Graham2009Ecol and Silv Lit RevTPSFtreespeciesCentKal

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A Literature Review of the Ecology and Silviculture of Tropical Peat Swamp

Forest Tree Species Found Naturally Occurring in Central Kalimantan
Technical Report · December 2009

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.2120.4882
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A Literature Review of the Ecology
T
and Silviculture of Tropical Peat
Swamp Forest Tree Species Found
Naturally Occurring in Central
Kalimantan
This report was prepared for

The Kalimantan Forests and Climate Partnership
Literature Review: Silviculture of TPSF tree species, Central Kalimantan 2009
This report was prepared in accordance with the guidelines at the time of writing, including
the overview of the KFCP project below. This research was carried out in collaboration with
the Governments of Australia and Indonesia, but the analysis and findings in this
paper represent the views of the author/s and do not necessarily represent the views of those
Governments
Australia’s International Forest Carbon Initiative is a key part of Australia’s international

leadership on reducing emissions from deforestation. The Initiative will support international
efforts to reduce deforestation through the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC). It aims to demonstrate that reducing emissions from deforestation and
forest degradation can be part of an equitable and effective international agreement on
climate change. A central element of this is the Initiative’s focus on developing practical
demonstration activities in our region, particularly in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.
Indonesia and Australia are working together under the Indonesia- Australia Forest carbon
Partnership (The Partnership) to support international efforts on REDD through the UNFCCC.
A key focus is on practical demonstration activities to show how REDD can be included in a
future global outcome on climate change. Activities under the partnership are funded through
Australia’s $200 million International Forest carbon Initiative (IFCI) administered by the
Australian Department of Climate Change (DCC) and AusAID.
Australia has committed $30 million over four years to the Kalimantan Forests and Climate
partnership (KFCP). Under the KFCP, Australia and Indonesia are working together to
develop and implement a large scale REDD demonstration activity in Central Kalimantan. The
KFCP is the first REDD demonstration activity of its kind in Indonesia. It aims to demonstrate
a credible, equitable and effective approach to reducing emissions from deforestation and
forest degradation, including from the degradation of peatlands, than can inform a future
global outcome on climate change. With an overall funding target of $100 million, the KFCP
aims to raise remaining funding through contributions from or coordinated actions with the
private sector or other donor countries.
This report was prepared by Laura L. B. Graham under the management of Graham
Applegate and is comprised of a comprehensive literature review of the distribution, ecology
and silviculture of peat swamp forest tree species in Indonesia and Malaysia that also occur in
Central Kalimantan, and their secondary successional traits following selective and intensive
logging, deforestation and fire. The study was developed and managed by Grahame
Applegate, with support from Tim Jessop, both of KFCP. Administrative Assistance was
provided by Pak Eko Pranandhita of the KFCP in Palangkaraya. The work was financed by
the Indonesia- Australia Forest Carbon Partnership, managed by Neil Scotland from the
IAFCP Partnership Office.
Australian Agency for International Development, Jakarta

Australian Embassy, Jl Rasuna Said Kav. C15 -16, Jakarta 12940, Indonesia
Ph (62 21) 392 4322, Fax (62-21) 392 4373
2|Page
A Literature Review of the Ecology and Silviculture of Tropical

Peat Swamp Forest Tree Species Found Naturally Occurring
in Central Kalimantan
December 2009
This report was prepared for

The Kalimantan Forests and Climate Partnership
3|Page
Contents
Background .................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction to KFCP forest restoration ........................................................................ 5
The literature review ...................................................................................................... 6
Using the literature review ............................................................................................. 6
Comments on the data.................................................................................................... 7
Sources of literature ....................................................................................................... 8
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ 8
Selecting the Focal Species ............................................................................................ 9
Complete literature review species list: ....................................................................... 14
Literature review ‘Selected Focus Specis’ list: ............................................................ 18
References .................................................................................................................. 221
4|Page
Background
Indonesia has taken a leading role among developing countries in exploring how to
integrate Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in
Developing Countries (REDD) into the emerging international carbon market.
Australia and Indonesia have established the Kalimantan Forest and Climate
Partnership (KFCP), to undertake a REDD demonstration on Tropical Peat Swamp
Forests (TPSF) in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. The goal which the Indonesia
Australia Forest Carbon Partnership is seeking as input to negotiations for a post-2012
global climate change agreement is to demonstrate a credible, equitable, and effective
approach to reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from deforestation and forest
degradation, including from the degradation of peatlands. This demonstration project
is intended to strengthen Indonesia in its participation in future international carbon
markets.
The location of the KFCP site is shown in Figure 1.
In order to achieve this goal, four bio-physical interventions are to be implemented:

- re-wetting of the degraded peat ecosystems by raising the water table
through canal closure
- reduction in the incidence of fire
- establishment of a baseline total carbon-content and GHG emissions
from the peat
- promotion of forest restoration by facilitating natural regeneration
complemented by directed enrichment planting.
Introduction to KFCP forest restoration
In order to reduce GHG emissions from degraded peatlands, the peat surface must be
protected from oxidation, resulting from drying, and from fire. Re-wetting of the peat
will achieve a degree of protection, however, to ensure re-initiation of peat
production, maintenance of peat structure, short-term and long-term raised water
levels and amelioration of surface drying, it will be necessary to establish a closed
canopy of woody vegetation.
Within a workshop held by the Master Plan for the Rehabilitation of the Ex-Mega
Rice Project, an expert review of existing knowledge was convened by KFCP in
December 2008. This group identified a set of questions for which further knowledge
5|Page
was required. Four inter-linked areas from this set have been selected by KFCP to be
of particular interest as they underpin the projected work in ecosystem restoration.
Specifically there is a need to know:
1. The location and extent of natural regeneration of woody species and the
factors influencing establishment and growth.
2. The phenology of swamp forest species
3. Germination and growth requirements, including tolerances, of common
tree species in the peat swamp flora
4. Optimal planting techniques to maximise survival and growth.
The literature review
There are over 150 tree species found naturally occurring on the tropical peatlands of
Central Kalimantan. Given that tropical peatland environmental conditions are
extremely different in their natural and degraded form, the result is that few of these
150 species have the appropriate adaptations or tolerances to be used in peatland
forest restoration. However, it was necessary that KFCP’s forest restoration activities
only uses native tree species.
Given that the study of forestry and ecology of tropical peatalnds is a
relatively new field, and the study of tropical peatland forest restoration even newer,
there is little published literature on tree species characteristics, or appropriate
silvicultural techniques. Furthermore, in previous tropical peatland rehabilitation
activities, only a very small of selection of these 150 species has been trialled, with
the number of species planted often below five per study.
In order to successfully rehabilitate the tropical peatland forests found in the
KFCP study area, the above four technical research questions are to be addressed.
However, which species these questions focus upon must be considered; to try to
consider all 150 species would spread resources too thin, therefore the most
appropriate species must first be selected.
To generate a ‘Focal Species List’ it was determined a comprehensive
literature review be undertaken covering all tree species found to naturally occur on
the tropical peatlands of Central Kalimantan. This report is the output of that literature
review.
Using the literature review
The literature review is organised by tree species, first by family then by genus. Each
species name is given at the top of the page, with any encountered synonyms listed
directly below. In the right-hand top of the page, common local names associated with
the species are listed. Each species begins on a new page.
The topics that were included in the literature review are:
Distribution
Phenology
Fruit and seed description
Dispersal mechanism
Seed collection and storage technique
Germination technique
6|Page
Seedling nursery cultivation techniques

Transplanting techniques, successes and failures
Nutrient management and requirements
Tolerances
Successional stage
Ecological characteristics
Additional comments
If data was found on a given topic for a given species, it is listed on that species’ page.
The topics on which no data was found are then listed below.
Following this introduction there is a spreadsheet of all the species included in this
review, with the relevant page numbers on which they can be found. There is also a
more detailed spreadsheet of the selected ‘Focal Species’, mentioning their page
number and also which of the sub-headings are covered, i.e. whether literature was
found on distribution, phenology and so on. It should be noted that some of the
species already has extensive literature covering all the topics, and for these species
little research will need to be undertaken, but instead these species can be quickly
upscaled to the large-scale cultivation and transplanting. However, for other species,
whilst they display some of the appropriate characteristics, there is little silvicultural
knowledge, and thus these will become the main focus of the research activities.
Comments on the data
There continues to be a debate between the use of Syzygium and Eugenia. The review,
based on the Leiden Herbarium collection, has used Eugenia where no Syzygium
synonym is available, however where a Syzygium synonym is listed, this has been
given preference (Giesen, pes. comm.).
There seemed to be little clarity on the species Stemonurus scorpiodes and

Stemonurus secundiflorus. Both species were listed in numerous literature, but never
in the same place, despite activities being conducted in the locations, suggesting one
actual species, with some confusion as to its actual identity. As such, these species
have been listed as one: Stemonurus secundiflorus/scorpiodes.
There is no single comprehensive species list for Central Kalimantan. Thus several
lists were used, published and private, to try to determine presence of species in the
region. Furthermore, although species were listed, there may have been no further
literature on them, and as such, they do not appear in this review. This does not mean
they do not occur in Central Kalimantan, only that no relevant literature was found.
This literature review focuses only on tree species found to naturally occur on the
tropical peatlands of Central Kalimantan. However, if species are also found to occur
outside the region, and research was undertaken elsewhere, but on the relevant
species, then this literature was also be included.
It should be noted that whilst this literature review aims to be comprehensive, there is
such a wide array of grey literature that given the time available it was inevitable
7|Page
some literature was overlooked. All key literature has been included as best could be
achieved.
Sources of literature
To locate the various sources of grey and published literature, internet searches and
scientific journal databases were used, relevant government research and NGO
research offices were visted and requests made, and seminar, conference and
workshop proceedings or presentations were located.
Acknowledgements
This piece of work would not have been possible without the support of so many
individuals and organisations who shared their time and resources in locating the
relevant literature. Thanks go to: Wim Giessen, Mary Rose Posa, Ibu. Tri Wira
Yuwati, Pk. Dony Rachmanadi, Pk. Marinus Harun and all the team at LITBANG-
Banjar Baru, Pk. Iwan Tri Wibisono and Wetlands International-Indonesia, Pk.
Maman Turjaman and Pk. Istomo at Institute Pertanian Bogor, FORDA-Bogor, Pk.
Edi Mirmanto and LIPI-Bogor, Kristell Hergoualc'h and CIFOR-Bogor, Pk. Aswin
Usup and CKPP, Ibu Rosenda Chandra Kasih and WWF-Palangka Raya, BOS
Foundation-Palangka Raya, Mark Harrison and Simon Husson in OuTrop, Pk.
Suwido Limin and CIMTROP, and Department of Forestry-Palangka Raya, and also
to all those who replied to email requests. Further thanks go to Andri Thomas, Eben
Eser and Salahuddin for assisting with much of the Indonesian literature.
8|Page
Selecting the Focal Species
Based on the literature, and the compiled review, it was possible to select a list of
species that display the best characteristics to be appropriate transplant species. This
list was selected based on a range of criteria that are explained through the framework
species method for forest restoration (Elliot et al. 2003). The FrameWork Species
Method (FWSM) has since successfully applied to a wide diversity of ecosystems. It
involves selecting and planting the correct mixture (between 20-30 key species) of
tree species to reinstate the natural processes of forest regeneration and recover
biodiversity. The species should be indigenous, non-domesticated, forest tree species,
which, when planted on deforested sites, rapidly re-establish forest structure and
ecological function, and attract seed-dispersers to the area. Thus, key characteristics
of these species are: high survival after transplanting to degraded areas, rapid growth,
dense spreading crown to shade out weeds, reaches fruiting maturity early and has
fruits and flowers that attract seed-dispersers and pollinators, easy to propagate,
germinates rapidly and in synchrony, fire-tolerance and nitrogen-fixing preferable.
The mixture should include both climax and pioneer species, and thus forest
succession can be ‘short-circuited’.
Below is the list of the selected species, and explanations for their selection
based on the above criteria. N.B. For the relevant literature see within the review.
It should be noted that whilst the generated Focal Species List is a necessary
step in selecting and cultivating a range of suitable TPSF tree species for Central
Kalimantan, it is only a first step. The list was generated based on the data of
available literature. In some cases a species may have the appropriate characteristics,
but be yet to be recorded as such. Therefore, it is anticipated that future research and
traditional ecological knowledge will allow this list to grow and develop.
Anacardiaceae Campnosperma coriacea

This species has large seeds which will attract animal dispersers back to the area, and
has a quickly-forming canopy, with large leaves. It is described as tolerant to high
light and areas of high disturbance, and found to occur in early successional seres, or
in forest types with a more open canopy.
Anacardiaceae Gluta renghas

This species is recommended twice as successful transplant species, and is also
described as a pioneer species.
Anacardiaceae Gluta wallichii

The species fruits predictably every year, has large seeds to attract animals, it is
described as occurring in secondary succession and also as a pioneer, and it has been
trialled as a transplant species with some success, and is recommended as such.
Anacardiaceae Mangifera altissima

This genus is shown both to have had success in planting trials and found to occur and
regenerate well under disturbed open conditions. This species was found to dominate
in secondary succession.
9|Page
Anisophyllaceae Combretocarpus rotundatus

This species has been successful in planting trials, is able to access nitrogen under low
nutrient conditions, is able to tolerate fire, high light and disturbance, is found to be
dominant in secondary succession, described as a pioneer, and is fast growing.
Apocynaceae Alstonia pneumatophora

This species has predictable yearly fruiting, found to occur in secondary succession,
described as a pioneer, is tolerant to degraded, open, burned, high light areas, and
there has been some success in transplant trials.
Apocynaceae Alstonia spatulata

This species has had some transplanting success, is found in secondary succession and
is described as a pioneer.
Apocynaceae Dyera polyphylla

This species has regular annual fruiting, the silvicultural techniques are well-
understood, the species had economic value, is tolerant to high light, deep peat and
open areas, is described as a pioneer and there has been some transplant success.
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea balangeran

This species’ silvicultural techniques are well understood, including mycorrhizal
associations. It is described as tolerant to high light, flooding and open areas, found in
secondary succession and described as a pioneer. It has been successful in transplant
trials.
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea leprosula

This species’ silvicultural techniques are well understood, including storage
techniques and mycorrhizal associations. It is tolerant to high light and drought, has
had some transplant success and is described as ‘adaptable’.
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea pauciflora

This species’ silvicultural techniques are well understood, including development
from cuttings. It is described as a mid-successional, semi-tolerant species with some
transplanting success.
Dipterocarpaceae Vatica rassak

There is some understanding of this species’ silvicultural techniques, and it is
recommended as a successful transplant species.
Ebenaceae Diospyros siamang

This species has fruit that is attractive to animals, is described as flood-tolerant and a
pioneer, and also adapted to disturbance.
Eleocarpaceae Elaeocarpus petiolatus

This species is described as flood-tolerant and a pioneer, and semi-tolerant to light.
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga hypoleuca

This species has regular fruiting, has had some transplanting success and is described
as a pioneer.
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Euphorbiaceae Macaranga pruinosa

This species is able to recover well after fire, is described as flood-tolerant and a
pioneer, and often seen to dominate degraded areas.
Euphorbiaceae Mallotus muticus

This species is described as tolerant to light, flooding and with fire-adaptation, and
called a pioneer.
Guttiferae Calophyllum hosei

This species is found in the open, low-pole sections of the peat dome.
Guttiferae Calophyllum sclerophyllum

This species has large fruit to attract animals, and is found in the open and low-pole
sections of the peat dome.
Hyperiaceae Cratoxylon arborescens

This species has had some success in transplant trials and is described as a pioneer,
tolerant of open, disturbed, dry areas.
Hyperiaceae Cratoxylon glaucum

This species is recommended as a transplant species, and is described as a pioneer,
often found in the open, low pole sections of the peat dome.
Lauraceae Alseodaphne coriacea

This species has economic value, has had some success in transplant trials, and is
described as shade-tolerant and a climax species.
Lauraceae Litsea spp.

This genus is recommended for transplanting, and as described as fast-growing, often
found in the open, low pole sections of the peat dome, and tolerant of deep peat.
Leguminosae Koompassia malaccensis

This species is able to fix nitrogen into the soil, fruits plentifully every year, is
recommended as a transplant species, can tolerate drought, shade and flooding, and
described as a pioneer.
Melastomaceae Pternandra galeata

This species is described as flood-tolerant and a pioneer.
Meliaceae Aglaia rubiginosa

This species has a large fruit that will attract animals, appears in mid-successional
seres, with some occurrence as a pioneer, and has a large extensive crown.
Myristicaceae Horsfieldia crassifolia

This species has a large fruit to attract animals and is found to dominate after fires.
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Myrtaceae Eugenia cerina

This species is described as a pioneer, tolerant to high-light, flooding and disturbance.
Myrtaceae Eugenia spicata

This species is described as a pioneer, tolerant to flooding, fire and disturbance.
Myrtaceae Melaleuca cajuputi

This species adapted to fires, has been successful in transplanting trials, is tolerant to
flooding, is fast-growing, and described as a pioneer often dominating degraded areas.
Myrtaceae Syzygium oblatum

This species bears fruit from an early age, has seeds that are attractive to animals, and
was successful in restoration trials.
Myrtaceae Syzygium zippeliana

This species is described as a pioneer with flood-tolerance.
Myrtaceae Tristaniopsis obovata

This species is described a light-demanding, found in the low-pole, open sections of
the peat dome and is fast-growing.
Podocarpaceae Dacrydium pectinatum

This species is has flexible cultivation and seeds can be stored, and is described a
light-demanding.
Sapotaceae Madhuca motleyana

This species has had some success in planting trials, and is described as a shade-
tolerant climax species.
Sapotaceae Palaquium spp.

