Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13580-019-00224-7

RESEARCH REPORT

Chitosan–aloe vera gel coating delays postharvest decay of mango

fruit
Sadiq Shah1 · Majid S. Hashmi1 

Received: 18 September 2019 / Revised: 17 December 2019 / Accepted: 30 December 2019

© Korean Society for Horticultural Science 2020

Abstract
In this study, the impact of chitosan in combination with aloe vera gel was investigated on the storage life of mango fruits.
Mango samples were coated with 1% chitosan (CTS) and 1% chitosan + aloe vera gel (CTS + AVG), before storing at
12 ± 1 °C for 28 days and shifting to 25 ± 1 °C for 5 days. Results demonstrated that both coatings significantly (p ≤ 0.05)
influenced the storage life of mango fruits, but CTS + AVG minimized the incidence of decay, and reduced weight loss, res-
piration rate, and ethylene production to a greater extent than CTS and control samples. In addition, fruit quality parameters
such as titratable acidity, total soluble solids, fruit firmness, ascorbic acid, and peel color were also retained by the combined
treatment. Furthermore, sustained phenolic content and antioxidant activity confirmed the effectiveness of this treatment.
It was concluded that chitosan coating in combination with aloe vera gel suppressed diseases and maintained the natural
properties of mango fruit during postharvest storage. Therefore, chitosan–aloe vera combination can be used to extend the
storage life of mango fruit, however, more in-depth studies are required for successful commercialization of this organic,
edible coating in the mango fruit industry.

Keywords  Decay · Fruit coating · Mango · Postharvest storage · Quality attributes

1 Introduction produce signs of chilling injuries resulting from exposure

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is an important fruit due to
its unique physical and nutritional qualities. The market
demands for mango fruit have pushed growers to increase
its production, but postharvest diseases, chilling injuries,
and perishable nature have adversely affected the mango
market in recent years (Singh et al. 2013). Moreover, the
ripening process in mango fruit is very fast due to its climac-
teric nature (Palafox-Carlos et al. 2012). Ripening makes
the fruit soft and hence susceptible to various pathogens
(Giovannoni et al. 2017). Short shelf-life and lack of post-
harvest management has restricted mango export to distant
markets. Post-harvest storage-life of other fruits can be
effectively increased by storage at low temperatures (Var-
gas et al. 2006). However, being a tropical fruit, mangos
Communicated by Ali Sarkhosh.
* Majid S. Hashmi
majidsuhail@aup.edu.pk
1
Department of Food Science and Technology, The
University of Agriculture Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan
to low temperatures. Chilling injuries adversely affect the
market value and post-harvest storage-life of mango fruit
(Phakawatmongkol et al. 2004). Therefore, various tech-
niques such as use of a plant growth regulator, ionizing
radiation, plant extracts, modified atmosphere, controlled
atmosphere, and edible coatings can be used to extend the
postharvest life of mango fruit (Perumal et al. 2017; Rees
et al. 2012). Similarly, postharvest application of fungicides
is a prevailing technique to extend the storage life of fruit
by reducing decay. However, the development of resistant
pathogen strains and public demand for chemical-free food
has initiated the need for safe, organic alternatives (Hashmi
et al. 2013).
Several natural products have been tested for delaying
fruit ripening and postharvest decay (Tripathi and Dubey
2004). Natural and biodegradable substances such as edible
coatings are considered to be one of the most promising
means of increasing the post-harvest storage life of fruits
(Campos et al. 2011). Edible coatings, when applied on fruit
surfaces, act as barriers to water loss and gaseous exchange,
reducing respiration rates and the ripening process as well
as maintaining the quality of fruit (Baldwin et al. 1999).

