAC0808 by setting the appropriate GPIO pins of
the PIC microcontroller.
Ensure proper timing by providing the required clock pulses and latch signals.
The DAC0808 will convert the digital input into an analog voltage at its output pin(s).
Connect these output pins to the desired analog output device or circuit.

5.4 EXPLAIN INTERFACINF OF EEPROM USING SPI WITH PIC

5.5. EXPLAIN TEMPERATURE SENSOR LM35.

6.1. WHAT IS MEANT BY ARM AND RISC

ARM refers to a family of processor architectures developed by ARM Holdings, a British
semiconductor and software design company. ARM processors are widely used in various
electronic devices, including mobile phones, tablets, embedded systems, and more. ARM
processors are known for their energy efficiency, low power consumption, and scalability
ARM processors come in different variants, such as ARM Cortex-A, Cortex-R, and Cortex-M,
each designed for specific application domains. The Cortex-A series is optimized for high-
performance applications, Cortex-R for real-time systems, and Cortex-M for microcontroller
applications.

RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer. It is a computer architecture design
philosophy that emphasizes simplicity and efficiency by using a small and fixed set of simple
instructions. In a RISC architecture, each instruction performs a specific and well-defined
operation, typically executing in a single clock cycle

Simplicity: RISC processors have a simplified instruction set with a small number of basic
instructions, reducing complexity and increasing efficiency

Load-Store Architecture: RISC processors often use a load-store architecture, where

arithmetic and logical operations are performed on data stored in registers rather than
directly on memory

Pipelining: RISC processors commonly employ pipelining techniques to maximize instruction

throughput and improve performance

Register-Based Operations: RISC architectures heavily rely on registers for data storage and
manipulation, minimizing memory accesses and enhancing execution speed

Fixed Instruction Format: RISC instruction formats are typically fixed in length, simplifying
instruction decoding and execution
6.2. WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON A

RM VERSIONS.
6.3. WRITE A SHORT NOTE ARM9.

6.4. WHAT ARE THE BASIC FEATURES OF ARM11.

6.5. WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ARM PROCESSOR

DISADVANTAGES:-

Limited Processing Power: Compared to high-end desktop processors, ARM processors

generally have lower processing power.
Limited Floating-Point Performance: Some older ARM processor versions have limited
floating-point performance

Limited Memory Addressability: ARM processors have a limited memory addressability

range, typically 32 bits or 64 bits depending on the architecture

Complexity of Programming: While ARM instruction set architectures are designed to be

efficient and streamlined, programming for ARM processors can be complex, especially for
low-level coding or optimizing performance

Limited Software Compatibility: ARM processors typically run on operating systems

specifically designed for them, such as Android for mobile devices

6.7. EXPLAIN THE ARM7 DATA FLOW MODEL IN DETAIL.

6.8. EXPLAIN CPSR AND SPSR REGISTER.

CPSR (Current Program Status Register)

Purpose: CPSR holds the current status and control information of the processor during
program execution

Contents: CPSR is a 32-bit register that stores various condition flags and control bits,
including the condition code flags (N, Z, C, V), interrupt enable/disable flag (I), and processor
mode (such as user mode, supervisor mode, etc.)

Usage: CPSR is automatically updated by the processor based on the results of arithmetic
and logical operations, and it can be read by software to determine the current state of the
processor

SPSR (Saved Program Status Register)

Purpose: SPSR is used to save and restore the processor's status and control information
during exceptions or interrupts
Contents: SPSR is also a 32-bit register that stores the same information as CPSR, including
condition flags, interrupt enable/disable flag, and processor mode

Usage: When an exception or interrupt occurs, the current contents of CPSR are saved into
the corresponding SPSR register

6.8. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PIC AND ARM .

PIC microcontrollers are based on a Harvard architecture, which means they have separate
instruction and data memories

ARM microcontrollers are based on a Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) architecture

PIC microcontrollers use their own proprietary instruction set architecture developed by
Microchip Technology

ARM microcontrollers use the ARM instruction set architecture, which is a widely used and
standardized instruction set

PIC microcontrollers are generally known for their simplicity and suitability for low-power
and small-scale applications

ARM microcontrollers offer a wide range of performance options, ranging from low-power
microcontrollers for embedded systems to high-performance microcontrollers used in
applications such as smartphones and automotive systems

Microchip Technology, the manufacturer of PIC microcontrollers, provides a comprehensive

ecosystem that includes development tools, software libraries, and a vast community of
developers

ARM microcontrollers are supported by various manufacturers and have a well-established

ecosystem with a wide range of development tools, software libraries, and community
support
#DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RISC AND CISC

S.No. RISC CISC

It stands for Reduced Instruction Set It stands for Complex Instruction Se

1.
Computer. Computer.

It is a microprocessor architecture that This offers hundreds of instructions of differen

2. uses small instruction set of uniform sizes to the users.
length.