This genus has regular, annual fruiting and has had success in transplanting trials.
Theaceae Ploiarium alternifolium

This species is described as a pioneer species, tolerant of flooding, and found in the
open, low-pole sections of the peat dome.
Theaceae Tetramerista glabra

This species has fruit attractive to animals, can be cultivated from cuttings, is
recommended as a transplant species, has had success in trial transplants, and is
described as a shade-tolerant climax species.
Thymelaeaceae Gonystylus bancanus

This species is well studied due to its high economic value. It is a climax species
which prefers shade, but has done well in transplanting trials. All its silvicultural
techniques are well understood.
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Figure 1: Map of KFCP Study area
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Complete literature review species list:
Page
Family Genus Species Local Names number
Anacardiaceae Buchanania sessifolia 19
Anacardiaceae Campnosperma spp. 20
Anacardiaceae Campnosperma coriacea Terontang 21
Anacardiaceae Campnosperma macrophylla Terontang 23
Anacardiaceae Gluta spp. Rengas 24
Anacardiaceae Gluta renghas Rengas / Jingah 25
Anacardiaceae Gluta (Melanorrhoea) wallichii 26
Anacardiaceae Mangifera spp. 28
Anacardiaceae Mangifera altissima 29
Anacardiaceae Semecarpus glaucus 30
Anisophyllaceae Combretocarpus rotundatus Tumih / Parapat 31
Annonaceae Mezzettia parviflora (leptopoda) Pisang pisang besar 33
Annonaceae Polyalthia spp. 34
Annonaceae Polyalthia glauca Kayu bulan 35
Annonaceae Polyalthia lateriflora 36
Annonaceae Xylopia caudata 37
Annonaceae Xylopia coriifolia Nonang 38
Annonaceae Xylopia fusca Jangkang kuning 39
Apocynaceae Alstonia spp. Pulai rawa 40
Apocynaceae Alstonia pneumatophora Pulai rawa 42
Apocynaceae Alstonia spatulata 45
Apocynaceae Dyera polyphylla (lowii) Jelutong 47
Aquifoliaceae Ilex hypoglauca 51
Aquifoliaceae Ilex macrophylla 52
Araucariaceae Agathis spp. 53
Araucariaceae Agathis borneensis 54
Araucariaceae Agathis dammara 55
Arecaceae Licuala paludosa 56
Arecaceae Nenga pumila 57
Arecaceae Pholidocarpus sumatranus 58
Bombaceae Durio carinatus 59
Burseraceae Dacryodes spp. 60
Burserceae Santiria griffithii Teras bamban 61
Irat / Kayu Sapat /
Burserceae Santiria laevigata Kambajau burung 62
Casuarinaceae Gymnostoma sumatrana 63
Celastraceae Lophopetalum spp. Perupuk 64
Clusiaceae Garcinia spp. 65
Clusiaceae Garcinia bancana Manggis 66
Clusiaceae Garcinia celebica 67
Clusiaceae Garcinia rostrata Gandis 68
Crypteroniaceae Dactylocladus bancanus Mertibu 69
Crypteroniaceae Dactylocladus stenostachys Mertibu 70
Dilleniaceae Dillenia spp. Simpur 71
Dipterocarpaceae Anisoptera marginata Mersawa paya 72
Dipterocarpaceae Dipterocarpus coriaceus Simpur 73
Dipterocarpaceae Dryobalanops spp. 74
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Complete literature review species list continued:
Page
Dipterocarpaceae Dryobalanops rappa Bangkerai Rawa 75
Dipterocarpaceae Hopea rudiformis 76
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea spp. 77
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea balangeran Balangeran 78
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea inaequilateralis 82
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea leprosula Meranti tembaga 83
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea ovalis 85
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea parvifolia 86
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea pauciflora 87
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea platycarpa Meranti paya 89
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea seminis 80
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea teysmanniana Meranti semut/bunga/bitik 81
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea uliginosa Meranti batu 92
Dipterocarpaceae Vatica spp. 83
Dipterocarpaceae Vatica mangachopai Rasak napu 84
Dipterocarpaceae Vatica oblongifolia 85
Dipterocarpaceae Vatica rassak Resak 86
Ebenaceae Diospyros spp. 87
Ebenaceae Diospyros bantamensis 89
Ebenaceae Diospyros buxifolia 89
Ebenaceae Diospyros evena 100
Ebenaceae Diospyros hermaphroditica 101
Ebenaceae Diospyros maingayi 102
Ebenaceae Diospyros siamang Ehang 103
Eleocarpaceae Eleocarpus mastersii 104
Eleocarpaceae Eleocarpus petiolatus 105
Euphorbeaceae Blumeodendron tokbrai Kenari 106
Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea spp. 107
Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea bracteata Rambai hutan 108
Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea racemosa 109
Euphorbiaceae Chaetocarpus castanocarpus 110
Euphorbiaceae Glochidion rubrum 111
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga spp. 112
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga caladifolia 113
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga hypoleuca 114
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga pruinosa Mahang 115
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga puncticulata 116
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga triloba 117
muticus
Euphorbiaceae Mallotus (Coccoceros) (borneensis) Prupuk 118
Euphorbiaceae Mallotus sumatranus 119
Euphorbiaceae Neoscortechinia kingii Pupuh pelanduk 120
Euphorbiaceae Neoscortechinia philippinensis 121
Fagaceae Lithocarpus spp. 122
Guttiferae Calophyllum spp. Kapurnaga 123
Guttiferae Calophyllum ferrugenium 124
Guttiferae Calophyllum hosei Bintangor 125
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Page
Guttiferae Calophyllum lowii 126
Guttiferae Calophyllum pisiferum (retusum) 127
Guttiferae Calophyllum sclerophyllum Kapurnaga Jangkar 128
Guttiferae Mesua spp. 129
Hyperiaceae Cratoxylon spp. Geronggang 130
Hyperiaceae Cratoxylon arborescens Geronggang 131
Hyperiaceae Cratoxylon glaucum Geronggang merah 132
Icacinaceae Platea spp. 133
Icacinaceae Stemonurus spp. 134
scorpiodes / Pasir pasir / Tabaras tidak
Icacinaceae Stemonurus (Urandra) secundiflorus ada akar / Enyok buruk 135
Alseodaphne
Lauraceae (Nothaphoebe) coriacea Gemur 137
Lauraceae Cinnamomum spp. 138
Lauraceae Cinnamomum rhychophyllum 139
Lauraceae Litsea spp. 140
Lauraceae Litsea calophyllantha 141
Lauraceae Litsea crassifolia 142
Lauraceae Litsea johorensis 143
Lauraceae Litsea resinosa 144
Lecythidaceae Barringtonia macrostachya 145
Lecythidaceae Barringtonia racemosa 146
Leguminosae Archidendron clypearia 147
Leguminosae Dialium spp. 148
Leguminosae Dialium patens 149
Leguminosae Koompassia malaccensis Kempas 150
Magnoliaceae Magnolia spp. 151
Malvaceae Hibiscus spp. 152
Melastomaceae Memecylon spp. 153
Keremunting yang garis
Melastomaceae Pternandra galeata tiga 154
Meliaceae Aglaia spp. 155
Meliaceae Aglaia rubiginosa Kajalaki 156
Meliaceae Sandoricum spp. 157
Meliaceae Sandoricum borneensis Papong 158
Moraceae Artocarpus gomeziana 159
Moraceae Ficus deltoidea Ara 1160
Moraceae Ficus virens 161
Myristaceae Knema cinera Darah-darah 162
Myristaceae Knema laytericia Pirawas 163
Myristicaceae Horsfieldia spp. 164
Myristicaceae Horsfieldia crassifolia Mendarahan (daun besar) 165
Myristicaceae Myristica lowiana Mandarahan 166
Myrsinaceae Ardisia laevigata 167
Myrtaceae Eugenia spp. 168
Myrtaceae Eugenia cerina 169
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Myrtaceae Eugenia havelandii 170
Myrtaceae Eugenia kunsterli 171
Myrtaceae Eugenia spicata Kayu lalas 172
Myrtaceae Melaleuca cajuputi Kayu putih 173
Myrtaceae Melaleuca leucadendron Galam 176
Myrtaceae Syzygium spp. 177
Myrtaceae Syzygium oblatum 178
Myrtaceae Syzygium pyrifolium 179
Myrtaceae Syzygium zippeliana 180
Myrtaceae Tristania grandifolia 181
Myrtaceae Tristania obovata Blawan 182
Myrtaceae Tristania whiteana 183
Podocarpaceae Dacrydium pectinatum Alau 184
Polygalaceae Xanthophyllum spp. 186
Polygalaceae Xanthophyllum lanceatum 187
Rhizophoraceae Carallia bractiata Gandis 188
Rosaceae Parastemon spicatum 189
Rubiaceae Gardenia spp. 190
Rubiaceae Ixora spp. 191
Rubiaceae Neolamarckia cadamba 192
Rubiaceae Psychotria montensis 193
Rubiaceae Timonius flavenscens 194
Rutaceae Melicope accedens 195
Rutaceae Tetractomia tetrandrum 196
Sapindaceae Nephelium lanceatum 197
Sapindaceae Nephelium mutiable Rambutan 198
Sapotaceae Ganua spp. 199
Sapotaceae Madhuca (Ganua) motleyana Nyatoh / Ketiau 200
Sapotaceae Palaquium spp. 201
Sapotaceae Palaquium cochlearifolium Nyatoh 203
Sapotaceae Palaquium leiocarpum Hangkang 204
Sapotaceae Palaquium ridleyi Nyatoh burung 205
Sapotaceae Palaquium rostratum Nyatoh 206
Sterculiaceae Scaphium macropodum 207
Sterculiaceae Sterculia spp. 208
Theaceae Ploiarium alternifolium Asam-asam 209
Theaceae Ternstroemia elongate 210
Theaceae Tetramerista glabra Ponak 211
Thymelaeaceae Gonystylus bancanus Ramin 213
Ulmaceae Trema cannabina 218
Ulmaceae Trema orientalis Lenduhung 219
Verbenaceae Peronema canescens Sungkai 220
17 | P a g e
Literature review ‘Selected Focus Specis’ list:
Fruit & Seed Seedl. Transp. Nut.

seed Disp. coll'n Germ. cult'n tech., succ. manag. Succ'l Ecol. Add. Page
Family Genus Species Local Names Dist. Pheno. descrip. mech. & stor. tech. tech. & fail. & req. Tol. stage char. comm. No.
Anacardiaceae Campnosperma coriacea Terontang Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 21
Rengas /
Anacardiaceae Gluta renghas Jingah Y Y Y Y 25
Gluta
Anacardiaceae (Melanorrhoea) wallichii Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 26
Anacardiaceae Mangifera altissima Y 29
Tumih /
Anisophyllaceae Combretocarpus rotundatus Parapat Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 31
Apocynaceae Alstonia pneumatophora Pulai rawa Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 42
Apocynaceae Alstonia spatulata Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 45
polyphylla
Apocynaceae Dyera (lowii) Jelutong Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 47
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea balangeran Balangeran Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 78
Meranti
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea leprosula tembaga Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 83
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea pauciflora Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 87
Dipterocarpaceae Vatica rassak Resak Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 86
Ebenaceae Diospyros siamang Ehang Y Y Y 103
Eleocarpaceae Eleocarpus petiolatus Y Y 105
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga hypoleuca Y Y Y Y 114
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga pruinosa Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 115
Mallotus muticus
Euphorbiaceae (Coccoceros) (borneensis) Prupuk Y Y Y 118
Guttiferae Calophyllum hosei Bintangor Y Y 125
Kapurnaga
Guttiferae Calophyllum sclerophyllum Jangkar Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 128
Hyperiaceae Cratoxylon arborescens Geronggang Y Y Y Y Y Y 131
Literature review ‘Selected Focus Specis’ list continued:
Fruit & Seed Seedl. Transp. Nut.

seed Disp. coll'n Germ. cult'n tech., succ. manag. Succ'l Ecol. Add. Page
Family Genus Species Local Names Dist. Pheno. descrip. mech. & stor. tech. tech. & fail. & req. Tol. stage char. comm. No.
Geronggang
Hyperiaceae Cratoxylon glaucum merah Y Y 132
Alseodaphne
Lauraceae (Nothaphoebe) coriacea Gemur Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 137
Medang and
Lauraceae Litsea spp. Tampang Y Y Y Y Y 140
Leguminosae Koompassia malaccensis Kempas Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 150
Keremunting
yang garis
Melastomaceae Pternandra galeata tiga Y Y 154
Meliaceae Aglaia rubiginosa Kajalaki Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 156
Mendarahan
Myristicaceae Horsfieldia crassifolia (daun besar) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 165
Myrtaceae Eugenia cerina Y Y 169
Myrtaceae Eugenia spicata Kayu lalas Y Y 172
Myrtaceae Melaleuca cajuputi Galam Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 173
Myrtaceae Syzygium oblatum Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 178
Myrtaceae Syzygium zippeliana Y Y 180
Myrtaceae Tristania obovata Blawan Y Y Y Y 182
Podocarpaceae Dacrydium pectinatum Alau Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 184
Nyatoh /
Sapotaceae Madhuca (Ganua) motleyana Ketiau Y Y Y Y Y Y 200
Sapotaceae Palaquium spp. Nyatoh Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 201
Theaceae Ploiarium alternifolium Asam-asam Y Y 209
Theaceae Tetramerista glabra Ponak Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 211
Thymelaeaceae Gonystylus bancanus Ramin 213
19 | P a g e
Anacardiaceae Buchanania sessifolia
Tolerances
- Found along the banks of the river at Lahei, suggested to be flood tolerant
(Simbolon and Mirmanto 1999).
There is no further information available on:
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Successional stage
Additional comments
Anacardiaceae Campnosperma spp.

- In a trial transplant experiment that took place in Toe-Deang Peat Swamp,
Royal Pikulthong Project, Narathiwat, Thailand, after 4yrs growth in a
degraded peat area, Campnosperma had 88% survival, diameter (at 10cm
above ground level) was 7.5cm, and height was 1.7m (Satohoko et al.
Undated).
There is no further available information on:
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
21 | P a g e
Anacardiaceae Campnosperma coriacea

Terontang
Distribution
- Found growing in peat swamp forest and mixed forest, up to 1000m asl
(Istomo 2002).
Phenology
- In Thailand, flowers all year round, fruit ripens; August-October (Nuyim
2005).

- Oval-shaped fruit, when mature the skin is black and smooth. Each fruit
contains one seed (Nuyim 2005, Istomo 2002).

- There are approximately 9280 seed per kg (Nuyim 2005).
- It is difficult to collect seeds in large quantity (Nuyim 2005).
- Germinates 20-35 days after sowing (Nuyim 2005).

- Reaches 80cm in height after 18 months (Nuyim 2005).
Tolerances
- Described as a ‘light-demanding species’ (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Can tolerate areas which have had light to medium burn, land cleared, or with
little remaining vegetation (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- This species is suitable for conditions of 10-50% vegetation cover, greater
than 3 months per year water logged and greater than 3m peat depth (Giesen
2009).
Successional stage
- Under the seven different TPSF forest types, as defined by Page et al. (1999)
Campnosperma coriacea is classically found in i) Riverine Forest, and v) Low
pole forest.
- Described as a ‘pioneer’ species (Giesen 2008).
- This species is classified as late successional (Giesen 2009).
- Described as moderate growing tree i.e. growth rates between 30-60cm per
year (Nuyim 2005).
- Reaches the size of a large tree (Nuyim 2005).
- Leaves are large and crown extensive, creating good shade beneath (Nuyim
2005).
Additional comments
- Fruits are popular food for monkeys (Nuyim 2005).
22 | P a g e
Dispersal mechanism
23 | P a g e
Anacardiaceae Campnosperma macrophylla

Terontang
Successional stage
- Described as a ‘pioneer’ species (van der Laan 1925, Giesen 1990).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
24 | P a g e
Anacardiaceae Gluta spp.

Rengas
Distribution
- Found growing in tropical rainforest, periodically flooded forest, near river
banks, and on sandy soils up to 300m asl (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
Phenology
- Fruits every year from October-December (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).

- There are approximately 34 seeds per kg (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).

- Can be planted to the field straight from seed, nursery seedling, wildling or
wildling from stump. Should be planted at spacing of 3x2m (Martawijawa et
al. 2005a).
Successional stage
- Can decrease up to 30% after logging (Lee 1979).
- Slow-growing (Lee 1979)
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
25 | P a g e
Anacardiaceae Gluta renghas

Rengas / Jingah
- 60-70% survived to fully grown seedlings in a nursery after collection from
the forest as wildlings (Panjaitan et al. 2006).

- Had high success in planting trials on peatlands in Central Kalimantan
(Lazuardi 2004).
Tolerances
- Recommended to be used in peatland rehabilitation, and planted into logged-
over or heavily degraded open areas (Rachmanadi and Luzuardi 2007).
Successional stage
- Described as a ‘pioneer’ species (Kessler 2000)
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
26 | P a g e
Anacardiaceae Gluta wallichii

Synonym Melanorrhoea wallichii
Distribution
- Found growing in tropical rain forests, on peat soils and sandy soils that are
periodically flooded, on river banks, and up to 300 asl (Wibisono et al. 2005).
Phenology
- Fruits every year, October-December (Wibisono et al. 2005).

- There are approximately 34 seeds per kg (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- The fruit has a hard skin (Wibisono et al. 2005).
Dispersal mechanism
- Wind-borne dispersal (Giesen 2009).

- Seeds should only be taken from ripe fruit which have fallen from the parent
tree. Extracted seed can be put in water, and those that sink are of good quality
(Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Seeds can be planted directly in grow bags, 14x22cm large, filled with peat.
Seeds should be placed flat. The grow bags should be kept in a nursery,
shaded, and watered twice a day (morning and afternoon) (Wibisono et al.
2005).

- The seedlings should be intensively cared for in the first month. The hardening
process can begin after 4-6 months old, when the seedlings have 4-7 leaves

- In Jambi this species was used in restoration trial, with good success (Giesen
2004).
- The seedlings are ready to transplant after 8-12 months old. To plant out,
transects should be cleared, running North-South, 1-2 m wide. Each transect
should be spaced at 5-10m. Each planting location should be marked. Holes
should be prepared for the seedlings, 15-30cm deep and 15-25cm diameter, to
fit the seedling and grow bag media. After planting, the area surrounding each
seedling should be cleared 2-3 times per year, for two years (Wibisono et al.
2005).
Tolerances
- Tolerant to non-flooded degraded peatlands (Giesen 2009).
- Burnt areas along the Air Hitam Laut River in the central part of Berbak
National Park were replanting in with Gluta wallichii, planted onto artificial
27 | P a g e
mounds (0.3-0.5m tall). The first wet season (flooding 50cm deep) 65-85% of
the seedlings survived, however the following wet season, the flooding was
extremely deep (100-150cm deep). This floodiing level went above the height
of the seedlings’ leaves, resulting in lower than 5% survival (averaged across
several species). This shows this species can tolerate degraded conditions, but
its leaves must remain above the flood level (Giesen 2009).
- Described as a light-demanding species (Wibisono et al 2005)
Successional stage
- Appears in the secondary succession of lightly-burnt areas (Giessen 2009).
- Described as a ‘pioneer’ species (Kessler 2000).
- Suggested to be planted for ‘enrichment planting’ only, under secondary forest

Additional comments
28 | P a g e
Anacardiaceae Mangifera spp.

- In a trial transplant study in Toe-Deang Peat Swamp, Royal Pikulthong
Project, Narathiwat, Thailand, after 4yrs growth in a degraded peat area,
Mangifera had 90% survival, diameter (at 10cm above ground level) was
1.1cm, and height was 0.5m (Satohoko et al. Undated).
Successional stage
- This species was abundant, regenerating with fast growth rates, with low
mortality, along a canal bank of degraded peatlands in Central Kalimantan.
The conditions were open, low soil moisture and high soil temperature (Saito
et al. 2003).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
29 | P a g e
Anacardiaceae Mangifera altissima

Successional stage
- Found to be a dominant sapling, pole and tree post-logging (Rieley and Page
2005).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
30 | P a g e
Anacardiaceae Semecarpus glaucus

Tolerances
- Found along the banks of the river at Lahei, suggested to be flood tolerant
(Simbolon and Mirmanto 1999)
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Successional stage
Additional comments
31 | P a g e
Anisophyllaceae Combretocarpus rotundatus

Tumih / Parapat
Distribution
- Found in peat swamp forest and Karangas forest, up to 300 m asl, often found
in secondary or degraded forest (Istomo 2002, Sunaryo 2004).

- Fruit are three semi-circle membranous ‘wings’ (Rachmadi et al. 2000).
Dispersal mechanism
- Wind-bourne dispersal (Giesen 2009).
- 30-40% survived to fully grown seedling in the nursery after collected from

- After inoculation with three species of VAM (Glomus sp.1, Glomus sp.2, and
Gigasporus sp.) Combretocarpus rotundatus seedlings achieved greater
heights in 5 months under nursery conditions as compared to the control
seedlings. Glomus sp.1 was recommended as the most successful for use in
rehabilitation activities (Burhanuddin et al. 2008)

2004).
National Park were replanted with Combretocarpus rotundatus onto artificial
mounds (0.3-0.5m tall) in Nov-Dec 2003. The first wet season (flooding 50cm
deep) the seedlings survived (65-85%), however the following wet season, the
flooding was extremely deep (100-150cm deep). This floodiing level went
above the height of the seedlings’ leaves, resulting in lower than 5% survival.
This shows this species can tolerate degraded conditions, but its leaves must
remain above the flood level (Giessen 2009).