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Moreover, edible coatings may also serve as a biodegradable
packaging material (Campos et al. 2011). However, antimi-
crobial properties of edible coatings need to be investigated.
Ultimately, the storage life of fruit could be substantially
increased by applying such coatings.
Bill et al. (2014) observed that a chitosan and aloe vera
edible coating exhibited antimicrobial properties against
postharvest fruit pathogens. Chitosan is a natural, non-toxic,
biodegradable, edible material, with excellent film forming
properties (Kumar et al. 2015). Moreover, it can be used
as an antimicrobial therapy against several postharvest dis-
eases of fruit (Zhu et al. 2008). Previously, the storage life
of several fruits, including citrus (Arnon et al. 2014), papaya
(Dotto et al. 2015), and mango (Silva et al. 2017), were suc-
cessfully extended with chitosan coating.
Likewise, aloe vera gel has also been reported as an anti-
microbial remedy against various fruit pathogens (Valverde
et al. 2005). Several fruits such as apple (Qi et al. 2011),
raspberry (Hassanpour 2015), and strawberry (Sogvar et al.
2016) were successfully preserved by using aloe vera gel as
an edible coating.
Currently, the combined impact of edible coatings against
fruit postharvest diseases has attracted researcher’s attention
(Jongsri et al. 2017). Similarly, Vieira et al. (2016) observed
a synergistic antifungal effect when aloe vera gel was incor-
porated in chitosan coating. The same coating, when applied
on blueberry fruits, reduced the decay incidence and also
maintained natural attributes of fruit. However, there is no
published literature reporting the application of chitosan
coating incorporated with aloe vera gel on mango fruit.
Likewise, the effect of aloe vera incorporated into chitosan
coating on vital mango fruit parameters such as respiration
rate, ethylene production, ascorbic acid, phenolic content,
and antioxidant activity, has yet to be studied. Hence, the
objective of this study is to evaluate the impact of aloe
vera–chitosan combined coating on postharvest decay and
select quality parameters of mango fruit during storage.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Fruit selection
Mango fruit (cv. White Chaunsa) produced in the orchard of
the Charsadda Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan were
picked at the mature green stage. Fruit selection was made
with a finger feel touch of index (2) where (2 = slightly soft,
just started to ripen) (Bill et al. 2014). Harvested fruit were
transferred to the lab within 4 h. Uniform sized fruit free
from blemishes, injuries, bruises, pest infestation, and decay
were surface disinfected with a 1% sodium hypochlorite
solution, washed with clean water, and air dried before use.
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Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology
2.2 Treatments application and analysis
Fruit were separated into three random lots of 93 fruits
each, and every lot was assigned to be dipped in one of the
three treatments: (A) 1% chitosan solution (w/v) (CTS),
(B) 1% chitosan solution (w/v) + aloe vera gel [1:1 v/v]
(CTS + AVG), and (C) Control (distilled water). Treated
fruit were drained and packed in perforated polystyrene
boxes (25 × 15 × 10 cm), stored in the dark at 12 ± 1 °C,
80–85% relative humidity for 28 days, and for 5 days under
simulated conditions at 25 ± 1 °C. Sample analyses were
made weekly and at the end of simulated conditions with 5
replicates of 3 fruits each per treatment. However, weight
loss, respiration rate, and phenolic content were evaluated
for three randomly selected fruits on each sampling date.
The entire experiment was repeated for to ensure result
reproducibility, with the data from the first experiment
used in this manuscript.
2.3 Preparation of chitosan coating
Chitosan coating solution was prepared by dissolving
1% (w/v) chitosan powder (95% deacetylated and viscos-
ity 200–300 cp, Sigma Aldrich, USA) in 1% (v/v) lactic
acid. The solution was homogenized by agitating in a mag-
netic stirrer for 3 h at 20 °C (Vieira et al. 2016).
2.4 Aloe vera gel extraction
Four-year-old aloe vera plants (Aloe barbadensis Miller)
were obtained from a local nursery. Aloe vera leaves with
the same color, size, freshness, and maturity were selected
and washed in a 1% (w/v) chlorine solution. Matrix of
plant leaves were separated from the outer cortex using
an arc shaped sharp stainless-steel knife and the color-
less hydro parenchyma was uniformly mixed in a blender.
Subsequently, the extract was strained to remove fibrous
materials and the liquid gel fraction was collected. The
gel was pasteurized at 65 °C for 30 min and stored at 4 °C
before use (Hassanpour 2015).
2.5 Preparation of chitosan–aloe vera coating
Chitosan solution and aloe vera gel was mixed according
to Vieira et al. (2016) with certain modifications. Chitosan
and aloe vera gel solutions were mixed in different ratios
ranging from 1:10 to 10:1 in the presence of glycerol and
Tween 80. A combination containing 1% (w/v) chitosan
solution, 0.1% (w/v) Tween 80, 1% glycerol, and 1:1 (v/v)
Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology
aloe vera gel was selected based on its cohesiveness and
mixed uniformly in a magnetic stirrer for 3 h at room tem-
perature before use.
2.6 Respiration rate and ethylene production
For the detection of respiration rate and ethylene production,
three fruits were randomly selected and sealed separately
in 2 l airtight glass container for 2 h at 20 °C. Thereafter, a
gas sample of 1 ml was taken in a gas-tight syringe from the
jar and injected into a gas chromatography system (Model
Shimidzu GC-8A) fitted with a stainless steel column
(6 m × 2 mm) and temperatures (100 °C and 180 °C) set for
a thermal conductivity detector (TCD) and a flame ioniza-
tion detector (FID), respectively. Nitrogen was supplied as a
carrier gas at a flow rate of 45 ml per min. Ethylene (­ C2H4)
and ­CO2 concentrations were calculated by comparing the
peaks produced in the sample chromatograms with those of
a standard aliquot mixture of 1% mol ­CO2 mol ­CO2 + N2.
Results for respiration rate and ethylene production were
recorded in mg C ­ O2 ­kg−1 h−1 and µl C
­ 2H4 ­kg−1 ­h−1, respec-
tively (Teixeira et al. 2007).
2.7 Color
Mango peel color was calorimetrically evaluated using a
Chroma Meter CR 300 (Konica Minolta, Japan). Changes
in color were determined in (L*, C* and h°) mode, where
L* indicated the lightness, C* the intensity, and h˚ the hue
angle. All the values were calculated as described previously
(Ali et al. 2011).
2.8 Determination of fruit firmness
Fruit firmness was evaluated by using a penetrometer
(Effegi, Milan, Italy) with a cylindrical plat probe of 8 mm,
inserted from three points of equatorial region of fruit. Firm-
ness of each fruit was computed as means of three meas-
urements for each fruit. The force required for penetration
in fruit was recorded in Newtons (N) (Palafox-Carlos et al.
2012).
2.9 Decay incidence
Decay incidence was visually measured. Fruit portions
showing signs of mycelia development were considered as
decayed. Scores were recorded as the percentage of fruit
decayed area divided by total number of treated fruits (Gov-
ender et al. 2005).
2.10 Ascorbic acid content
Ascorbic acid was assessed by uniformly mixing 10 g flesh
sample with 40 ml of 3% metaphosphoric acid in a blender.
The mixture was filtered through Whatman filter paper.
Afterward, 5 ml filtrate was titrated against a 2,6-dichlo-
rophenol-indophenol dye solution until the appearances of
pink color, and results were recorded as mg/100 g on a fresh
weight (FW) basis (A.O.A.C. 2012).
2.11 Weight loss
Weight loss was determined by weighing three randomly
selected fruits from each lot on the initial day. These fruits
were weighed again on each sampling date. Total weight loss
was expressed as a percentage using the following formula:
[
% weight loss = initial weight
− weight at sampling
]
date/initial weight × 100)
2.12 Titratable acid/total soluble solids
Titratable acidity was determined by mixing 10 g of homog-
enized fruit pulp in 90 ml of distilled water and titrating
against 0.1 N NaOH until pH 8.1. The results were recorded
as mg of citric acid/100 ml juice (Silva et al. 2017). For
determination of soluble solid content, the refractive index
of fruit juice was evaluated with a hand refractometer, range
0–32 (Atago, M 2313, Tokyo, Japan) at 20 °C. Results were
expressed as the percentage of total soluble solids (Khaliq
et al. 2015).
2.13 Total phenolic content and antioxidant
capacity
Total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity were meas-
ured using a Shimadzu spectrophotometer 160-UV, (Tokyo,
Japan). Fruit flesh 1.5 g was homogenized with 10 ml of
methanol and centrifuged at 5000  rpm for 20  min. The
homogenate was filtered through a miracloth and the super-
natant was collected. For total phenolics determination,
500 µl of the extract was combined with 250 µl Folin–Cio-
calteau reagent, diluted with 3.75 ml distilled water, and
mixed with 500 µl 10% (w/v) ­Na2CO3 after incubating for
15 min at room temperature. These samples were kept in
the dark for 1 h, and absorbance was recorded at 765 nm.
Results were recorded as milligrams of gallic acid equivalent
(GAE) per 100 grams of fresh weight (Saavedra et al. 2016).
Antioxidant capacity was determined according to
Palafox-Carlos et  al. (2012) with modification. A stock
13