These simple instructions are executed This architecture has a set of special purpose
3. in one clock cycle. circuits which help execute the instructions at
a high speed.

4. These chips are relatively simple to These chips are complex to design.
 design.

5. They are inexpensive. They are relatively expensive.

Examples of RISC chips include Examples of CISC include Intel architecture,

6.
SPARC, POWER PC. AMD.

7. It has less number of instructions. It has more number of instructions.

It has fixed-length encodings for It has variable-length encodings o

8.
instructions. instructions.

Simple addressing formats are The instructions interact with memory using
9.
supported. complex addressing modes.

It doesn't support arrays. It has a large number of instructions. It

10.
supports arrays.

11. It doesn't use condition codes. Condition codes are used.

Registers are used for procedure The stack is used for procedure arguments
12.
arguments and return addresses. and return addresses.

#ADCON0

The ADCON0 (A/D Control Register 0) is a register in the PIC18 microcontroller series
that is specifically used for controlling the Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) module.
The ADCON0 register is used to configure various settings related to the ADC
operation. Let's go through the different bit fields of the ADCON0 register:

ADCON0bits.ADON (ADC Enable bit):

This bit enables or disables the ADC module.

When set (1), the ADC module is enabled and can perform conversions.

When cleared (0), the ADC module is disabled.

ADCON0bits.GO/DONE (ADC Conversion Status bit):

This bit starts or indicates the status of an ADC conversion.

To start a conversion, this bit must be set (1).

When a conversion is in progress, this bit remains set (1).

After the conversion is complete, this bit is automatically cleared (0) by the hardware.

ADCON0bits.CHS (Analog Channel Select bits):

These bits determine the analog input channel to be selected for conversion.

The specific bit configuration selects one of the available input channels.

The number of bits used for channel selection depends on the specific microcontroller
variant.

For example, if a microcontroller has 8 input channels, it may require 3 bits for channel
selection.

ADCON0bits.GODONE (Legacy ADC Conversion Status bit):

This bit performs the same function as the GO/DONE bit mentioned earlier.

Some older PIC18 microcontroller variants use this bit instead of the GO/DONE bit.

It's important to note that the exact configuration and usage of the ADCON0 register
can vary slightly between different PIC18 microcontrollers. Therefore, it is essential to
consult the specific microcontroller's datasheet and reference manual for accurate and
detailed information on the ADCON0 register and its associated bit fields.

When using the ADCON0 register, you typically set the appropriate bits to configure
the ADC module and start the conversion by setting the GO/DONE or GODONE bit. You
then monitor the status of the GO/DONE or GODONE bit to determine when the
conversion is complete. Finally, you retrieve the conversion result from the ADC result
registers.

#ADCON1

The ADCON1 (A/D Control Register 1) is a register found in certain PIC18

microcontroller variants that is used to configure additional settings for the Analog-to-
Digital Converter (ADC) module. Let's explore the bit fields commonly found in the
ADCON1 register:

ADCON1bits.PCFG (A/D Port Configuration Control bits):

These bits are used to configure the ADC port pins as either analog inputs or digital
I/O pins.

The specific configuration options can vary between different microcontroller models.

Typically, each bit corresponds to a specific pin, allowing you to individually configure
the analog/digital functionality.

ADCON1bits.VCFG (Voltage Reference Configuration bits):

These bits determine the reference voltage source for the ADC module.

The available options can vary between different microcontroller models.

Common configurations include using the power supply voltage (VDD) and ground
(VSS) as references or utilizing an external voltage reference.

ADCON1bits.CHSN (Negative Voltage Reference Channel Select bits):

These bits are used to select the negative reference channel for the ADC module.

The negative voltage reference channel is typically used for differential measurements.

The specific options and functionality can vary between different microcontroller
models.

ADCON1bits.ADFM (A/D Result Format Select bit):

This bit determines the format of the conversion result.

When set (1), the result is right-justified, meaning the most significant bits are aligned
to the higher bits of the result register.

When cleared (0), the result is left-justified, meaning the most significant bits are
aligned to the lower bits of the result register.

It's important to note that the exact configuration and usage of the ADCON1 register
can vary between different PIC18 microcontrollers. Therefore, it is crucial to consult
the specific microcontroller's datasheet and reference manual for accurate and
detailed information on the ADCON1 register and its associated bit fields.

When using the ADCON1 register, you typically set the appropriate bits to configure
the ADC port pins, select the voltage reference, set the negative voltage reference
channel (if applicable), and choose the result format. These settings depend on your
specific requirements and the features supported by the microcontroller model you are
using.