- Root samples were taken of this species in TPSF of Central Kalimantan, and
ectomycorrhizal colonization was seldom observed (Tamai 2003).
- In a study analyzing the 15N uptake, it was shown this species could access
atmospheric nitrogen and also nitrogen from a symbiotic relationship with
denitrification bacteria (Matsubara et al. 2003).
Tolerances
- Can decrease up to 30% after logging (Lee 1979, Whitmore 1984)
- In plot studies at Central Kalimantan, it was the main species able to tolerate
fire (D’Arcy and Page 2002, Giesen 2004).
- Suggested as tolerant of non-flooded degraded peatlands (Giesen 2009).
- Can grow under low nutrient conditions (Rachmadi et al. 2000).
- Described as a ‘light-demanding species’ (Wibisono et al 2005).
32 | P a g e
little remaining vegetation, or areas that have already had some natural
regeneration after fire, have only been selectively logged, and still have closed
ground cover from vegetation (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Under flood conditions the water potential of this species was measured. It
was anticipated that the water pressure would drop and wilting would occur, as
the roots became resistant to water uptake due to saturation. However, water
pressure and turgor remained the same, showing this species has good
tolerance to flood conditions (Naiola and Osaki 1999).
- Observed as deep/prolonged flood tolerant (Van Eijk and Leenman 2004).
- Suitable for planting on sloping side of canals/frequently flooded areas
(Giesen 2008).
- Tolerant of degraded areas (Sunyarso 2004).
Successional stage
- Can become the dominant species in secondary peat swamp forest after fire, as
seen in South Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan (Giesen 1990, Giesen
2004).
- Found in mixed peat swamp forest, at the edge of the peat dome and in the low
pole forest nearer to the centre of the peat dome (Page and Waldes 2005).
classically found in i) Riverine Forest, v) Low pole forest and vii) Very low
pole canopy forest.
- Occurs in secondary succession after light-burn (Giessen 2009).
- Described as a ‘pioneer’ species (van der Laan 1925, Giesen 1990, Giesen
2004, van Eijk and Leenman 2004, Giesen 2008).
mortality along a canal bank on degraded peatlands in Central Kalimantan.
et al. 2003).
- One of the most dominant species found in a burnt plot (Simbolon 2002)
- A slow growing species (Lee 1979, Whitmore 1984).
- Natural regeneration is mainly vegetative, by suckers or coppice shoots
(Whitmore 1984).
- Growth can be stimulated by fire (Kostermans 1958).
- Populations can be gregarious (Kostermans 1958).
- Able to re-sprout from the base of the trunk after fire (Wibisono et al. 2005,
Giesen 2004).
Phenology
Additional comments
33 | P a g e
Annonaceae Mezzettia parviflora

Synonym Mezzetia leptopoda
Pisang pisang besar
Distribution
- Found growing in rainforest, up to 1100m asl, commonly found in Dipterocarp
forest or acidic, podozolic, peat swamp forest (Istomo 2002).
Successional stage
- Found in mixed peat swamp forest, at the edge of the peat dome and in the tall
interior forest at the centre of the peat dome (Page and Waldes 2005).
classically found in iii) Mixed peat swamp forest, iv) Transitional forest, (iii-v)
– but at lower densities and vi) Tall interior forest
- After much disturbance in a narrow forested fire-break in a peatland area,
Riau, Sumatra, this species was seen to have very high sapling dominance,
suggesting disturbance tolerance (Gunawan et al. 2007).
- Found to be a dominant tree post-logging (Rieley and Page 2005).
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
34 | P a g e
Annonaceae Polyalthia spp.

- In planting trials conducted by Royal Pikulthong project, Narathiwat,
Thailand, Polyalthia had survival rates of 23% after 5.5 years planted out, and
22% at 9yrs planted out. The average stem diameter (at 10cm above ground
level) was 2.2cm after 5.5yrs and 3.8cm after 9yrs, and the height was 1m after
5.5yrs and 1.6m after 9yrs (Nuyim 2000).
- In a trial transplant study that took place in Toe-Deang Peat Swamp, Royal
Pikulthong Project, Narathiwat, Thailand, after 4yrs growth in the degraded
peat area, Polyalthia had 90% survival, diameter (at 10cm above ground
level) was 1.1cm, and height was 0.6m (Satohoko et al. Undated).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
35 | P a g e
Annonaceae Polyalthia glauca

Kayu bulan
Distribution
- Found in primary or secondary rainforest, swamp forest or forest that floods,
up to 1800m asl (Krisdianto et al. 2004, Istomo 2002).
Phenology
- In Thailand, flowers; March-May, fruit ripens; July-October (Nuyim 2005).
- Flowering occurs twice a year, at the same time as leaf production (Krisdianto
et al. 2004).

- Fruit is dark red or black when mature, each fruit contains one seed (Nuyim
2005).
Dispersal mechanism
- Bird-dispersed (Krisdianto et al. 2004).

- There are approximately 800 seeds per kg (Nuyim 2005).
- Seeds germinate 45-80 days after sowing (Nuyim 2005).


- In Thailand this species was used in restoration trials, with good success
(Urapeepatanapong and Pitayakajornwute 1996).
- Described as slow growing tree i.e. growth rates less than 30cm per year
(Nuyim 2005).
- Reaches medium to large-sized tree (Nuyim 2005).
- If in wet conditions produces roots for respiration (Krisdianto et al. 2004).

Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
36 | P a g e
Annonaceae Polyalthia lateriflora

- Continuous low growth rate from initial stage i.e. growth rates less than 30cm
per year (Nuyim 2005).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
37 | P a g e
Annonaceae Xylopia caudata

Successional stage
- Found to be a dominant pole and tree post-logging (Rieley and Page 2005).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
38 | P a g e
Annonaceae Xylopia coriifolia

Nonang
Successional stage
- Increases significantly after logging (Lee 1979, Whitmore 1984).
- Fast-growing (Lee 1979, Whitmore 1984).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
39 | P a g e
Annonaceae Xylopia fusca

Jangkang kuning
Distribution
- Found occurring in peat swamp forests (Istomo 2002).

- The fruit is elongated, and red-brown in colour (Istomo 2002).
Successional stage
classically found iii) Mixed swamp forest and iv) Transition forest (iii-v) – but
at lower density and vi) Tall interior forest.
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
40 | P a g e
Apocynaceae Alstonia spp.

Pulai rawa
Phenology
- Flowers in May, and fruits in August (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).

- There are approximately 620,000 seeds per kg (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).

- Seeds should be dried for 2days, then can stored in a sealed can container for
two months. This method provides 90% germination success (Martawijawa et
al. 2005a).
- The seeds cannot be stored for long, as there are recalcitrant (Mindawati et al.
2004).
- Seeds germinated with 96% success, starting after 5 days, and finishing after
14 days (Rusmana et al. 2004).
- Store the seeds in a box, with smooth sand as the media. The seeds will start to
germinate after 1-2 weeks (Lukman and Muslimin 2006).
- The media found to be most successful, as the germination media for Pulai, is
sand and compost at a ratio 3:1. This will normally result in 82-84%
germination success. Using only sand will result in a 66-81% germination
success (Mushadi 2005).

- Cuttings can be successfully used, by placing the cuttings in a media of sand
and compost at a ratio 1:1, with the cutting tip dipped in growth hormone
Rootone-F 40%. This results in 87% success rate (Lukman and Muslimin
2006). Danu et al. (2000) found cuttings placed in Rootone-F, 50mg/cutting,
resulted in long roots and a success of 95%.

peat area, Alstonia had 97% survival, diameter (at 10cm above ground level)
was 13.1cm, and height was 2.5m (Satohoko et al. Undated).
(Lazuardi 2004).
- Various planting trials took place with the following survival rates after 12
months: control (96%), planted in bamboo tubes (89%), planted on artificial
hummocks (64%), planted on artificial hummocks in bamboo tubes (89%)
(Rusmana et al. 2004).
Tolerances
- Can be planted into degraded areas that are dominated by alang-alang,
understorey species, and secondary vegetation (Lukman and Muslimin 2006).
41 | P a g e
Distribution
Dispersal mechanism
Successional stage
Additional comments
42 | P a g e
Apocynaceae Alstonia pneumatophora

Pulai / Pulai rawa
Distribution
- Found all across Indonesia. Found in tropical conditions on sandy or wet soils
up to 100m asl (Rachmadi et al. 2000).
- Found in peat swamp forests, on sandy soils, near beaches, and on the edge of
large rivers (Istomo 2002).
- Grows well on peat swamps, up to 1000m asl (Wibisono et al. 2005).
Phenology
- Fruits from May – August (Rachmadi et al. 2000, Wibisono et al. 2005).

- The fruit is a capsule, 25-30cm, glabrous until pubescens (Istomo 2002)
- The seed is 2x5mm, brown-black, with smooth hairs (Wibisono et al. 2005).
Dispersal mechanism
- Wind-bourne species (Giesen 2009).

- There are approximately 620,000 seeds per kg (Wibisono et al. 2005,
Rachmadi et al. 2000).
- Ripe fruit can be distinguished by their brown-black colour, and only the
closed pods should be collected as open pods have already dispersed their
seeds by wind (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- To take the seeds from the fruit, dry the fruit under the sun until the pod opens,
and the seeds can be extracted. This is best done inside a material box, so the
small seeds are not lost or blown away (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- If wildlings are collected, then only healthy seedlings should be chosen, which
do not yet have woody stems, and a maximum of 6 leaves. The seedlings
should be collected in the late afternoon. Upon collection the leaves should be
cut to 1/2 – 1/3 their size, to avoid over over-respiration (Wibisono et al.
2005).
- Lay the seeds out on a germination tray, buried to 0.2-0.3 cm, and at 1-1.5cm
spacing. The seeds should be watered every day, using a sprayer or watering
can. Once the seeds germinate, wait until they have 2-4 leaves before moving
them to separate grow bags, being careful not to damage the roots (Wibisono
et al. 2005).

- Plant the seedlings in grows bags 10x15cm or14x22cm large, filled with peat.
The seedlings must be regularly watered. The hardening process can begin
once the seedling has 5-8 leaves and is 7-8 months old. (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Wildlings should be planted in grow bags, 14x22cm in size, filled with peat,
with a plastic concave cover over them for the first 1-2 months, and high
shade. The hardening process can begin for wildlings once 2-4 new leaves
have emerged (Wibisono et al. 2005).
43 | P a g e

- Berbak National Park staff planted 1 ha trial plots along the Air Hitam Laut
River in 2001-2002. Trees were planted on the burnt peat, and not on mounds.
Two species were planted: jelutung Dyera polyphylla and pulai Alstonia
pneumatophora. Seedlings were obtained locally, and from local government,
and the local community assisted with the planting. In addition, trial planting
(1 ha & 5 ha) was carried out in 2002 by the Forestry Department at the burnt
area along the Simpang Melaka river in Berbak NP. At both sites a
combination of pulai, jelutung and medang were planted at a density of one
seedling per 10 m². Seedlings were planted directly in the soil, without mound
construction. Seedlings were small (in the case of jelutung and medang), and
about 1m tall in the case of pulai. Seedlings were not of a high quality as most
were from cuttings rather than seeds. The seedlings were taken from the
polybag before planting, which occurred in August (1 ha site) and December
(5 ha site) 2002. A quick survey of both areas revealed that seedling mortality
is close to or at 100%, probably due to long, deep flooding (about 1.2-1.3 m,
as observed on marks left on trees) (Giesen, 2004).
- The seedlings will be ready for transplanting once they are 8-12 months old.
The seedlings should be planted out in the morning or the late afternoon, at the
start of the wet season (November-December). They should be planted at
spacing of 5x5m. The area surrounding the seedling, up to 0.5m should be
cleared. A hole should be prepared, 15-30cm deep, and 15-25cm wide, to fit
the grow media and seedling size. If the transplant area regularly floods,
seedlings can be planted onto prepared artificial mounds. After planting the
area surrounding the seedlings should be cleared 3-4 times a year, for two
years (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Burnt areas along the Air Hitam Laut River in the central part of Berbak NP
were replanting with this species in August-November 2003 onto artificial
mounds (0.3-0.5m tall) in Nov-Dec 2003. The first wet season (flooding 50cm
deep) the seedlings survived (65-85%), however the following wet season, the
above the height of the seedlings’ leaves, resulting in lower than 5% survival.
remain above the flood level (Giesen 2009).
Tolerances
- Tolerant of non-flooded degraded peatlands (Giesen 2009).
- Based on planting trials conducted in the Block C area of the EMRP by
CIMTROP, this species is suitable for planting on peatland (Limin 2007).
- Described as a light demanding species (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Grows well on degraded peatland dominated by fern and/or shrubs
(Rachmanadi and Lazuardi 2007).
- Observed as shallow to moderate flood-tolerant (Van Eijk and Leenman
2004).
44 | P a g e

over or heavily degraded open areas (Rachmanadi and Luzuardi 2007,
Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Appropriate for planting on shallow peat (Lazuardi et al. 2005).
Successional stage
- Good candidate for secondary succession in lightly-burnt areas (Giessen
2009).
- Described as a pioneer species (Giesen 2004, van Eijk and Leenman 2004,
Wösten et al. 2006).
- This species morphology and physiology is adapted to growing well on open,
degraded areas (Panjaitan et al. 2003a).

Additional comments
45 | P a g e
Apocynaceae Alstonia spatulata

Distribution
- Found growing in swamps, on the edge of flowing rivers, on alluvial or humus
soils that are high in sand, and up to 300m asl. Often found in secondary
forest or on degraded lands (Istomo 2002).
Phenology
- In Thailand, flowers and bears pods all year round, particularly April-July
(Nuyim 2005).

- Pods have smooth skin and develop in pairs (Nuyim 2005).
Dispersal mechanism
- Wind-bourne seed dispersal (Giesen 2009).

- Seeds germinate after 10-15 days (Nuyim 2005).

- Reaches 65cm tall after 7 months in the nursery (Nuyim 2005).

- Transfers without difficulty during replanting (Nuyim 2005).
2004).
- In planting trials in Thailand, this species did not increase growth when
planted onto mounds (Nuyim 2005).
- Trial planting was undertaken in Klias peat swamp forest, Beaufort, Sabah. 45
seedlings of this species were planted using a randomized complete block
design, with spacing at 3x3m. Height, diameter and survival were monitored
every two weeks for ten weeks. During this time Alstonia spathulata had mean
height increment of 9.36cm, mean diameter increment of 1.86cm and 87%
survival (Mojiol et al. undated).
Tolerances
- Can tolerate degraded peatland areas provided there is low flooding (Giesen
2009).
- Thrives well in water-logged areas with high and sustained water levels
(Nuyim 2005).
2009).
46 | P a g e
Successional stage
- Appears in secondary succession after light-burn (Giesen 2009).
- Pioneer species often found in water-logged, open areas at the edge of peat
swamp forests (Nuyim 2005).
- Suitable for planting on in-filled canals where flooding is rare (Giesen 2008).
- This species is classified as a late successional species (Giesen 2009).
- Described as fast growing tree i.e. growth rates greater than 60cm per year
(Nuyim 2005).
- Small to medium in size (Nuyim 2005).

Additional comments
47 | P a g e
Apocynaceae Dyera polyphylla

Synonym Dyera lowii
Jelutong
Distribution
- Found growing in tropical peat swamp forests and Karangas forests (Istomo
2002).
- Found growing in tropical forests, on sandy or peat soils, from 20-800m asl
(Martawijawa et al. 2005a, Wibisono et al. 2005).
Phenology
- Flowers from July-December, and fruits in January. There is normally an 8-9
month period between flowering and fruiting. The tree fruits every year.
(Rotinsulu et al. 2007a)
- Fruits every year (Martawijawa et al. 2005a, Wibisono et al. 2005).).

- The pod is elongated and opens when ripe. The seed is oval and brown in
color, with thin skin. There are normally 12-36 seeds in every pod (Rotinsulu
et al. 2007a)
- The fruit is a woody elongated pod, which will gradually open as it becomes
old. Ripe fruit can be distinguished by its colour turning dark brown-black and
the splitting of the pod. The seeds are oval, flat and brown. The skin of the
seed is thin. There are normally 12-36 seeds per fruit, organized in two rows
within the pod (Wibisono et al. 2005).
Dispersal mechanism
- The seed is small and flat, and can be wind-dispersed up to 1.2Ha (Watson
1934).

- Do not store the seed for too long, and store in a light place were there is air
movement, between 20-40˚C, and 60% humidity. Do not collect from trees in
which the rubber is tapped, as the seed quality will be poor (Rotinsulu et al.
2007a).
- Save the collected fruits in a container, in a room with fan circulation, to keep
the air moving round the fruit, and control the temperature and humidity.
Extract the seeds by drying the cracked pods under the sun, and selecting open
pods and stripping back the two pod halves, so the seeds fall out by
themselves. Select the healthy looking seeds (full and ripe) and discard those
that are empty, unripe, blemished, or infected. Do not store the seeds for
longer than 6 weeks. To store them, prepare a wire box which will keep the
seeds secured but aerated, maintain at 20-40˚C, and 60% humidity. The quality
of the seed drops heavily after 3 months (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- If wildlings are collected, those with 4-8 leaves should be chosen. Collection
should take place in the late afternoon, and planted straight into grow bags,
14x22cm (Wibisono et al. 2005).
48 | P a g e
- Soak the seeds in water for two hours, then store in a box made from wood
and wire, with a wet cloth over the top. Humidity should be kept high
throughout, using a water spray. Germination will start after 7 days and be
complete after 15 days. Normally there is a 40-50% germination success
(Rotinsulu et al. 2007a, Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
the forest as wildlings (Panjaitan et al. 2006)
- The best germination media is peat that has been processed. It should be
prepared in a germination tray at 4-8cm deep, with 1cm sawdust at the top.
Jelutong seedlings are prone to ant infestation, so use pesticide, such a
Puradan, around the germination tray. Place out all the seeds on the
germination tray, so they are separate, under heavy shade. The germination
will start to occur within 1-2 weeks, and continue for up to 8 weeks. Water the
seeds twice a day. Keep the seedlings on the germination tray until they have 4
leaves. Once they have four leaves, move the seedlings into separate grow
bags, with care so as not to break the roots (Wibisono et al. 2005).

- The germinated seed should be placed in a 1cm deep hole, and the soil closed
around the hole. It will begin to grow fully after 2-3 weeks. It is ready for
planting in the field after 15-18 months in the nursery, or after reaching 30-
40cm, and a hardening technique should be carried out (Rotinsulu et al. 2007a)
- It is easier to cultivate seedlings from cuttings then seeds (Rusmana et al.
2004).
- The grow bags should be 14x22cm, and filled with peat (Wibisono et al.
2005).
- The hardening process can begin quickly, once the seedlings have 6-8 leaves,
approximately 7-8 weeks old (Wibisono et al. 2005).