solution was prepared by dissolving 2.5 mg 2,2-diphenyl-
1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) dye in 100 ml pure methanol, and
its absorbance was adjusted to 1.0 ± 0.02 at 515 nm wave-
length. Trolox (6-hydroxy-2, 5, 7, 8-tetramethylchromane-
2-carboxylic) served as a standard while 80% methanol was
used as a blank. 200 µl of sample extract diluted 1:10 was
mixed with 4.2 ml DPPH dye solution and left in dark for
30 min before reading the absorbance at 490 nm wavelength.
The capacity of antioxidants to reduce DPPH absorbance
was calculated as percent inhibition. Results were recorded
in Trolox equivalents (TE) per 100 g of FW.
Fig. 1  Effect of 1% chitosan (CTS), 1% chitosan + aloe vera gel [1:1
v/v] (CTS + AVG), and control on a respiration rate, b ethylene pro-
duction, c firmness, and d decay incidence of mango fruit during
storage at 12 ± 1  °C for 28  days followed by simulated storage at
13
Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology
2.14 Statistical analysis
The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized
design (CRD) with a two factorial interaction of treatments
and storage duration. Data regarding decay incidence was
first evaluated for homogeneity of variance and all data were
then subjected to two-way ANOVA using Minitab Version
15 (Minitab Inc., State College, PA, USA). Means were
separated at a p ≤ 0.05 significance level.
25 ± 1 °C for 5 days. Mean values of treatments are presented in bars
for these parameters, n = 3 (except (1c) and (1d) where n = 5). Means
with same letters are not statistically different from each other by
Least Significant Difference (LSD) (p ≤ 0.05)
Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology

3 Results and discussion respiration rate of mango upon increasing decay incidence.

This suggests that chitosan–aloe vera coating keeps the res-
3.1 Respiration rate piration rate of mango fruit low during storage.

Respiration rates of control and coated mango fruit were
reduced during the first 7 days of storage. Afterward, they
exhibited a sharp increase, with control fruit displaying peak
respiration after 14 days, and coated fruit after 21 days of
storage. Thereafter, the respiration rates decreased and
achieved a peak again at the end of storage. Both coating
treatments delayed respiratory peak periods. However,
CTS + AVG treatment significantly (p ≤ 0.05) suppressed the
fruit respiration rate after 7, 21, 28, and 33 days of storage
(Fig. 1A). Respiration rate is directly related to metabolic
activity and is therefore considered an excellent indicator
of fruit shelf-life (McAtee et al. 2013). During ripening, an
increase in respiration is responsible for the short storage-
life of climacteric fruits (Khaliq et al. 2015). Aloe vera gel
treatment suppressed respiration rate in nectarine (Ahmed
et al. 2009). Also, chitosan coating delayed respiration rate
in papaya (Ali et al. 2011). Chitosan coating creates a com-
plex matrix of polymers over the fruit surface (Arnon et al.
2014). Aloe vera gel seems to be plasticized in between chi-
tosan polymers, inhibiting oxygen supply while accumulat-
ing ­CO2 in fruit tissues (Chauhan et al. 2015). Therefore,
combined application of chitosan–aloe vera gel might reduce
the respiration rate in CTS + AVG coated fruit. Moreover,
chitosan–aloe vera coating delayed the decay incidence
(Fig. 1D), which might be responsible for decreasing the
respiration rate (Paladines et al. 2014). Likewise, Zhu et al.
(2008) observed a decreasing trend in the respiration rate of
mango fruit with increasing thickness of chitosan coating.
Similarly, Silva et al. (2017) demonstrated an increase in the
3.2 Ethylene production
Ethylene is the major fruit ripening hormone and its produc-
tion increases during ripening. Control fruit achieved a peak
value of ethylene production after 14 day, while the coated
treatments reached peak values after 21 days of storage.
However, CTS + AVG maintained a steady (p ≤ 0.05) ethyl-
ene production as compared to CTS during storage. Moreo-
ver, a burst in ethylene production is commonly recorded
when treatments are exposed to simulated conditions. This
fluctuation in ethylene production may be attributed to the
transferring of fruit from cold to warm environmental condi-
tions (Li et al. 2017). However, ethylene production did not
increase when mango fruits were exposed to higher tem-
perature (Fig. 1B). Fruit ethylene production is controlled
by the enzymes ACC-synthase and ACC-oxidase and the
decline in ethylene production following exposure to simu-
lated condition is probably due to a decrease in activity of
these enzymes (Nair et al. 2003). However, as ethylene pro-
duction also responds to fruit respiration rates, and the res-
piration rate was significantly inhibited by CTS + AVG treat-
ment (Fig. 1A), significantly (p ≤ 0.05) less ethylene might
be produced in CTS + AVG coated mango fruit. Similarly,
Saberi et al. (2018) observed a decrease in the production of
ethylene in oranges upon application of a composite coating
based on guar gum and pea starch. Moreover, ethylene pro-
duction was significantly controlled by the combination of
aloe vera gel with rosehip oil in plum, nectarine, and peaches
(Paladines et al. 2014). This study illustrates that combined