- Berbak NP staff replanted small trial plots of 1 ha along the Air Hitam Laut
River in 2001-2002 (Giesen, 2004). Trees were planted on the burnt peat, and
not on mounds. Seedlings were obtained locally, and from Pemerinta Daerah
(Local Government), while locals assisted with the planting. In addition, trial
planting (1 ha & 5 ha) was carried out in 2002 by the Forestry Department at
the burnt area along the Simpang Melaka river in Berbak NP. At both sites a
combination of pulai, jelutung and medang were planted at a density of one
seedling per 10 m². Seedlings were planted directly in the soil, straight into the
soil, without mound construction. Seedlings were small (in the case of jelutung
and medang), and about 1m tall in the case of pulai. Seedlings were not of a
high quality as most were from cuttings rather than seeds. The seedlings were
taken from the polybag before planting, which occurred in August (1 ha site)
and December (5 ha site) 2002. A quick survey of both areas (Giesen 2004)
revealed that seedling mortality is close to or at 100%, probably due to long,
deep flooding (about 1.2-1.3 m, as observed on marks left on trees).
- Under the Climate Change and Fire Prevention in Indonesia project, burnt
areas along the Air Hitam Laut River in the central part of Berbak NP were
prepared for replanting in August-November 2003 (Giessen 2009). This
49 | P a g e
species was planted onto artificial mounds (0.3-0.5m tall) in Nov-Dec 2003.
The first wet season (flooding 50cm deep) the seedlings survived (65-85%),
however the following wet season, the flooding was extremely deep (100-
150cm deep). This floodiing level went above the height of the seedlings’
leaves, resulting in lower than 5% survival. This shows this species can
tolerate degraded conditions, but its leaves must remain above the flood level.
- Transplant trials in the Block C area of the EMRP, seedlings were planted, but
given no additional help. Survival rates were 21%. (Limin 2007).
- Recommended as to be used in peatland restoration (Rachmadi and Yuwati
2008, Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Planted in trials by Wetlands International as part of CKPP. Two trials
conducted, planted in May 2007 and June 2007, into the degraded TPSF area
of the Ex-Mega Rice Project, adjacent to the SP1 canal. 350 seedlings were
planted, into rows at 5x5m spacing. When planted the area around them was
cleared (a 2m strip) of numerous fern spp (Blechnum indicum, Gleichenia
linearis, Lygodium and Stenochlaena palustris) and the seedlings were
approximately 40-50cm tall. The May trials were monitored monthly until Dec
2008. In Dec 2008 40-75% of the seedlings had survived (Wibisono &
Gandrung, 2008).
- Planting trials in swamp areas showed ‘satisfactory survival and growth’ by
planting 2-3yr old wildlings in narrow furrows cut out of the peat at intervals
of 11-13.5m. After two years the canopy was thinned, and the furrows
widened. Average height after 3yrs was 2m. It was thought better results might
be obtained is the seedlings were planted in ridges (Wijk 1950).
- Should be planted at spacing of 4x5m or 5x5m. Each position should receive a
marker. Clear a 1x1m area around the marker. The hole for planting into
should be 40x40x30cm. Planting is best at the start of the wet season, to avoid
drying out. Take the grow bag off the seedling, and plant holding the seedling
straight whilst the soil is filled in. The seedlings should be monitored and the
markers could be used to locate the seedlings. If flooding occurs at the site,
artificial mounds can be considered (Rotinsulu et al. 2007a).
- Can be planted out once 30-40cm tall, onto degraded or logged areas, at
spacing of 3x2m (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
(Lazuardi 2004).
- Considered to have potential for peatland restoration (Rachmanadi et al.
2004).
- The seedlings can normally be planted after 8-14 months growth, reaching 30-
50cm in height. The best planting time is at the start of the wet season, when
the rains are consistent (November – December). Should be planted early or
late in the day, to avoid stress from the midday sun. If the transplant area has
understorey vegetation, then planting in cleared rows is recommended. The
rows should be positioned North-South. Seedlings should be planted every 5m,
and rows should be positioned every 5-10m. Mark the position of every
planted seedling. The area (up to 1m) surrounding each seedling should be
well-cleared. Holes should be prepared at 15-30cm deep and 15-25cm
diameter – to fit the seedling. The grow bag should be cut with a sharp knife,
and the growth media held in place. The seedling should be placed in the hole,
and the hole filled to steady the seedling. If the area regularly floods the
50 | P a g e
seedlings could be planted onto artificial mounds. The surrounding vegetation

should be cleared 3-4 times a year, for 2 years, especially at the start of the wet
season, as this is when the vegetation will grow strongest. Seedlings which die
in the first three months should be replaced (Wibisono et al. 2005).

- Because of the low nutrient availability in peat, nutrient additions should take
place. There is little yet known about the effective dosage, but fertilizers such
as inorganic chemical fertilizers might be considered (Rotinsulu et al. 2007a).
Tolerances
- Described as a light-demanding species (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Can tolerate being planted into areas which have had light to medium burn,
land cleared, or with little remaining vegetation (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Described as high-light tolerant (Rotinsulu et al. 2007a)
- Returned quickly after fire (Giesen 2004).
- Appropriate for planting on deep peat (Lazuardi et al. 2005).
Successional stage
classically found in iii) Mixed peat swamp forest, iv) Transitional forest (iii-v)
– but at lower densities and vi) Tall pole forest
- Described as a ‘pioneer species’ (Giesen 1990, Giesen 2004)
CIMTROP, this species is suitable for planting both on peatland and by canal
banks (Limin 2007).
(Rachmanadi and Lazuardi 2007)
- Grows best on organic (peat) soils (Rotinsulu et al. 2007a)
- Described as a fast growing species (Rotinsulu et al. 2007a)
51 | P a g e
Aquifoliaceae Ilex hypoglauca

Successional stage
- After burning of a peat swamp forest site (Shorea albida forest) in Brunei,
succession was recording, and this species occurred in the early succession
stage, tolerating the high light and disturbance (Kobayashi 1999).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
52 | P a g e
Aquifoliaceae Ilex macrophylla

Distribution
- Grows in primary peat swamp forest, lowland secondary forest and mangrove
forests. Reaches up to 2400m asl (Istomo 2002).

- The fruit is round and the skin is soft, 3-5 mm in size, dark red in colour when
ripe (Istomo 2002).
Successional stage
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
53 | P a g e
Araucariaceae Agathis spp.

- To germinate Agathis seeds, submerge in cold water for 24 hours (Standar
Nasional Indonesia 2003).

- In an Agathis complex in Sampit, after the clearing of old Agathis, new
Agathis were planted in, in rows of 2m x 3m. They were approximately 25cm
in height after being cultivated from seeds in nurseries. The success rates were
high. It was also seen that wildlings could be collected from the forest,
cultivated in the nurseries for 1yr and planted, and would reach similar
success, however this method was more expensive (Schreuder 1949).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
54 | P a g e
Araucariaceae Agathis borneensis

Distribution
- Found in Sumatra and Kalimantan on sandy and peat soils, up to 1200 asl
(Istoma 2002).
- Found growing in primary forest, on sandy or rocky soils, not in stagnant
water, and up to 1750m asl (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
Phenology
- Fruits February-April and August-October (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).

- There are approximately 5000 seeds per kg (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).

- Seeds should be collected whilst the fruit is still closed (Martawijawa et al.
2005a).
- 70-85% survived to fully grown seedlings in a nursery after collection from
Tolerances
- In a 10Ha trial planting in Sampit, Agathis borneensis seedlings (30-50cm in
height) were planted in rows, 2m x 4m, under logged-over forest. Results
showed that this species is very sensitive to light-intensity, and that, after
planting out, shade should be reduced gradually. Furthermore, a raised water
table that has a long duration can prove fatal to the seedlings (Meurs 1947).
Dispersal mechanism
Successional stage
Additional comments
55 | P a g e
Araucariaceae Agathis dammara

Successional stage
- Described as a pioneer species (van Eijk and Leenman 2004).
classically found in vi) Tall interior forest.
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
56 | P a g e
Arecaceae Licuala paludosa

Tolerances
- Observed as moderate to deep flood-tolerant (Van Eijk and Leenman 2004).
Successional stage
- Described as a ‘pioneer species’ (van Eijk and Leenman 2004, Giesen 2008).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
57 | P a g e
Arecaceae Nenga pumila

Successional stage
- Described as a ‘pioneer species’ (van Eijk and Leenman 2004).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
58 | P a g e
Arecaceae Pholidocarpus sumatranus

Successional stage
- Described as a ‘pioneer species’ (van Eijk and Leenman 2004, Giesen 2008).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
59 | P a g e
Bombaceae Durio carinatus

- Did not result in high success for transplanting in areas of degraded peatland
dominated by Imperata cylindrical, Raja Musa Forest Reserve in Kuala
Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia (Ismail et al., 2001).
- Not a successful transplant species in Jambi (Giesen 2004).
Tolerances
- This species is suitable for conditions of greater than 50% vegetation cover,
greater than 3 months per year water logged and greater than 3m peat depth
(Giesen 2009).
Successional stage
- Prefers areas that have already had some natural regeneration after fire, have
only been selectively logged, or still have closed ground cover from other
vegetation (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Only suitable for planting under shade (Giesen 2008).
- This species is classified as a climax species (Giesen 2009).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
60 | P a g e
Burseraceae Dacryodes spp.

peat area, Dacryodes had 22% survival, diameter (at 10cm above ground
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
61 | P a g e
Burserceae Santiria griffithii

Teras bambang
Distribution
- Found growing on primary and secondary forest, usually on dry soils, up to
700 m asl (Istomo 2002).
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
62 | P a g e
Burseraceae Santiria laevigata

Irat / Kayu Sapat / Kambajau burung
Distribution
- Found growing on lowlands, sometimes peat swamp forest (Istomo 2002).

- Fruit is 1-2cm, red in colour, eventually turning yellow and finally black when
old (Istomo 2002).
- Takes approximately three weeks to germinate (Krisdianto et al. 2004).
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
63 | P a g e
Casuarinaceae Gymnostoma sumatrana
Successional stage
classically found vi) Tall interior forest.
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
64 | P a g e
Celastraceae Lophopetalum spp.

Perupuk
Distribution
- Grows on sandy or clay soil that is wet (Martawijaya et al. 2005b).
Phenology
- Fruits and flowers every year (Martawijaya et al. 2005b).

- The fruit is an elongated oblong, 8-11cm (Martawijaya et al. 2005b).
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
65 | P a g e
Clusiaceae Garcinia spp.

peat area, Garcinia had 53% survival, diameter (at 10cm above ground level)
Tolerances
banks (Limin 2007).
Successional stage
- Described as a ‘pioneer species’ (Giesen 2004, van Eijk and Leenman 2004).
- Found to be a dominant pole post-logging (Rieley and Page 2005).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
66 | P a g e
Clusiaceae Garcinia bancana

Manggis
Phenology
- In Thailand, flowers; March-June, fruits ripen; August-November (Nuyim
2005).

- Spherical-shaped orange fruit, black when dried. Each fruit contains 12 seeds
(Nuyim 2005).

- Seeds germinate 15-40 days after sowing (Nuyim 2005).

(Nuyim 2005).
Distribution
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
67 | P a g e
Clusiaceae Garcinia celebica

Successional stage
- Found to be a dominant sapling post-logging (Rieley and Page 2005).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
68 | P a g e
Clusiaceae Garcinia rostrata

Gandis
Distribution
- Found as a secondary species in primary forest, on lowlands rainforests, up to
2100m asl. (Istomo 2002).

- The fruit is round (Istomo 2002).
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
69 | P a g e
Crypteroniaceae Dactylocladus bancanus

Mertibu

- Reducing competing vegetation around potential tree crop had positive effects
on growth (Lee 1979).
Successional stage
– but at lower densities, v) Low pole forest, vi) Tall pole forest and vii) Very
low canopy forest.
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
70 | P a g e
Crypteroniaceae Dactylocladus stenostachys

Mertibu
Distribution
- Found in Karangas forest with podsol soils. This species needs acidic soil,
with poor drainage, grows best in humid climate, up to 800m asl (Istomo
2002).
- Found growing on peatlands in the tropics, up to 40m asl (Martawijawa et al.
2005a).

- Each fruit is coloured green to yellow, and contains many seeds (Istomo
2002).
Successional stage
- Can increase 20% after logging (Lee 1979, Whitmore 1984).
- In open areas, after logging, this species can dominate (Dwiyono and
Rachman 1996).
- Medium growth rates (Lee 1979, Whitmore 1984).
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
71 | P a g e
Dilleniaceae Dillenia spp.

Simpur
Distribution
- Grows in tropical forest, 0-100m asl. (Martawijaya et al. 2005b).
Phenology
- Fruits plentifully every year (Martawijaya et al. 2005b).

- The fruit is round and approximately 2.5cm (Martawijaya et al. 2005b).
- The seeds should be cleaned and dried for two days, after which germination
normally yields 80% success (Martawijaya et al. 2005b).
Tolerances
- Can grow along river edges (Martawijaya et al. 2005b).
Dispersal mechanism
Successional stage
Additional comments
72 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Anisoptera marginata

Mersawa paya
Phenology
- Does not flower or fruit every year, normally in March-Juli, every 2-5 years
(Martawijawa et al. 2005a).

- This species was successful in transplanting trials into degraded peatlands
dominated by Imperata cylindrica (alang-alang), Raja Musa Forest Reserve,
Kuala Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia (Ismail et al., 2001).
- Should be planted out 3m apart, on transects 8m apart (i.e. 250 trees per
hectare) (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
Distribution
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
73 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Dipterocarpus coriaceus

Simpur
Tolerances
- In a study monitoring disease prevalence rates on 5-yr old dipterocarp species,
Diptercarpus gracilis showed low susceptibility to most diseases, apart from
very high susceptibility to leaf spot disesase (Mardji 2000).
Successional stage
– but at lower densities and vi) Tall pole forest.
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
74 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Dryobalanops spp.

- In greenhouse studies (light intensity 60%) with seedlings of Dryobalanops
spp., seedlings inoculated with ecto-mycorrhizae grew ten times faster than the
control seedlings (Suhardi 1995).

banks (Limin 2007) .

- Adding charcoal to peat growth medium can increase the diameter of this
species (Suhardi 1993).
- Adding phosphate (15g) can increase the diameter and height of this species
(Suhardi 1993).
- Mycorrhizal inoculations can increase height and diameter of seedlings
(Suhardi 1993).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
75 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Dryobalanops rappa

Bangkerai Rawa
over 10 yrs (Lee 1979).
Tolerances
Dryobalanops rappa showed low susceptibility to most diseases (Mardji
2000).
- Can exceed 50m in height, and has vigorous sprouting ability with tendency to
produce ganets after original shoots become decumbent (Yamada and Suzuki
2004).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Successional stage
Additional comments
76 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Hopea rudiformis

- Should be cultivated in shade (Vunduyn Lunel 1925).

- This species was successful in transplant trials into shrubby low-vegetation
cover (Vunduyn Lunel 1925).
Tolerances
- Known to die off in the dry season due to ‘top-dryness’ and be attacked by
lice, and in the wet season susceptible to fungal attack (Verduyn Lunel 1925).
- This species is a ‘sun’ dipterocarp (Ishida et al. 2000).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Successional stage
Additional comments
77 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea spp.

over 10 yrs (Lee 1979).
CIMTROP, this species is suitable for planting only by canal banks (Limin
2007).

- Mycorrhizae inoculum is important for this genus to successfully establish.
When inoculating this genus with mycorrhizae, mycorrhizae colonization rate
does most favorably under shade conditions. The most common mycorrhizzae
for seedlings of this group is Schleroderma (Suhardi 2000).
- Adding rice husk charcoal to planting holes increased ectomycorrhizal
colonization in planted seedlings and promoted their growth (Mori and
Marjenah 1994).
- Studies show that inoculation of Shorea sp. with ecto-mycorrhizae increases
height, biomass, and N and P content of the seedling (Kikuchi and Ogawa
1995).
Successional stage
- Good at regenerating after logging, can cope with drier conditions (Wyatt-
Smith 1959)
- In peripheral peat swamps, Shorea species tend to dominate regrowth
(Dwiyono and Rachman 1996)
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
78 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea balangeran

Balangeran
Distribution
- Grows in primary tropical rainforest, swamp forest or river edges, on sandy
soils or peat soils, up to 100m asl (Martawijaya et al. 2005b, Wibisono et al.
2005).
- Found in North Sumatra, and South, Central and East Kalimantan. Grows in
primary tropical wet forest, on swamps or near rivers, on sandy soils or peat
soils (Rachmadi et al. 2000)
Phenology
- Balangeran does not flower and fruit every year, and is greatly influenced by
the climate (Martawijaya et al. 2005b, Rachmadi et al. 2000, Wibisono et al.
2005).
- Normally fruits in February-June (Wibisono et al. 2005).
Dispersal mechanism
- Wind-borne (Giesen 2009, Martawijaya et al. 2005b)

- Balangeran can only be stored for a maximum of 12 days in a container with
wet charcoal (Martawijaya et al. 2005).
- Wildlings can be collected whilst still small; 3-6 leaves and stem not yet
woody, also choose those with no sign of disease or pest infection. Only take
those that are at high density, under the parent tree, and not those found
individually. When collecting the wildlings care should be taken to not
damage the roots, and they should be collected in the late afternoon. Remove
any excessive leaves (Wibisono et al. 2005).

- Ecto-mycorrhizal studies conducted by IPB showed that after inoculation
under nursery conditions, Shorea balangeran seedlings achieved greater than
50% colonisation after 6 months (Santosa et al. 2003a, Tawaraya et al. 2003)
- Seedlings can be cultivated from seeds, cuttings and wildlings. However,
heights achieved in a given time are greater for seeds (25-35cm), and wildlings
(20-40cm) than cuttings (15-27cm) and similarly for survival rates; seeds (80-
94.5%), wildlings (70-90%) and cuttings (57-76%) (Rusmana et al. 2004).
- Wildlings should be quickly planted into grow bags, 14x22cm large and filled
with peat. Water the wildlings twice a day, and keep under high shade. Once
new leaves start to appear, the shade can be reduced. After 4-5 months, the
hardening process can begin (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Seedlings can also be cultivated from cuttings, best taken from 5-year old
saplings. Cut the cutting after 3 nodes, and with 2-3 leaves. Cut the leaves to a
third or a half their size. Quickly move the cuttings in water to prevent drying
out, and subsequently dip the cuttings into root growth formula, Rootone-F.
Before planting the cuttings, ensure the media in their cutting pots is well
watered, this will reduce root damage. Move the cuttings to seperate grow
bags, filled with peat. Keep the cuttings well shaded for six months. After this
the hardening process can begin (Wibisono et al. 2005).
79 | P a g e

- In a study in extremely degraded peatland in Central Kalimantan, trial planting
took place on 0.75ha of disturbed PSF under different regimes (with and
without clearing, fertilizer application, and mounds) and with different species
(Shorea balangeran, S. pinanga, S. seminis, Peronema canescens, Palaquium
sp.) Trials indicate that Shorea balangeran and Palaquium are best suited for
replanting, as they have considerably higher survival rates (65-100%)
compared to the other species (6-65%), and this seems irrespective of
preparation techniques (Takahashi et al. 2001).
given no additional help. Survival rates were 89%. (Limin 2007).
2008. In Dec 2008 75-90% of the seedlings had survived (Wibisono &
Gandrung 2008).
- Experimental planting trials with Shorea blangeran found that planting at the
end of the wet season rather than the start gave slightly higher growth and
survival rates, although even at the start of the wet season, survival and growth
was still good (Lazuardi et al. 2003).
- Balangeran seedlings, of a height 30-50cm, should be planted in a cleared
path, 2-3m wide, at a spacing of every 3m, with spacing between the paths 5-
6m. The seedlings should be cared for for the first 4-5 years after planting
(Martawijaya et al. 2005b).
2008).
- In planting trials of seedlings grown for two years it was shown that seedlings
which had the surrounding vegetation cleared every 2 months grew
significantly taller (64cm) than the control (non-weeded) (49cm). Furthermore,
the more frequent the weeding, as compared every 2, 3, 4 months, the greater
the survival of seedlings (Santosa et al. 2003b). Similar results were found by
Purwanto et al. (2003), with the highest weeding frequency of every 2 weeks
giving the greatest height after two years.
- Seedlings had high success in planting trials on peatlands in Central
Kalimantan, and planting was shown to be most successful at the start of the
wet season (Lazuardi 2004).
- Seedlings are ready to plant when they are 1) 25-40cm in height, 2) stem
diameter is 2.5-4mm, 3) the seedling is healthy and the stem is straight, and 4)
the media around the roots is compacted. This normally occurs for seedlings
cultivated from seeds in 6 months, from cuttings in 8 months, and from
wildlings in 3-4 months (Rusmana et al. 2004).
- When planting, care should be taken to reduce seedling stress. Transects
should first be prepared, running North-South, the transects should be 1m
wide, and the distances between the transects should be 5-10m (5m is
80 | P a g e
optimal). Clear the area around each seedling planting site, to 1m diameter.
Prepare a hole, 15-30cm deep, and 15-25cm diameter, so it fits the size of the
media and the seedling. The planting is best done in the wet season, early
morning or late afternoon. After planting, the area surrounding the seedling
should be cleared twice every year for two years (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Planting trials were conducted with three different weeding techniques: no
weeding, weeding using herbicide along the transect and weeding using
herbicide across the whole area. The results showed no difference in growth
across the three treatments (Yassir and Mitikauji 2007).

- Mycorrhizae species Glomus is suggested as biofertilizer for seedlings planted
in an over burnt peat swamp forest, as it was the most dominant associated
with this species under natural conditions (Lazuardi et.al. 2003).
- Does not require inoculation by mycorrhizal fungi to grow well after
transplantation (Takahashi et al. 2001)
- Root samples were taken of this species in TPSF of Central Kalimantan, and a
high ectomycorrhizal colonization was observed (Tamai 2003).
- After inoculation with ecto-mycorrhizae, Balangeran acquires greater than
50% colonization after 6 months in a nursery. Gestarromycetes increases
biomass most significantly for Balangeran (Yuwati et al. 2003).
Tolerances
- Extremely light tolerant (Giessen 2009, Kusin et al. 2008, Santosa et al. 2003,
Yassir and Mitikauji 2007)
banks (Limin 2007).
- Suited to heavily disturbed areas affected by repeat fires (Takahashi et al.
2001).
- Described as a light-demanding species (Wibisono et al. 2005).
little remaining vegetation (Wibisono et al. 2005, Kusin et al. 2008).
- Found along the banks of the river at Lahei, suggestion flood tolerance
over or heavily degraded open areas (Rachmanadi and Luzuardi 2007, Yassir
and Mitikauji 2007).
- Always found to be located in the vicinity (less than 2km) of river or canal
banks (Santosa et al. 2003b).
- Appropriate for planting on shallow peat (Lazuardi et al. 2005)
- Suitable for enrichment planting (Wibisono et al. 2005).
81 | P a g e
Successional stage
- Can become the dominant species in secondary peat swamp forest after fire
(Giesen 1990).
classically found in i) Riverine Forest, ii) Transition forest (i-iii), iii) Mixed
swamp forest and iv) Transition forest (iii-v) – but at lower density.
- Good candidate for secondary succession in lightly-burnt areas (Giessen
2009).
- Described as a ‘pioneer species’ (van der Laan 1925, Giesen 1990).
- Suitable for planting on largely in-filled canals with shallow pools / regularly
flooded areas (Giesen 2008).
- Can be stimulated by fire, and tend towards gregariousness (Kostermans
1958).
- The depth to groundwater tables, degree of anaerobic rooting-zone and low
raw fibre content (fibric) in the rooting zone showed a high negative
correlation with the survival and growth of Shorea balangeran, and at certain
levels these had a detrimental effect (Lazuardi et.al. 2002).

Additional comments
82 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea inaequilateralis

Successional stage
- Medium rates of growth, can increase by 20% after logging (Lee 1979,
whitmore 1984).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
83 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea leprosula

Meranti tembaga
Distribution
- Found in Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo.
Grows best on well drained soils, lowlands to hill forest below 700 a.s.l.
(Marzalina et al. 2001).
- Grows in lowlands with high rainfall (Soekotjo 2007).
- Can be found on slightly inclined to steeply inclined land, with high annual
rainfall (Effendi and Pramersetyawan 2007).
Phenology
- Flowering and fruiting periods are notoriously unpredictable. Highest
probability of flowering period is April-June and fruiting peaks from July-
August. Seed takes 3-4 months to mature from time of flower initiation
- Gregarious mast fruiting that produces seed crops every 3-8 years (Marzalina
et al. 2001).

- Fruit fall can be delayed and fruit undeveloped if a dry spell occurs during
development stage (Marzalina et al. 2001).
Dispersal mechanism
- Dispersed by wind, although rarely reach further than 50m from parent tree

- As seeds are recalcitrant, seeds should be collected as soon as fruit are ripe and
seed fall begins (Marzalina et al. 2001).
- Collected seeds can quickly suffer dehydration and fungal attack under high
temperatures if not rapidly put into appropriate conditions. Could consider use
of Mobile Seed-Seedling chamber for transportation as developed by FRIM
- Seeds lose viability when dried below 20% water content. For short-storage,
drying, aerating and turning the seeds at 25˚C for 4hours per day can prolong
viability. For long-storage, the seeds can be dried to 42% moisture content, for
8 weeks at 16C (germination >50%) however, longer storage than 8 weeks
sees germination success rapidly decline (Marzalina et al. 2001).
- Seeds germinate rapidly after seed fall, with 60-100% germination.
Germination normally takes approximately 10 days though can range from 4-
27 days (Marzalina et al. 2001)

- An alternative to seed storage is seedling storage, in which young seedlings’
development can be arrested, under low light (400lux by fluorescent lights, 4
hours per day), low temperature (16C), and humidity 90%. This can be
maintained for 6-9 months, with seedling height barely reaching 25cm.
84 | P a g e
Survival was 60-80% after weaning under 70% shade for 2-3 weeks then
placing into a direct sunlight nursery (Marzalina et al. 2001).
- Stem cuttings saw 80% success rates. Cutting should be long, and a rooting
formula should be used, for example IBA formulation (20ug) (Marzalina et al.
2001).
- Tissue culture propogation also saw good success, however appropriate
sterilized solutions must be used (Marzalina et al. 2001).
Transplanting techniques, successes and failiures

- Was able to grow 2m per year in open areas (Panjaitan et al. 2003b)
- Planting trials were conducted with three different weeding techniques: no
weeding, weeding through herbicide along the transect and weeding, through
herbicide, the whole area. The results showed no difference in growth across
the three treatments Yassir and Mitikauji 2007).

- Schleroderma columnare was successfully inoculated into this species by
applying forest top soil as the source of inoculant and rice husk charcoal to
induce colonization (Mori and Marjenah 2000).
Tolerances
- Tolerant to high light levels and dry conditions (Zipperlin and Press 1996).
- Adapted to sites with higher rates of tree fall and larger gaps (Ishida et al.
2000).
Shorea leprosula was found to suffer from stem cancer, stunting and die back
(Mardji 2000).
- Can be used a transplant species into degraded areas, however, needs light
shade at the early stages of growth (Yassir and Mitikauji 2007).
- A relatively adaptable dipterocarp species (Zipperlin and Press 1996).
Additional comments
- The most common of the light red timber meranti group (Marzalina et al.
2001)
Successional stage
Additional comments
85 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea ovalis

- Schleroderma columnare was successfully inoculated into this species by
applying forest top soil as the source of inoculant and rice husk charcoal to
induce colonization (Mori and Marjenah 2000).
Tolerances
- Height decreased with increasing light intensity, showing a relatively strong
preference to shade (Yahata 2000).
- This species is a sun dipterocarp, with high drought tolerance (Ishida et al.
2000)
- Able to overgrow a dense shelter (Endert 1937).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Successional stage
Additional comments
86 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea parvifolia

- Studies show that inoculation of Shorea parvifolia with ecto-mycorrhizae
increases height, biomass, and N and P content of the seedling (Kikuchi and
Ogawa 1995).
Tolerances
Shorea parvifolia was found to suffer from chlorosis, stunting, die back and
stem cancer (Mardji 2000).
Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
87 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea pauciflora

Distribution
- Grows on organic or peat soils, in tropical rain forest, up to 1300m asl

- A large fruit, with six wings, and a pointed end. The fruit is ripe dark brown-
black (Wibisono et al. 2005).

- A supportive stick can be attached to the fruiting branch to support it. A sheet
should be placed underneath to catch the falling fruit. (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- If wildlings are being collected, those with 2-4 leaves should be chosen, which
are also healthy with no sign of pests. Care should be taken not to disturb the
roots, and should be collected when the day is cool. Care should also be taken
when transporting the wildlings, and they should be kept moist throughout,
and should always be kept under at least 50% shade (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Extract the seed from the fruit, ready to germinate. Check they are not infected
with grubs; shown by a hole in the seed. This can also be checked by putting
the seeds into water; those that float are infected whilst those that sink are
healthy. Insectside can also be given as a precaution. Prepare a germination
tray with media and place the seeds in holes at 1-2cm intervals. They seeds
can also be planted straight into grow bags (14x22cm large) filled with peat.
The seeds should be watered every morning and afternoon, this will speed up
germination. Once the germinated seedlings have 4 leaves they can moved to
grow bags (Wibisono et al. 2005).

- Seedlings can be cultivated from seed, wildling or cutting. Seedlings should be
regularly watered and grown under thick shade for the first 4 months.
Seedlings will be ready to plant after 8-12 months. Wildlings will start to be
woody after 3 months, and will be ready for planting out after 5-6 months
- Cuttings can also be cultivated. The stem should be cut to include 3 nodes; cut
at a little below the leaf node, the supporting stem should be removed and the
leaves should be cut so only 1/3 -1/2 is remaining. The cutting should be
secured in water to ensure the cutting does not dry. After this the cutting
should be put into root growth formula, Rootone-F. Then the cutting can be
planted in 1-2cm rooting media. When the shoot, roots and the leaves start to
appear, move the cutting to a grow bag with the roots planted into peat. For the
first 1-2 weeks of growth in the grow bag the cutting should be grown under
plastic concave shelter and also kept under high shade. After this, the plastic
can be removed but high shade should be maintained until 8 weeks. High
shading can be reduced after 2 months. In the first two months of growth the
cutting should be watered twice daily, morning and afternoon. Between 2-6
months the watering can be reduced (Wibisono et al. 2005).
88 | P a g e
- After the seedlings are six months old, the hardening process can begin;
watering frequency and shading should be gradually reduced (Wibisono et al.
2005).

Nationa Park were replanting with this species onto artificial mounds (0.3-
0.5m tall) in Nov-Dec 2003. The first wet season (flooding 50cm deep) the
seedlings survived (65-85%), however the following wet season, the flooding
was extremely deep (100-150cm deep). This floodiing level went above the
height of the seedlings’ leaves, resulting in lower than 5% survival (averaged
across several species). This shows this species can tolerate degraded
conditions, but its leaves must remain above the flood level. However this
species showed the second best tolerance to the deep floods, survival 13%.
(Giesen 2004)

- Seedlings get all the nutrients they need from association with mycorrhizae,
but inoculations with mycorrhizae capsules can be helpful (Wibisono et al.
2005).
Tolerances
- Described as semi-tolerant to high light, but appropriate for planting into
degraded areas. However, as they require shade whilst saplings, but full sun
once poles. They should be planted into rows, at 5m spacing, the rows 5-10m
apart. Each seedling’s position should be marked. The area for planting should
be cleared of unwanted undergrowth. A hole should be prepared, 15-30cm in
deep, and 15-25cm diameter (the hole should be the same size as the grow
bag). The seedlings should be planted at the start of the wet season
(September-December). Seedlings should be planted in the morning or late
afternoon to avoid stress of the midday sun (Wibisono et al 2005).
- Prefer areas that have already had some natural regeneration after fire, have
only been selectively logged, and still has closed ground cover from vegetation
or areas were tree cover is still good and the canopy is tall and closed
Shorea pauciflora was found to have high resistance to leaf spot disease,
however it suffered high incidence of leaf blight disease, stunting and die
back. However, overall it was relatively tolerant to most diseases (Mardji
2000).
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Successional stage
Additional comments
89 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea platycarpa

Meranti paya
- Was successful in transplanting trials, in degraded peatlands dominated by
Imperata cylindrica (alang-alang) in Raja Musa Forest Reserve, Kuala
Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia (Ismail et al., 2001).
Successional stage
classically in vi) Tall interior forest.
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
90 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea seminis

Phenology
- Flowers July – September, unripe fruit appears October – December, ripe fruit
December – March (Panjaitan et al. 2006).

- In a rehabilitation study focusing on intensively disturbed peat swamp forest
areas in Central Kalimantan activities included trial planting of 0.75ha of
disturbed PSF under different regimes (with and without clearing, fertilizer
application, and mounds) and with different species; Shorea balangeran, S.
pinanga, S. seminis, Peronema canescens, Palaquium spp. Trials indicate that
Shorea balangeran and Palaquium are best suited for replanting, as they have
considerably higher survival rates (65-100%) compared to the other species (6-
65%), and this seems irrespective of preparation techniques. Also, both species
appear to be suited to heavily disturbed areas affected by repeated fires, and do
not require innoculation by mycorrhizal fungi (Takahashi et al., 2001).
Tolerances
- Require shade condition in the early stages of growth (Suhardi 2000).
Shorea seminis was found to suffer from stem cancer and stunting. However,
overall it was relatively tolerant to most diseases (Mardji 2000).
Distribution
Dispersal mechanism
Successional stage
Additional comments
91 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea teysmanniana

Meranti semut/bunga/bitik
Distribution
- Found on peat swamp forest and mixed forest up to 9000m asl (Istomo 2002).

- Large fruit with wings (1x8cm) (Istomo 2002).

- Root samples were taken of this species in TPSF of Central Kalimantan, and a
high ectomycorrhizal colonization was observed (Tamai 2003).
Successional stage
- Found in the tall interior forest at the central of the peat dome and in the low
pole forest nearer to the centre of the peat dome (Page and Waldes 2005).
classically found iii) Mixed swamp forest and iv) Transition forest (iii-v) – but
at lower density and vi) Tall interior forest.
- Found to be a dominant seedling, sapling, pole and tree post-logging (Rieley
and Page 2005).
- One of the most dominant species found in a burnt plot (Simbolon 2002).
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
92 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea uliginosa

Meranti batu
Distribution
- Grows in mixed peat swamp forest on lowlands (Istomo 2002).

- The fruit is large with wings (1.5x6cm) (Istomo 2002).
Successional stage
- Found to be a dominant sapling and tree post-logging (Rieley and Page 2005).
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
93 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Vatica spp.

- In species trials by Royal Pikulthong project, Narathiwat, Thailand, Vatica had
survival rates of 49% after 5.5 years planted out, and 49% at 9yrs planted out.
The average stem diameter (at 10cm above ground level) was 4.0cm after
5.5yrs and 6.2cm after 9yrs, and the height was 2.4m after 5.5yrs and 3.3m
after 9yrs (Nuyim 2000).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
94 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Vatica mangachopai

Rasak napu
classically found in vi) Tall interior forest
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
95 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Vatica oblongifolia
Tolerances
- Found along the banks of the river at Lahei, suggestion flood tolerance
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Successional stage
Additional comments
96 | P a g e
Dipterocarpaceae Vatica rassak

Resak
Distribution
- Occurs in tropical rainforest, up to 350m asl, on sandy soils that are
periodically flooded, such as on river banks, can also grow on dry soils
Phenology
- Does not fruit every year, normally fruits heavily after a long dry season

- Seeds cannot be stored for long (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
- Wildlings occur plentifully beneath the parent tree (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
- Germination happens within 12 days, and there is normally 100% success

- Can be planted straight from seed, nursery seedlings or wildlings, but best
planted out when 30-50cm in height. Must be planted under shade at spacing
of 3x2m (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
Tolerances
Successional stage
- Grows well on degraded peatland that has been cleared for logging, and
degraded shrubby peatland (Rachmanadi and Lazuardi 2007).

Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
97 | P a g e
Ebenaceae Diospyros spp.

Phenology
- Fruits in September (Norhayati et al. 2001)
Distribution
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
98 | P a g e
Ebenaceae Diospyros bantamensis

Successional stage
- Found to be a dominant sapling and tree post-logging (Rieley and Page 2005).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
99 | P a g e
Ebenaceae Diospryros buxifolia

Successional stage
stage, tolerating high light and disturbance (Kobayashi 1999).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
100 | P a g e
Ebenaceae Diospyros evena

- In transplant trials in the Block C area of the EMRP, seedlings were planted,
but given no additional help. Survival rates were 92%. (Limin 2007).
banks (Limin 2007).
Tolerances
(Giesen 2009).
Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
101 | P a g e
Ebenaceae Diospyros hermaphroditica

Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
102 | P a g e
Euphorbiaceae Diospyros maingayi

Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
103 | P a g e
Euphorbiaceae Diospyros siamang

Ehang
Tolerances
- Observed as deep flood-tolerant (Van Eijk and Leenman 2004).
Successional stage
- Able to resprout after disturbance (Giesen 2004).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
104 | P a g e
Eleocarpaceae Eleocarpus mastersii

Successional stage
- Trees were found in ‘building phase forest’ which is semi-exposed to sunlight
(Siregar and Sambas 1999).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
105 | P a g e
Eleocarpaceae Elaeocarpus petiolatus

Tolerances
- Described as tolerant to flooding (Giessen 2009).
- Observed as shallow or brief flood-tolerant (Van Eijk and Leenman 2004).
Successional stage
- Described as a ‘pioneer species’ (Giesen 2004, van Eijk and Leenman 2004,
van der Laan 1925, Giesen 2009).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
106 | P a g e
Euphorbeaceae Blumeodendron tokbrai

Kenari
Distribution
- Found growing in primary forest and occasionally secondary forest,
commonly found on lowland forest, including peat swamps, but can be found
up to 270m asl (Istomo 2002).

- Fruits are large and hard (Istomo 2002).
Successional stage
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
107 | P a g e
Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea spp.

- In planting trials by Royal Pikulthong project, Narathiwat, Thailand,
Polyalthia this species had survival rates of 23% after 5.5 years planted out,
and 22% at 9yrs planted out. The average stem diameter (at 10cm above
ground level) was 2.2cm after 5.5yrs and 3.8cm after 9yrs, and the height was
1m after 5.5yrs and 1.6m after 9yrs (Nuyim 2000).
- In trial planting studies undertaken in Thailand degraded peat swamp areas,
mounds were constructed; 50cm high, 70-90cm round. After 3yrs, planted
Baccaurea spp. seedlings had slightly greater diameters on the mound,
compared to the non-mound control. However, soil improvement through
organic and inorganic fertilizers, and liming showed no impact on growth or
survival (Nuyim 2000).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
108 | P a g e
Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea bracteata

Rambai hutan
Distribution
- Found growing in stagnant water, such as peat swamps and Karangas forest, in
primary and secondary forests, up to 1000-1800m asl (Istomo 2002).
- Found in Peninsular Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra and
Borneo (Sosef et al. 1998).

- In Thailand this species was used in restoration trial, with good success
Tolerances
(Giesen 2009).
Successional stage
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
109 | P a g e
Euphorbaceae Baccaurea racemosa

Distribution
- Found in Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Java and Borneo (Sosef et
al. 1998).
Successional stage
- Described as an understorey species (Mirmanto and Polosokan 1999).
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
110 | P a g e
Euphorbiaceae Chaetocarpus castanocarpus

Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
111 | P a g e
Euphorbiaceae Glochidion rubrum

Tolerances
Successional stage
- Described as a pioneer (Van Eijk and Leenman 2004).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
112 | P a g e
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga spp.

- Upon collection, fruit should be stored in shade, after 2-3 weeks fruit will
burst and seeds roll out (Zwann 1920).

Macaranga had survival rates of 48% after 5.5 years planted out, and at 9yrs
planted out. The average stem diameter (at 10cm above ground level) was
5.5cm after 5.5yrs and 8.4cm after 9yrs, and the height was 2.4m after 5.5yrs
and 3.9m after 9yrs (Nuyim 2000).
Macaranga spp. seedlings had slightly greater diameters on the mound,
- Weeding improved planted Macaranga spp. biomass and basal diameter, but
now height or crown width (Nuyim 2000).
Tolerances
Successional stage
- Described as a good pioneer species (Nuyim 2000, Nuyim 2005).
- Described as a fast-growing pioneer, quickly able to return to fire-disturbed
area (Giesen 2004).
- Able to coppice (Whitmore 1984).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
113 | P a g e
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga caladifolia

Tolerances
2004).
Successional stage
- Described as a pioneer species (Van Eijk and Leenman 2004).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
114 | P a g e
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga hypoleuca

Phenology
- Fruits several times, regularly, through the year (Krisdianto et al. 2004).

- The seed is black, and the seed flesh is orange to red (Krisdianto et al. 2004).

- In Riau this species was used in restoration trial, with good success (Giesen
2004).
Successional stage
- Described as a pioneer species (Krisdianto et al. 2004).
Distribution
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
115 | P a g e
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga pruinosa

Mahang
Distribution
- Found growing on peatlands that overlay sandy and limestone soils (Istomo
2002).
Phenology
- In Thailand, flowering; March-April, fruits ripen; June- August (Nuyim 2005).

- Fruit has two sections with two seeds (Nuyim 2005).

- There are approximately 163,700 seeds per kg (Nuyim 2005).
- Germination time 50 days (Nuyim 2005).

- Reaches 40cm in five-months, and is ready to be planted (Nuyim 2005).
- Survival rates in nurseries normally 100% (Nuyim 2005).
Tolerances
- Recovers well after fires (Nuyim 2005).
2004).
Successional stage
Nuyim 2005, Woosten et al. 2006).
- After logging, this species was observed to return, mixed in amongst the
shrubs (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Often becomes dominant in degraded areas Thailand (Nuyim 2005).
year (Nuyim 2005).
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
116 | P a g e
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga puncticulata

Successional stage
- After the burning of a peat swamp forest site (Shorea albida forest) in Brunei,
succession was recorded, and this species occurred in the early succession
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
117 | P a g e
Euphorbiaceae Macaranga triloba

Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
118 | P a g e
Euphorbiaceae Mallotus muticus

Synonym Coccoceros borneensis
Prupuk
Tolerances
- Described as a ‘light-demanding species’ (Wibisono et al. 2005)
- Described as tolerant of flooding (Giessen 2009).
Successional stage
Giesen 2009)
- Able to re-sprout from the base of the trunk after fire (Wibisono et al. 2005).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
119 | P a g e
Euphorbiaceae Mallotus sumatranus

Tolerances
- Suitable for planting on sloping side of canals/frequently flooded areas
(Giesen 2008).
Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
120 | P a g e
Euphorbiaceae Neoscortechinia kingii

Pupuh pelanduk
Distribution
- Found growing in Dipterocarp forests, swamp forests, peat swamp forests,
mangrove forests and near rivers (Istomo 2002).
Successional stage
- Found in mixed peat swamp forest, at the edge of the peat dome, and in the tall
interior forest at the central of the peat dome (Page and Waldes 2005).
classically found in iii) Mixed peat swamp forest and iv) Transitional forest
(iii-v) – but at lower densities.
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
121 | P a g e
Euphorbiaceae Neoscortechinia philippinensis

Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
122 | P a g e
Fagaceae Lithocarpus spp.

Distribution
- Found growing in tropical forests, on dry soils, on soils along the edge of
rivers, and up to 500m asl (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
Phenology
- Fruits in September (Norhayati et al. 2001).
- Fruits every year (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
- Fresh seeds normally germinate with 80% success. Seeds stored up to 3 weeks
still have a germination success of 50% (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).

Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
123 | P a g e
Guttiferae Calophyllum spp.

Kapurnaga
Distribution
- Found growing in tropical forest, in coastal areas, and on dry soils, on hills, up
to 800m asl (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
Phenology
- Fruits every year (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).

- There are approximately 150-180 seeds per kg (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).

- Seeds can be stored up to one month, if dried fully first (Martawijawa et al.
2005a).

peat area, Calophyllum had 95% survival, diameter (at 10cm above ground
- Seeds can be planted straight into the field or cultivated in a nursery. They
should be planted 3x2m apart and require shading (Martawijawa et al. 2005).
Successional stage
- Found to be a dominant seedling, sapling and pole post-logging (Rieley and
page 2005).
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
124 | P a g e
Guttiferae Calophyllum ferrugenium

- Did not result in high success for transplanting in Raja Musa Forest Reserve in
Kuala Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia, over Imperata cylindrica (Ismail et al.
2001).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
125 | P a g e
Guttiferae Calophyllum hosei

Bintangor
Successional stage
– but at higher densities, v) Low pole forest, vi) Tall interior forest and vii)
Very low canopy forest
- Commonly found in the shallow peat at the edge of a peat dome (Page and
Waldes 2005)
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
126 | P a g e
Guttiferae Calophyllum lowii

Successional stage
– but at higher densities, vi) Tall interior forest and vii) Very low canopy
forest.
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
127 | P a g e
Guttiferae Calophyllum pisiferum

Synonym Calophyllum retusum
Successional stage
- Good at regenerating after logging, can cope with drier conditions (Wyatt-
Smith 1959).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
128 | P a g e
Guttiferae Calophyllum sclerophyllum

Kapurnaga Jangkar
Distribution
- Found in lowland forest particularly on peat swamp forests (Istomo 2002).
Phenology
- In Thailand, flowers; July-October, fruit ripens; January-March (Nuyim 2005).

- Oval shaped fruit, in which seed is hard. Each fruit contains one seed (Nuyim
2005).

- Germination occurs 12-15 days after sowing (Nuyim 2005).

- Reaches 25cm after 6 months (Nuyim 2005).
Successional stage
– but at higher densities, and vii) Very low canopy forest.
- Continuous high growth rate from initial stage i.e. growth rates greater than
60cm per year (Nuyim 2005).
- Reaches the size of a large tree (Nuyim 2005).
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
129 | P a g e
Guttiferae Mesua spp.

Successional stage
- Found in mixed peat swamp forest, at the edge of the peat dome (Page and
Waldes 2005).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
130 | P a g e
Hyperiaceae Cratoxylon spp.

Geronggang
(Lee 1979).
Successional stage
- Numbers increase significantly after logging (Lee 1979, Whitmore 1984).
- Adapted to disturbance and does well after logging (Bruenig 1990).
- Described as fast-growing (Lee 1979, Whitmore 1984).
- Able to coppice (Whitmore 1984).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
131 | P a g e
Hyperiaceae Cratoxylon arborescens

Geronggang
Distribution
- Found in tropical rain forests, on peat lands and drier soils, up to 60m asl
(Istomo 2002).
- It is not easy to find wildlings (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).

- Cultivate in germination trays until 10-15cm high, then move to grow bags
until strong enough to plant out into the field (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).

every two weeks for ten weeks. During this time Cratoxylum arborescens had
mean height increment of 24.17cm, mean diameter increment of 2.76cm and
93% survival (Mojiol et al. Undated).
- Should be planted at 2m apart along transects that are 6m apart (Martawijawa
et al. 2005a).

- In a study analyzing the 15N uptake, it was shown this species could access
nitrogen through ectomycorrhiza (Matsubara et al. 2003).
Successional stage
Rachman 1996).
- Described as a ‘pioneer species’ (Kessler 2000).
mortality along a canal bank on degraded peatlands in Central Kalimantan.
et al. 2003).
- Reacts well to sudden change, e.g. felling (Bruenig (1990).
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
132 | P a g e
Hyperiaceae Cratoxylon glaucum

Geronggang merah
Tolerances
Successional stage
Rachman 1996).
– but at lower densities, vi) Tall pole forest and vii) Very low canopy forest.
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
133 | P a g e
Icacinaceae Platea spp.

Successional stage
- Found to be a dominant sapling post-logging (Rieley and Page 2005)
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
134 | P a g e
Icacinaceae Stemonurus spp.

- In species trials by Royal Pikulthong project, Narathiwat, Thailand,
Stemonurus had survival rates of 72% after 5.5 years planted out, and 72% at
9yrs planted out. The average stem diameter (at 10cm above ground level) was
2008).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
135 | P a g e
Icacinaceae Stemonurus scorpiodes / secundiflorus

Synonym Urandra secundiflora
Pasir pasir / Tabaras tidak ada akar / Enyok buruk

Distribution
- Native to Sumatra, Borneo, Java and Malay Peninsular and occurs in Shorea
albida peat swamp forest and in seasonal swamp forests on peaty or sandy
soils (Shimamura et al. 2006).
- Found in primary forest, rarely in secondary forest (Istomo 2002).
Phenology
- In Thailand, flowering; July-September, fruits ripen; November-April (Nuyim
2005).

- Fruit produces ovoid-ellipsoid, one seeded drupes that are 4.5-5.5cm in length
and 2.0-2.5 cm in diameter (Sleumer 1971).
- Capsule-shaped fruit, each with one seed (Nuyim 2005).
Dispersal mechanism
- Seeds are large, and drop near the parent tree (Shimamura et al. 2006)

- In rehabilitation trials in Thailand, wildlings were collected for transplanting,
rather than seedlings being germinated from seeds (Nuyim 2005).
- Naturally high germination success in the wild (50% seedling survival after
first year) (Shimamura et al. 2006).

- Reaches 60cm in 18 months (Nuyim 2005).

every two weeks for ten weeks. By the sixth week all the Stemonurus
scorpiodes seedlings had died (Mojiol et al. Undated).
2008. By Dec 2008 1-5% of the seedlings were surviving (Wibisono &
Gandrung, 2008).
136 | P a g e
- Used in restoration trials in Thailand (Urapeepatanapong and

Pitayakajornwute 1996) and Kalimantan (Wibisono and Gandrung 2008), both
with poor success (lower than 50%).
Tolerances
- Described as a shade-tolerant species (Mojiol et al. Undated)
- Seedlings were not affected by elevation in the wild, but were able to grow as
successfully on mounds as on non-mounds, showing tolerance to flooding,
suggested to be due to thick porous roots and large seeds – which in turn
makes them poor dispersers (Shimamura et al. 2006).
Successional stage
- Because of short seed dispersal distances, seedlings are rarely found in gaps
(Shimamura et al. 2006).
- Found in the tall interior forest at the central of the peat dome (Page and
Waldes 2005).
- A non-mound forming tree with numerous pneumatophores (Shimamura et al.
2006).
- Seedlings were positively affected by density of emerged seedlings and
negatively affected by distance from parent tree (Shimamura et al. 2006).
- Lower growth rate during initial stage, followed by a higher growth rate when
root system has completely developed. Described as moderate growing tree
i.e. growth rates between 30-60cm per year (Nuyim 2005).
- Small to medium in height (Nuyim 2005).

Additional comments
137 | P a g e
Lauraceae Alseodaphne coriacea

Synonym Nothaphoebe coriacea
Gemur
Distribution
- Grows in lowland primary forest, sometimes along the edge of rivers, up to
1200m asl (Istomo 2002).
- Found on dry lands, and areas with high rainfall, from 100-1200m asl
- Found in Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra and Borneo (Sosef et al.
1998).

- The fruit is hairy and ellipsoid in shape (Istomo 2002).
- Leaf cutting trials had poor results, and collection of wildlings was shown to
be more successful (Syamsuwida 2009).

- Plant out at spacing 3x4m (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
Tolerances
CIMTROP, this species is suitable for planting on peatland, though possibly
not by by canal banks (Limin 2007).
(Giesen 2009).
- Found under the following conditions; waterlogged, 21.3-32˚C, 88-99%
humidity, 3-5% light, pH 3-4, peat depth 1-2m (Syamsuwida 2009).
Successional stage
- Observed using stumps as a site of germination (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
138 | P a g e
Lauraceae Cinnamomum spp.

peat area, Cinnamomum had 78% survival, diameter (at 10cm above ground
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
139 | P a g e
Lauraceae Cinnamomum rhychophyllum

Phenology
- In Thailand, flowering; October-January, fruit ripens; February-April (Nuyim
2005).

- Oval-shaped fruit; black when mature. Each fruit produces one seed (Nuyim
2005).
- Germination occurs 20 days after sowing (Nuyim 2005).

- Reaches 125cm tall after 20 months (Nuyim 2005).
Tolerances
- Does not grow well in areas with continued water presence (Nuyim 2005).
(Nuyim 2005).
Distribution
Dispersal mechanism
Successional stage
Additional comments
140 | P a g e
Lauraceae Litsea spp.


peat area, Litsea had 71% survival, diameter (at 10cm above ground level) was
- Considered to have potential for peatland restoration (Rachmanadi et al. 2004)
Tolerances
- Appropriate for planting on deep peat (Lazuardi et al. 2005).
Successional stage
- Numbers can increase significantly after logging (Lee 1979, Whitmore 1984).
classically found in vii) Very low canopy forest.
- Grows well on degraded peatland that has been cleared for logging, and
degraded shrubby peatland (Rachmanadi and Lazuardi 2007).
- Fast-growing species (Lee 1979, Whitmore 1984).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
141 | P a g e
Lauraceae Litsea calophyllantha

Successional stage
- Prefers areas where the tree cover is still good and the canopy is tall and
closed (Wibisono et al. 2005).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
142 | P a g e
Lauraceae Litsea crassifolia

- Natural regeneration is mainly vegetative, by suckers or coppice shoots
(Whitmore 1984).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
143 | P a g e
Lauraceae Litsea johorensis

- In Thailand this species was used in restoration trial, with poor success
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
144 | P a g e
Lauraceae Litsea resinosa

Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
145 | P a g e
Lecythidaceae Barringtonia macrostachya

Distribution
- Found from Southern China, Burma, Indo-China to Thailand, Peninsular
Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Borneo, the Phillipines, Northern Sulawesi and
the Moluccas (Sosef et al. 1998).
- Sown fruits have about 40% germination in 9-22 months (Sosef et al. 1998).
Tolerances
2004).
Successional stage
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
146 | P a g e
Lecythidaceae Barringtonia racemosa

Distribution
- From Eastern Africa and Madagascar to Sri Lanka, India, Burma, Indo-China,
southern China, Taiwan, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, throughout the
Malesian region towards Micronesia, Polynesia and northern Australia (Sosef
et al. 1998).
Tolerances
Successional stage
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
147 | P a g e
Leguminosae Archidendron clypearia

Distribution
- From Sri Lanka, India, and Burma to Indo-China, southern China, Thailand
and through Malesian region except Lesser Sunda Islands (Sosef et al. 1998).
- Has 85-100% germination success in 6-40 days (Sosef et al. 1998).
Tolerances
2004).
Successional stage
- Described as a pioneer species (Kessler 2000, van Eijk and Leenman 2004)
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
148 | P a g e
Leguminosae Dialium spp.

- In planting trials by Royal Pikulthong project, Narathiwat, Thailand, Dialium
had survival rates of 76% after 5.5 years planted out, and 76% at 9 years
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
149 | P a g e
Leguminosae Dialium patens

- In Thailand this species was used in restoration trial, with poor success
(Urapeepatanapong and Pitayakajornwute 1996)
Tolerances
(Giesen 2009).
Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
150 | P a g e
Leguminosae Koompassia malaccensis

Kempas
Distribution
- Grows in swamps or on wet soils, often at the foot of hills, and on clay or
sandy soils. Will only grow in a tropical climate, 0-600m asl (Martawijaya et
al. 2005b, Istomo 2002).
Phenology
- Kempas fruits plentifully every year (Martawijaya et al. 2005b).

- The fruit is in a pod, and the seeds have wings (Martawijaya et al. 2005b).
Dispersal mechanism
- Because of the winged seeds, the seeds are easily dispersed by wind

- This species has been little used in planting projects, despite it having high
success rates (80%) (Martawijaya et al. 200b5).
Tolerances
- Can tolerate drier conditions (Wyatt-Smith 1959).
- Described as a shade-tolerant species, intolerant to high light (Wibisono et al
2005).
- The dominant species in plots near the river in Sumatra (Momose and
Shimamura 2003).
Successional stage
- Good at regenerating after logging (Wyatt-Smith 1959).
classically found vi) Tall interior forest.
only been selectively logged, and still have closed ground cover from
vegetation or areas where tree cover is still good and the canopy is tall and

Additional comments
151 | P a g e
Magnoliaceae Magnolia spp.

Successional stage
- Found to be a dominant sapling and pole post-logging (Rieley and Page 2005).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
152 | P a g e
Malvaceae Hibiscus spp.

- In Riau this species was used in restoration trial, with good success (Giesen
2004).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
153 | P a g e
Melastomaceae Memecylon spp.
Successional stage
- Found to be a dominant seedling, sapling and tree post-logging (Rieley and
Page 2005).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
154 | P a g e
Melastomaceae Pternandra galeata

Keremunting yang garis tiga
Tolerances
2004).
Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
155 | P a g e
Meliaceae Aglaia spp.

peat area, Aglaia had 26% survival, diameter (at 10cm above ground level)
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
156 | P a g e
Meliaceae Aglaia rubiginosa

Kajalaki
Distribution
- Found on peat soils and Karangas forests, occasionally in lowland primary
forests, up to 300m asl (Istomo 2002).
Phenology
- In Thailand, flowers; June-September, fruits ripen; January-April (Nuyim
2005).

- Fruit is approximately spherical, dark orange in colour when mature. It is a
dehiscent fruit, breaking into three segments when ripe. Each segment contains
one seed (i.e. three seeds per fruit). The seed is brown with yellow integument
(Nuyim 2005).


- Reaches 40cm tall after 6 months (Nuyim 2005).
Successional stage
classically found in iii) Mixed peat swamp forest and iv) Transition forest (iii-
v) – but at lower density.
- Lower growth rate during initial stage, followed by a higher growth rate when
root system has completely developed. Described as moderate growing tree
i.e. growth rates between 30-60cm per year (Nuyim 2005).
- When mature becomes a large tree with extensive crown (Nuyim 2005).
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
157 | P a g e
Meliaceae Sandoricum spp.

peat area, Sandoricum had 78% survival, diameter (at 10cm above ground
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
158 | P a g e
Meliaceae Sandoricum borneensis

Papong
Distribution
- Found growing on primary and sometimes secondary forest, up to 1200m asl
(Istomo 2002).
- 60-70% survived to fully grown seedlings in the nursery after collected from
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
159 | P a g e
Moraceae Artocarpus gomeziana

Tolerances
Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
160 | P a g e
Moraceae Ficus deltoidea

Ara
Successional stage
- Described as a ‘pioneer’ species (Giesen 2008).
There is no further information available on: Kayu putih
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
161 | P a g e
Moraceae Ficus virens

Tolerances
2004).
Successional stage
- Described as a ‘pioneer’ species (van Eijk and Leenman 2004).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
162 | P a g e
Myristaceae Knema cinera

Darah-darah
Distribution
- Found in lowland including peat swamp forests, and rainforests up to 1700m
asl (Istomo 2002).
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
163 | P a g e
Myristicaaceae Knema laytericia

Pirawas
Successional stage
- Described as a ‘pioneer species’ (Giesen 1990).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
164 | P a g e
Myristicaceae Horsfieldia spp.

Horsfieldia had survival rates of 80% after 5.5yrs planted out, and 79% at 9yrs
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
165 | P a g e
Myristicaceae Horsfieldia crassifolia

Mendarahan (daun besar)
Phenology
- In Thailand, flowering; March-June, fruit ripens; August-November (Nuyim
2005).

- Oval-shaped dehiscent fruit is dark yellow when ripe, each fruit produces one
seed, with reddish orange seed integument (Nuyim 2005).

- There are approximately 480 per kg (Nuyim 2005).
- Seedling can be collected from their natural habitat and replanted with high

- Reaches 65cm after 18 months in the nursery (Nuyim 2005).
Successional stage
year (Nuyim 2005).
Distribution
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
166 | P a g e
Myristicaceae Myristica lowiana

Mandarahan
Distribution
- Commonly found in peat swamp forests, occasionally on dry soils (Istomo
2002).
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
167 | P a g e
Myrsinaceae Ardisia laevigata

Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
168 | P a g e
Myrtaceae Eugenia spp.

were planted with Eugenia sp. onto artificial mounds (0.3-0.5m tall) in Nov-
Dec 2003. The first wet season (flooding 50cm deep) the seedlings survived
(65-85%), however the following wet season, the flooding was extremely deep
(100-150cm deep). This flooding level went above the height of the seedlings’
leaves, resulting in lower than 5% survival (averaged across several species).
remain above the flood level. However, this particular species showed the best
success with survival after deep flooding at 27% (Giessen 2009).
Tolerances
Successional stage
- Can become a dominant species in secondary peat swamp forest after fire
(Giesen 1990).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
169 | P a g e
Myrtaceae Eugenia cerina

Tolerances
- Able to tolerate flooding (Giessen 2009).
- Described as a ‘light-demanding species’ (Wibisono et al. 2005)
Successional stage
- Described as a pioneer species (Giessen 2004, 2009).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
170 | P a g e
Myrtaceae Eugenia havelandii

Successional stage
– but at lower densities and vi) Tall pole forest.
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
171 | P a g e
Myrtaceae Eugenia kunsterli

- In Thailand this species was used in restoration trials, with good success
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
172 | P a g e
Myrtaceae Eugenia spicata

Kayu lalas
Tolerances
- Described as tolerant of flooding (Giesen 2009).
- Observed as moderately flood-tolerant (Van Eijk and Leenman 2004).
- Able to survive after fire, through protective bark (Giesen 2004).
Successional stage
- Described as a pioneer species (Giesen 2009, Giesen 2004, Giesen 2008, van
Eijk and Leenman 2004).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
173 | P a g e
Myrtaceae Melaleuca cajuputi

Kayu putih
Distribution
- Found from northern Australia to India and Vietnam (Blake 1968).
- Found all across Indonesia, on peat soils (Rachmadi et al. 2004).
- Found growing on wetlands, swamps, peatlands (Lazuardi and Supriadi 2004).
Phenology
- In Thailand, flowers and fruits all year round (Nuyim 2005).

- Cup-shaped fruit, 4mm in diameter, contains 200 seeds (Nuyim 2005).
- The fruit is round, hard and brown, 2.8-6.5mm in diameter and 2.3-6.3mm
thick. There are approximately 120,000 seeds per kg. The seeds are extremely
small, and the skin of the seed is very thin (Rotinsulu et al. 2007c).
- The fruit is round, hard, brown in colour and 2.8-6.3mm large (Wibisono et al.
2005).
Dispersal mechanism
- Fruits of Melaleuca are opened by the high temperatures, such as those that
occur during fires, and the seeds are dispersed easily, so it is not surprising that
this species is a dominant pioneer following fires (Nuyim 2000, 2005).

- There are approximately 2,238,000 seeds per kg (Nuyim 2005).
- Seedlings from the wild can be removed and transplanted into polythene bags
and they have a better survival rates than those in the nursery (Nuyim 2005).
- Collect seeds from a healthy tree (straight trunk, many fruit, no disease). Ripe
fruit can be distinguished by their dark brown colour. The best time to collect
seeds is at the end of the dry season. Dry the fruit for 6hrs in the sun to
separate the fruit from the seed, then store the fruit in a safe place until the
fruit splits open and the small seeds can be removed (Rotinsulu et al. 2007c).
- There are approximately 120,000 seed per kg (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Germination time is 10-15 days (Nuyim 2005).
- Processing seeds should be done carefully and quickly, as they are very small.
They should be kept in a plastic tray, filled with a mixture of sterilized (dried
in the sun for 2days) river soil and peat, 0.5cm deep. This tray should be kept
in a 65% shade nursery, under a plastic cover, with the moisture controlled
through spaying with water. Germination will start to occur after 5 days, with
most germination occurring after 8 days, the longest taking 1 month. Normally
there is about 90% germination success. (Rotinsulu et al. 2007c).
- For soft seeds like galam plant into germination trays, 7-10cm thick with
media, and cover with plastic (Standar Nasional Indonesia 2003)
174 | P a g e

- Reaches 50cm in 6 months (Nuyim 2005)
- Seedlings collected from water-logged areas have better survival rates than
those collected from high grounds (Nuyim 2005).
- Following the above germination method, the plastic cover should be removed
after 6 weeks, and seedlings continued to be sprayed with water twice a day.
Grow bags should be filled with peat, a small hole made in the centre to
accommodate the root of each seedling, so the root is not bent or broken, then
transfer the seedlings, one to each grow bag. (Rotinsulu et al. 2007c).

- In Thailand and Vietnam this species was used in restoration trials, with good
success (Ismail et al. 2001, Maltby et al. 1996)
Melaleuca had survival rates of 88% after 5.5 years planted out, and 83% at
9yrs planted out. The average stem diameter (at 10cm above ground level) was
12.5cm after 5.5yrs and 15.8cm after 9yrs, and the height was 6.4m after
5.5yrs and 8.7m after 9yrs (Nuyim 2000).
- If galam is to be grown for the purpose of timber harvest later, the seedlings
should be planted between 25x25cm to 50x50cm spacing, so they grow
straight. Wider distances will result in wood only useful for fuel (Luzuardi
2000).
- Once the seedling is 10-12 months old, and 30-50cm in height, it is ready to
plant out. They should be planted out in the wet season, from October-
December. Planting should take place in the early morning or late afternoon, to
reduce stress from the midday sun. The grow bag should be cut with a sharp
knife, and the growth media held around the root, all this should be planted
into a prepared hole, with the seedling positioned straight and the hole filled in
with extra peat, so that the seedling is secure. Peat surrounding the seedling
should be raised slightly, to protect the seedling from rain. Mark clearly the
location of the planted seedling. The seedling should be watered and nutrients
provided, and if possible protected from pests (Rotinsulu et al. 2007c).
- Seedlings should be planted one month after the onset of the wet season, or in
areas that are sufficiently wet. If the aim is to achieve timber, planting should
take place at 0.5x0.5m spacing, but if not for timber 0.5x1-3m (Lazuardi and
Supriadi 2004).
Tolerances
- M. cajuputi germinated, survived and grew well under flooded conditions, and
its seeds did not lose their germination capacity even after heating to 100oC for
one hour. (Satohoko et al. Undated)
- In a study in Thailand it was shown that growth rates of Melaleuca cajaputi
actually increase during periods of flooding (Yamanoshita et al. 2001), and
similarly, in a greenhouse experiment van der Moezel et al. (1991) showed
growth rates of M. cajaputi seedlings under waterlogged conditions was 147%
that of the drained control.
- Intense fires can kill this species, but lower intensity fires will not kill the
larger trees and are an advantage as it kills the other species’ seed stores,
leaving only galam to propagate (Luzuardi 2000).
175 | P a g e
Successional stage
- An understorey tree that becomes gregarious after repeated burning, owing to
thick, loose, corky bark, and the production of root suckers and coppice shoots
(Whitmore 1984).
- Melaleuca cajuputi is a main pioneer species in peat swamp and sand dune
habitats in the Narathiwat region (Satohoko et al. Undated).
- Often becomes dominant in degraded, repeatedly burnt areas. Because of this,
natural regeneration of deforested (mainly fire damaged) peat swamp areas
leads to Melaleuca forests, and therefore assisted reforestation is required for
recovery of original peat swamp forest (Nuyim 2005).
- Described as a ‘pioneer species’ (van der Laan 1925).
- Commonly forms pure stands on swampy grounds (Blake 1968).
- Melaleuca can be a useful tool in the rehabilitation of degraded peatlands.
They protect environmental quality be reducing acidity and their influence
upon the hydrological cycle. Melaleuca is a fast-growing source of wood for
fuel and construction, and essential oils can be extracted. Melaleuca grows
well on peat, tolerates severe acidity, flooding and burning, and is easily
propagated. (Safford and Maltby 1998)
- Able to re-sprout from the base of the trunk after fire (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Seeds are observed to germinate after fires and this can be used as a
silvicultural tool (Lazuardi and Supriadi 2004).

Additional comments
176 | P a g e
Myrtaceae Melaleuca leucadendron

Galam
Distribution
- Native to Indonesia (Yuliansyah 2006).

- The fruit is round, hard and brown in colour, 2.8-6.5mm diameter, and 2.3-
6.3mm long. The seed is very small, and the skin of the seed is very thin, and
plentiful (Wibisono et al. 2005).

- There are approximately 120,000 seeds per kg (Wibisono et al. 2005).
Tolerances
- Fire-tolerant (Yuliansyah 2006).
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Successional stage
Additional comments
177 | P a g e
Myrtaceae Syzygium spp.

- In restoration activities in Thailand, growth rates doubled when grown on
artificially constructed mounds – but this restoration method is noted as
expensive (Nuyim 2000).

ectomycorrhizal colonization was frequently observed (Tamai 2003).
Tolerances
banks (Limin 2007).
- The dominant species in plots near the river in Sumatra (Momose and
Shimamura 2003).
Successional stage
- Found in the low pole forest nearer to the centre of the peat dome (Page and
Waldes 2005).
- Described as a fast-growing pioneer, quickly able to return to fire-disturbed
area (Giesen 2004).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
178 | P a g e
Myrtaceae Syzygium oblatum

Phenology
- In Thailand, flowering; May-August, fruit ripens; Sept-Dec (Nuyim 2005).
- Bears fruit from a young age (Nuyim 2005).

- Ripe fruit is dark green to purple, and spherical in shape. Each fruit contains
two seeds (Nuyim 2005).

- Germination occurs 25-30 days after sowing (Nuyim 2005).

- Reaches 110cm after 18 months in the nursery (Nuyim 2005).

- Used in restoration trials in Thailand with good success (greater than 50%)
- In planting trials by Royal Pikulthong project, Narathiwat, Thailand, Syzygium
oblata had survival rates of 83% after 5.5 years planted out, and 81% at 9yrs
Syzygium oblata seedlings had increased diameters on the mound, compared to
the non-mound control. However, soil improvement through organic and
inorganic fertilizers, and liming showed no impact on growth or survival
(Nuyim 2000, 2005)
- Found growing on the banks of rivers and streams (Nuyim 2005).
- Gregarious (Nuyim 2005).
- Small to medium sized tree (Nuyim 2005).
Distribution
Dispersal mechanism
Successional stage
Additional comments
179 | P a g e
Myrtaceae Syzygium pyrifolium

- In planting trials by Royal Pikulthong project, Narathiwat, Thailand, Syzygium
pyrifolium had survival rates of 82% after 5.5 years planted out, and at 9yrs
Syzygium pyrifolium seedlings had greatly increased diameters on the mound,
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
180 | P a g e
Myrtaceae Syzygium zippeliana

Tolerances
- Observed as moderate to very deep flood-tolerant (Van Eijk and Leenman
2004).
Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
181 | P a g e
Myrtaceae Tristania grandifolia

Successional stage
classically found in vi) Tall interior forest and vii) Very low canopy forest.
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
182 | P a g e
Myrtaceae Tristaniopsis obovata

Blawan
- This species will grow faster if surrounding foliage and competition is cleared
(Endert 1937).
Tolerances
- Light-demanding (Endert 1937).
Successional stage
- Found in the low pole forest nearer to the centre of the peat dome (Page and
Waldes 2005).
- Fast-growing (Endert 1937).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
183 | P a g e
Myrtaceae Tristaniopsis whiteana

ectomycorrhizal colonization was seldom observed (Tamai 2003).
Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
184 | P a g e
Podocarpaceae Dacrydium pectinatum

Alau
Distribution
- Grows in primary tropical forest, or in places of wet climate (maximum 3-4
month dry season) (Martawijaya et al. 2005b).
- Prefers very thin peat soils (less than 40cm deep) (Panjaitan and
Wahyuningtyas 2004).

- Fruiting is normally plentiful, with small round seeds, approximately 45,000
per kg (Martawijaya et al. 2005b).

- Dried seeds can be stored up to one month and still achieve 80% germination

- Alau can be cultivated from seed, cuttings and wildlings. For cuttings, a 8-
15cm long, 5-8mm wide section of stem should be cut, and placed in a
growing agent, IBA 3%. Sterile river soil can be used as the growth media
(sterilized through heating). The cutting will start to root after 2.5-3 months.
Once rooting, move the cutting to media 70% peat and 30% rice husks.
Cuttings will tend to have 30-40% lower heights, and the roots weaker than
those grown naturally (Panjaitan and Wahyuningtyas 2004).

- Seedlings are normally ready to plant after 1 year, after reaching 25-40 cm in
height, and 5-8mm diameter (Panjaitan and Wahyuningtyas 2004).
Tolerances
2009).
- This species is described as tolerant of degraded conditions and in fact will not
grow well under shade (Panjaitan and Wahyuningtyas 2004).
Successional stage
- This species is classified as late successional (Giesen 2009).
- This species grows slowly and seedling cultivation is recommended (Panjaitan
and Wahyuningtyas 2004).

Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
185 | P a g e
Polygalaceae Xanthophyllum spp.

Successional stage
classically found in vi) Tall interior forest
- Found to be a dominant sapling post-logging (Rieley and Page 2005)
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
186 | P a g e
Polygalaceae Xanthophyllum lanceatum

- When fruit is ripe, collect and pile into heaps for 3-4 days. Then wash the
fruit, to free the seeds from their skin, and dry, in preparation for germination
(Zwann 1920)
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
187 | P a g e
Rhizophoraceae Carallia bractiata

Gandis
Distribution
- Found in lowland forests up to 1800m asl, in both primary and secondary
forests, in mixed Dipterocarp forests, Karangas forests, and peat swamp
forests (Istomo 2002).
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
188 | P a g e
Rosaceae Parastemon spicatum

Distribution
- Found growing on shores and secondary forest, Karangas forest, degraded
forests, and Dacrydium forest. Found up to 700m asl (Istomo 2002).

- The fruit is pale red when ripe (Istomo 2002).

CIMTROP, this sp is suitable for planting both on peatland and by canal banks
(Limin 2007).
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
189 | P a g e
Rubiaceae Gardenia spp.

Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
190 | P a g e
Rubiaceae Ixora spp.

peat area, Ixora had 96% survival, diameter (at 10cm above ground level) was
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
191 | P a g e
Rubiaceae Neolamarckia cadamba

Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
192 | P a g e
Rubiaceae Psychotria montensis

Tolerances
- Suitable for planting on the sloping side of canals/frequently flooded areas
(Giesen 2008).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Successional stage
Additional comments
193 | P a g e
Rubiaceae Timonius flavenscens

Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
194 | P a g e
Rutaceae Melicope accedens

Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
195 | P a g e
Rutiaceae Tetractomia tetrandrum

Tolerances
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Successional stage
Additional comments
196 | P a g e
Sapindaceae Nephelium lanceatum

- Able to grow from branch cuttings, although trees tend to be smaller, with
more delicate roots, but faster in coming to fruit (Wigman 1902).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
197 | P a g e
Sapindaceae Nephelium mutiable

Rambutan
- Able to grow from branch cuttings, although trees tend to be smaller, with
more delicate roots, but faster in coming to fruit (Wigman 1902).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
198 | P a g e
Sapotaceae Ganua spp.

- In species trials by Royal Pikulthong project, Narathiwat, Thailand, Ganua
had survival rates of 90% after 5.5 years planted out, and 88% at 9yrs planted
out. The average stem diameter (at 10cm above ground level) was 4.0cm after
Successional stage
- Numbers can increase by 20% after logging (Lee 1979, Whitmore 1984).
- Medium growth rates (Lee 1979, Whitmore, 1984).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
199 | P a g e
Sapotaceae Madhuca motleyana

Synonym Ganua motleyana
Nyatoh / Ketiau
Distribution
- Commonly found on peat swamp forests near the sea (Istomo 2002).

- The fruit is ellipsoid in shape, and 1.5-3 x 1-2cm in size, green-yellow-red in
colour. There are 1-2 seeds per fruit, with a thin skin, sometimes absent
(Istomo 2002).

- In transplanting trials in Raja Musa Forest Reserve in Kuala Selangor,
Peninsular Malaysia on degraded peatlands dominated by Imperata cylindrica
(alang-alang), this species was successful (Ismail et al., 2001).
Tolerances
(Giesen 2009).
Successional stage
classically found in iii) Mixed peat swamp forest, iv) Transitional forest and
(iii-v) – but at lower densities.
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
200 | P a g e
Sapotaceae Palaquium spp.

Distribution
- Found in swamps and on sandy soils, and sometimes dry soils, in areas with
high rainfall, from 20-500m asl (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
Phenology
- Fruits every year, from July-September (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).

- Fruit is yellow-green when ripe (Yuniarti 2002).

- Store seeds in a porous environment, such as ‘blancu’ material, in an air-
conditioned room (Yuniarti 2002)
- Seeds cannot be stored for long; after 1week normally 80% have germinated
- ‘Vermiskin’ is appropriate germination media (Yuniarti 2002).

- Appropriate growth media top-soil with organic fertilizer 1:1 (Yuniarti 2002).

were prepared for replanting in August-November 2003. This species was
planted onto artificial mounds (0.3-0.5m tall) in Nov-Dec 2003. The first wet
season (flooding 50cm deep) the seedlings survived (65-85%), however the
following wet season, the flooding was extremely deep (100-150cm deep).
This floodiing level went above the height of the seedlings’ leaves, resulting in
lower than 5% survival. This shows this species can tolerate degraded
conditions, but its leaves must remain above the flood level. (Giesen 2004).
- Recommended to be used in peatland restoration (Rachmadi and Yuwati
2008).
- A rehabilitation project focusing on intensively disturbed peat swamp forest
areas in Central Kalimantan conducted trial planting of 0.75ha of disturbed
PSF under different regimes (with and without clearing, fertilizer application,
and mounds) and with different species (Shorea balangeran, S. pinanga, S.
seminis, Peronema canescens, Palaquium spp. Trials indicate that Shorea
balangeran and Palaquium are best suited for replanting, as they have
considerably higher survival rates (65-100%) compared to the other species (6-
65%), and this seems irrespective of preparation techniques. Also, both species
appear to be suited to heavily disturbed areas affected by repeated fires, and do
not require innoculation by mycorrhizal fungi (Takahashi et al. 2001).
given no additional help. Survival rates were 56% (Limin 2007).
201 | P a g e

banks (Limin 2007).
- Considered to have potential for peatland restoration (Rachmanadi et al. 2004)
Tolerances
- Slow-growing (Whitmore 1984).
- Can decrease up to 30% after logging (Whitmore 1984).
Dispersal mechanism
Successional stage
Additional comments
202 | P a g e
Sapotaceae Palaquium cochlearifolium

Nyatoh
Successional stage
- Found in mixed peat swamp forest, at the edge of the peat dome and in the tall
interior forest at the central of the peat dome (Page and Waldes 2005).
– but at higher densities and vi) Tall interior forest.
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
203 | P a g e
Sapotaceae Palaquium leiocarpum

Hangkang
Distribution
- Found growing in swamp forests, and at the base of hills up to 200m asl. Only
found growing in primary lowland forest, occasionally reaching up to 1000 m
asl (Istomo 2002).

- Fruit is 1.5-2.5cm long (Istomo 2002).
Successional stage
- Found in the tall interior forest at the central of the peat dome (Page and
Waldes 2005).
– but at lower densities and vi) Tall interior forest.
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
204 | P a g e
Sapotaceae Palaquium ridleyi

Nyatoh burung
Distribution
- Found in swamp forest and occasionally in hilly forests up to 800 m asl
(Istomo 2002).
Successional stage
- Commonly found in the shallow peat at the edge of a peat dome (Page and
Waldes 2005).
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
205 | P a g e
Sapotaceae Palaquium rostratum

Nyatoh
Distribution
- Found on lowlands, sometimes peat swamp forest (Istomo 2002).

- The fruit is 2-3.5 cm long, the skin is green (Istomo 2002).
Tolerances
- Described as a shade tolerant species, intolerant to high light (Wibisono et al.
2005)
Successional stage
- Prefers areas where tree cover is still good and the canopy is tall and closed
- Found to be a dominant pole and tree post-logging (Rieley and Page 2005).
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
206 | P a g e
Sterculiaceae Scaphium macropodum

- Produces vegetative sprouting at its juvenile but not its reproductive stage, and
this technique is used as a fail-safe when decumbent shoots do not survive
(Yamada et al. 2001).
Tolerances
- Seedlings were found to grow under canopy, and on areas of raised elevation,
suggesting low tolerances to flooding or high light at the juvenile stage
(Yamada et al. 2001).
- Prefers shallow peat (Yamada et al 2001).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Successional stage
Additional comments
207 | P a g e
Sterculiaceae Sterculia spp.

- In planting trials by Royal Pikulthong project, Narathiwat, Thailand, Sterculia
had survival rates of 85% after 5.5 years planted out, and 84% at 9yrs planted
out. The average stem diameter (at 10cm above ground level) was 6.3cm after
Sterculia sp. seedlings had slightly increased diameters on the mound,
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Successional stage
Additional comments
208 | P a g e
Theaceae Ploiarium alternifolium

Asam-asam
Tolerances
Successional stage
classically found in vii) Very low canopy forest.
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
209 | P a g e
Theaceae Ternstroemia elongate

Successional stage
- Found to be a dominant seedling post-logging (Rieley and Page 2005).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
210 | P a g e
Theaceae Tetramerista glabra

Ponak
Distribution
- Found on the peat swamp soils throughout Sumatra, Borneo and peninsular
Malaysia (Keng 1972, Rachmadi et al. 2004).
- Found on lowland swamp forest and peat swamp forest, and occasionally
Karangas forest (Istomo 2002).

- Ripe fruit is round, 3cm diameter, with yellow to orange four seeded berry
with a slightly coriaceous exocarp (Gavin and Peart 1997, Istomo 2002).
Dispersal mechanism
- Can propagate vegetatively from seedlings and saplings (Gavin and Peart
1997).
- Seedlings were found to aggregate, and were found most commonly at
distances far from the parent tree (25-30m) (Gavin and Peart 1997).
- Natural germination was found to be low overall (17 out of 774 seeds)
however, significantly higher in a high-light gap (15 out of 285) though not
along a gap edge (1 out of 237) or understorey habitat (1 out of 252). Cleaning
the seeds of the pulp made no difference to overall germination success (Gavin
and Peart 1997).

- Normally needs 6-7 months in the nursery before ready for transplanting
(Rachmadi et al. 2004)
- Seedlings can be cultivated from cuttings, without Rootone F, with a success
rate of 93% (Rusmana et al. 2004).

2008).
- This species can be planted directly onto peatlands, without the need to clear
the area or use a support, although clearing does have beneficial results. In
planting trails 87% survived (Panjaitan et al. 2003a).
- Seedlings should be planted with a growth support, and the surrounding
competiting undergrowth should be cleared every 4 months, for 5 years to
ensure survival (Rachmadi and Yuwati 2008).
- Tranplanting trials in Tumbang Nusa yielded 80% survival (Rachmadi and
Wuyati 2008).
- Had high success in planting trials on peatlands in Central Kalimantan,
however the seed source proved a problem (Lazuardi 2004).
- Seedlings should be planted out at 4x4m spacing. Seedlings planted onto
artificial hummocks had 96% survival, whilst those planted without
hummocks had 87% survival. Those planted into bamboo tubes had 44%
survival, as the transfer from grow bags into the tubes damaged many of the
roots (Rusmana et al. 2004).
211 | P a g e
National Park were replanting with this species using artificial mounds (0.3-
0.5m tall) in Nov-Dec 2003. The first wet season (flooding 50cm deep) the
seedlings survived (65-85%), however the following wet season, the flooding
was extremely deep (100-150cm deep). This floodiing level went above the
height of the seedlings’ leaves, resulting in lower than 5% survival (averaged
across several species). This shows this species can tolerate degraded
conditions, but its leaves must remain above the flood level (Giesen 2004).
Tolerances
- Prefers wet conditions (Wyatt-Smith 1959).
CIMTROP, this species is suitable for planting on peatland but not by canal
banks (Limin 2007).
(Giesen 2009).
Successional stage
- Not good at regenerating after logging (Wyatt-Smith 1959).
only been selectively logged, and still have closed ground cover from
vegetation or areas where tree cover is still good and the canopy is tall and
- Seedlings grew fastest in gaps and gap edges as compared to understorey
habitat (Gavin and Peart 1997).
- A canopy tree, that can reach up to 150cm DBH (Gavin and Peart 1997).
Phenology
Additional comments
212 | P a g e
Thymelaeaceae Gonystylus bancanus

Ramin
Distribution
- Found on peatlands up to 50m asl. (Rotinsulu et al. 2007b).
- Found on peatlands up to 400m asl. (Krisdianto et al. 2004).
- Found on lowlands near beaches and up to 100m asl. Found on peatlands that
are not under tidal influence (Istomo 2002).
- Grows well on peat soils, sandy soils and flooded soils, but must be protected
from high sun light whilst young. Found up to 100m asl (Martawijawa et al.
2005a, Wibisono et al. 2005).
Phenology
- This species does not fruit annually, but local knowledge suggests early fruit
appears in April or May, and is ripe in July or August (Rotinsulu et al. 2007b,
Rusmana et al. 2004).
- This species does not fruit annually, but normally fruits in April or May, after
the tree has diameter greater than 35cm (Krisdianto et al. 2004).
- Fruits in Februari-March or September-October, depending on the region.
Fruiting occurs two months after flowering (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
- The seed is round, tapering to a point, with thin skin, and dark brown in colour

- Ripe seeds are yellow-brown in colour (Rotinsulu et al. 2007b).
- The seed is described as recalcitrant. The fruit is round with a 7cm diamater
(Krisdianto et al. 2004)
- The fruit reaches up to 4cm diameter (Istomo 2002).
- The fruit contains 1-3 seeds. There are approximately 250-270 seeds per kg.
(Martawijawa et al. 2005b, Wibisono et al. 2005).

- Keep the seeds in a wet plastic sack or bucket. Remove the flesh of the fruit
and wash the seeds (Rotinsulu et al. 2007b).
- Seeds can be stored in a dry room for 15-30 days and still achieve 50-80%
success (Martawijawa et al. 2005a, Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Seeds are often attacked by the ambrosia beetle and Coticium salmonicolor
- Seedlings can be cultivated from seed, wildlings and cuttings, but the most
common is seed and wildiling. It is better to collect seeds that have already
fallen from the parent tree. Only healthy ‘looking’ seeds should be collected;
fresh, without cuts, pests or disease (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- For the collection of wildlings, choose healthy seedlings that have 2-4 leaves,
that the stem is not yet woody, and the seedling is free from disease. When
collecting the wildling, great care must be taken to ensure the root is not
damaged. The wildlings should be collected early morning or late afternoon
213 | P a g e
- Put the seeds into water, and only use those that sink – throw away those that
float. Seed should be planted within 48 hours, and can be planted directly to
the grow bags (into a hole 5cm deep), which should be filled with peat.
(Rotinsulu et al. 2007b).

- Wildlings of ramin can be used but should only be collected once 25-35cm in
height (if collected from a stump – 35-75cm in height, and the root 20cm long)
and with 3-7 leaves. They should immediately be planted in grow bags
- The seeds will start to germinate three days after planting in the grow bags,
most will germinate after around 15 days in the growbags, the slowest
germination being up to 20 days. Normally 90% germination success can be
achieved. The seedlings should be protected from pests which eat the tips of
the leaves through using insecticide. Ramin can be planted to the field after 8
months growth in the nursery, or after reaching 30-40cm in height. Seedling
survival in the nursery is normally about 80% (Rotinsulu et al. 2007b).
- Seedlings, collected as wildlings should be kept in a nursery 3-5 months
before planting out (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
- Seedlings can be grown from seed. They should be planted straight into grow-
bags at 1.5cm deep under shade conditions. They should be kept in the nursery
until 30cm in height (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
- The seed can planted straight into a grow bag (70% peat, 30% compost, or
70% top soil 30% rice husks), with the emerging growth apex submerged.
Grown under 60-70% shade (Rusmana et al. 2004).
- Seedlings can be cultivated from cuttings, in a special growth container until
the roots emerge. The cuttings require high humidity (>80%), with the growth
media always moist (Rusmana et al. 2004).
- Seedlings hould be grown under 80% shade (Standar Nasional Indonesia
2003).
- Seeds can be planted straight into grow bags, 14x22cm large, filled with peat.
The grow bags should be kept in a seedling nursery. The seeds should be
placed flat, with the growth point slightly submerged. Shortly after
germination the seedling will develop 2-3 leaves. Seedlings should be kept
well shaded and watered. At six months old the hardening process can begin
- Wildlings can be transfered straight to grow bags, 14x22cm and filled with
peat. Keep them in a nursery, and cover the wildlings with a plastic concave
cover, to keep the wildlings moist and reduce stress. Water them regularly.
When new leaves appear, remove the plastic cover but maintain high shade.
Hardening should begin after 6-8 months old (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Ramin can be grown from cuttings. Take the cutting from healthy-growing
trees. Cut the stem at a 45˚ angle, where the stem is 3.5-6.5 mm wide and 15-
20 cm long, with 2-4 leaves. Cut the leaves, leaving 1/3 – ½. Quickly move the
cutting to water, to avoid drying and osmosis pressure. Move into a root
growth formula, and keep the cutting covered with a plastic, concave lid, and
214 | P a g e
under high shade. Plant the cutting at 1-2cm depth into a media of mixed peat
and sand at a ratio 3:2. Still keep the cutting covered. The cutting should be
continually given sufficient water that there is always visible condensation
inside the plastic concave cover. When new leaves appear, it can be known
that the roots are developing. At this stage the cutting can be moved to a grow
bag, 14x22cm large, filled with peat, however the plastic cover and hgh shade
should still be maintained for two weeks (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- The shading can start to be reduced, to 50%, after 6 months (Wibisono et al.
2005).

- This species was successful in transplanting trials in Raja Musa Forest Reserve
in Kuala Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia on to degraded peatlands dominated
by Imperata cylindrica (alang-alang) (Ismail et al. 2001).
- In transplant trials in the Block C area of the EMRP, seedlings were planted,
but given no additional help. Survival rates were 78%. (Limin 2007).
- Appropriate distances for planting out seedlings are 4x2m, 3x3m, 2x5m or
3x5m. The seedlings should be planted into a 30x30x40cm hole, and the
position marked. The area surrounding the seedling should not be cleared, as
seedlings require shade whilst growing. Planting is best at the start of the wet
season, but if flooding is an issue at the site, artificial mounds should be
considered (Rotinsulu et al. 2007b, Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
- Newly planted seedlings needed to be planted under canopy or under shading
which is at least 2m wide (Krisdianto et al. 2004).
(Lazuardi 2004).
- Once the seedlings are 30cm in height and with 3-5 leaves, they are ready to
plant out. Cuttings are ready to plant out after 8 months growth (Rusmana et
al. 2004).
- Seedlings are ready to plant out after 8-12 months old. Plant ramin seedlings
every 1-2m into transects that are 5-10m apart. Plant the seedlings into
prepared holes, 15-30cm deep, 15-15cm diameter, to the same size as the
growth medi and seedling. If there is a potential for flooding, planting the
seedlings onto artificial mounds should be considred. Plant the seedlings early
morning or late afternoon. Clear the area surrounding the seedlings of other
vegetation. After planting, clear the area surrounding the seedling twice a year

- Fertilizer NPK 2g/seedling can be given to increase growth in the nursery and
fertilizer additions (organic or inorganic) can also be given in the field
(Rotinsulu et al. 2007b).
Tolerances
National Park were replanted with Gonystylus bancanus onto artificial mounds
(0.3-0.5m tall) in Nov-Dec 2003. The first wet season (flooding 50cm deep)
the seedlings survived (65-85%), however the following wet season, the
215 | P a g e
above the height of the seedlings’ leaves, resulting in lower than 5% survival
(averaged across several species). This shows this spicies can tolerate
degraded conditions, but its leaves must remain above the flood level (Giesen
2004).
- Recommended to be used in peatland rehabilitation, but only to be planted into
logged-over areas (Rachmanadi and Luzuardi 2007).
CIMTROP, this species is suitable for planting by canal banks but not deep
peatlands (Limin 2007).
- Described as a shade-tolerant species, not tolerant to high light (Wibisono et
al. 2005).
- Seedlings were found in a large-gap, showing tolerance to light and pioneer
succession strategy (Siregar and Sambas 1999).
(Giesen 2009).
- Considered semi-tolerant to planting out into degraded areas, as requires shade
from trees or understorey vegetation (Martawijawa et al. 2005a).
Successional stage
- Not good at regenerating after logging, can decrease in abundance (up to 30%
decrease) (Wyatt-Smith 1959, Lee 1979, Whitmore 1984, Bruenig 1990).
classically found in iii) Mixed peat swamp forest, iv) Transitional forest, (iii-v)
– but at lower densities and vi) Tall interior forest.
only been selectively logged, or still have closed ground cover from vegetation
- Grows well on degraded peatland that has been cleared for logging
(Rachmanadi and Lazuardi 2007).
- Found to be a dominant seedling post-logging (Rieley and Page 2005).
- Approriate for enrichment planting only, into secondary forest that still has
high shade (Wibisono et al. 2005).
- Prefers wet conditions (Wyatt-Smith 1959)
- Slow-growing (Lee 1979, Whitmore 1984, Bruenig 1990, Krisdianto et al.
2004).
Additional comments
- Ramin is an important timber wood, reaching 40-50m in height and diameter
of 120cm (Rotinsulu et al. 2007b)
216 | P a g e
Dispersal mechanism
217 | P a g e
Ulmaceae Trema cannabina

Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
218 | P a g e
Ulmaceae Trema orientalis

Lenduhung
Successional stage
- Described as a ‘pioneer species’ (van der Laan 1925).
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Tolerances
Additional comments
219 | P a g e
Verbenaceae Peronema canescens

Sungkai
- When the fruit is ripe, it bursts open and the seeds can be extracted easily
(Zwann 1920).
- The seeds must be cleaned as preparation before germination (Zwann 1920).

- In a rehabilitation project focusing on intensively disturbed peat swamp forest
areas in Central Kalimantan activities included trial planting of 0.75ha of
disturbed PSF under different regimes (with and without clearing, fertilizer
application, and mounds) and with different species (Shorea balangeran, S.
pinanga, S. seminis, Peronema canescens, Palaquium sp. Trials indicate that
Shorea balangeran and Palaquium are best suited for replanting, as they have
considerably higher survival rates (65-100%) compared to the other species
(6-65%), and this seems irrespective of preparation techniques. Also, both
species appear to be suited to heavily disturbed areas affected by repeated
fires, and do not require innoculation by mycorrhizal fungi (Takahashi et al.,
2001).
Tolerances
(Giesen 2009).
Successional stage
Distribution
Phenology
Dispersal mechanism
Additional comments
220 | P a g e
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A Literature Review of the Ecology and Silviculture of Tropical Peat Swamp

Technical Report · December 2009

SDSU-IPB Peat Fire Research Project (NASA/BOSF) View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

This report was prepared for

Australia’s International Forest Carbon Initiative is a key part of Australia’s international

Australian Agency for International Development, Jakarta

A Literature Review of the Ecology and Silviculture of Tropical

This report was prepared for

Introduction to KFCP forest restoration ........................................................................ 5

The literature review ...................................................................................................... 6

Using the literature review ............................................................................................. 6

Comments on the data.................................................................................................... 7

Sources of literature ....................................................................................................... 8

Selecting the Focal Species ............................................................................................ 9

Complete literature review species list: ....................................................................... 14

Literature review ‘Selected Focus Specis’ list: ............................................................ 18

References .................................................................................................................. 221

The location of the KFCP site is shown in Figure 1.

In order to achieve this goal, four bio-physical interventions are to be implemented:

Introduction to KFCP forest restoration

The literature review

Using the literature review

The topics that were included in the literature review are:

Seedling nursery cultivation techniques

Comments on the data

There seemed to be little clarity on the species Stemonurus scorpiodes and

Selecting the Focal Species

Anacardiaceae Campnosperma coriacea

Anacardiaceae Gluta renghas

Anacardiaceae Gluta wallichii

Anacardiaceae Mangifera altissima

Anisophyllaceae Combretocarpus rotundatus

Apocynaceae Alstonia pneumatophora

Apocynaceae Alstonia spatulata

Apocynaceae Dyera polyphylla

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea balangeran

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea leprosula

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea pauciflora

Dipterocarpaceae Vatica rassak

Ebenaceae Diospyros siamang

Eleocarpaceae Elaeocarpus petiolatus

Euphorbiaceae Macaranga hypoleuca

Euphorbiaceae Macaranga pruinosa

Euphorbiaceae Mallotus muticus

Guttiferae Calophyllum hosei

Guttiferae Calophyllum sclerophyllum

Hyperiaceae Cratoxylon arborescens

Hyperiaceae Cratoxylon glaucum

Lauraceae Alseodaphne coriacea

Lauraceae Litsea spp.

Leguminosae Koompassia malaccensis

Melastomaceae Pternandra galeata

Meliaceae Aglaia rubiginosa

Myristicaceae Horsfieldia crassifolia

Myrtaceae Eugenia cerina

Myrtaceae Eugenia spicata

Myrtaceae Melaleuca cajuputi

Myrtaceae Syzygium oblatum

Myrtaceae Syzygium zippeliana

Myrtaceae Tristaniopsis obovata

Podocarpaceae Dacrydium pectinatum