Table 1  Effect of 1% chitosan Treatments Storage days

(CTS), 1% chitosan + aloe vera
gel [1:1 v/v] (CTS + AVG), and 0 7 14 21 28 33
control on L*, C*, and h° values
of mango fruit peel during L* Value
storage at 12 ± 1 °C for 28 days  Control 55.1hij 57.6ef 60.5 cd 63.8a 61.5bc 57.7e
followed by simulated storage at  CTS 54.1ij 55.2hij 55.3ghi 55.7ghi 59.6d 60.4 cd
25 ± 1 °C for 5 days
 CTS + AVG 53.8j 55.8gh 56.1fgh 56.9efg 60.9 cd 62.6ab
C* Value
 Control 28.4hi 36.0bc 39.8a 41.7a 40.6a 34.4 cd
 CTS 28.2i 30.4fgh 30.7 fg 32.1ef 37.1b 35.7bcd
 CTS + AVG 29.2ghi 30.3fgh 31.3f 33.8de 36.7b 36.3bc
h° Value
 Control 129.7a 118.2c 108.5c 95.8 h 86.7i 75.9j
 CTS 129.4a 121.8b 110.1de 100.7 g 94.8 h 84.6i
 CTS + AVG 128.9a 120.4bc 112.1d 104.6f 100.7 g 92.6 h

Means with the same letters within a column are not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) different using LSD. Mean val-
ues of treatments are presented, n = 5

13

application of chitosan and aloe vera gel suppress ethylene
production in mango fruit.
3.3 Peel color
Color is a prime determinant that attracts consumer atten-
tion. During storage, mango color changed from green to
pale yellow. Control treatment showed a faster change, while
a steady color variation was observed in coated treatments.
By the end of storage, control fruit had lower L*, C*, and
h° values and was unmarketable due to overgrowth of fun-
gal mycelium, excessive softening, and shriveling. On the
other hand, coated mangoes retained color, with significantly
(p ≤ 0.05) higher h° values for CTS + AVG coated mango
fruits (Table 1). The difference in L*, C*, and h° values
of the fruit are due to different levels of various coloring
pigments. Chitosan coating delays the development of
anthocyanin and coloring pigments in mango fruit (Chien
et al. 2007). Similarly, aloe vera edible coating improves
fruit color by preventing enzymatic or oxidative browning
(Benítez et al. 2013). Likewise, color changes were delayed
in sweet cherries dipped in aloe vera gel (Martínez-Romero
et al. 2006). Apart from the synergistic effect on color reten-
tion, aloe vera incorporated into chitosan coating reduced
the respiration rate (Fig. 1A), leading to delay in fruit rip-
ening and hence color changes (Benítez et al. 2013). These
results are in line with Han et al. (2014), who reported more
color preservation in sponge gourd by increasing the con-
centration of chitosan coating. Similarly, Kittur et al. (2001)
observed that polysaccharide-based composite coatings
effectively reduced color degradation in mango fruit. In the
present study, CTS + AVG effectively reduced the respiration
rate and browning reactions, thereby retaining the color of
mango fruit during storage.
3.4 Fruit firmness
All mango fruits softened during storage (Fig. 1C). How-
ever, the coated fruit softened to a lesser extent. Moreo-
ver, CTS + AVG coated fruit were found to be significantly
(p ≤ 0.05) firmer than CTS treated fruit. Firmness is an
important sensory attribute, indicative of storage life and
fruit quality (Dotto et al. 2015). Softening is the catabolic
activity of polygalacturonases (PG) and pectin methyl-
esterase (PME) enzymes during ripening, leading to deg-
radation of middle lamella between parenchyma cells, cell
wall disruption, and loss of cellular turgidity (Harker et al.
2010). However, edible coating delays ripening by reducing
the respiration rate (Fig. 1A), ultimately yielding fruit with
greater firmness. Silva et al. (2017) reported greater firm-
ness in mango fruits by increasing the thickness of chitosan
coating. Likewise, Baldwin et al. (1999) maintained mango
fruit firmness by using a highly impermeable carnauba wax
13
Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology
coating. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of chi-
tosan–aloe vera coating in retaining firmness of mango fruit
during storage.
3.5 Decay incidence
Decay incidence was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) reduced by both
treatments as compared to the control. However, CTS + AVG
was more effective against decay incidence from 28 days
until the end of the storage period (p ≤ 0.05). At the end
of the storage period, CTS + AVG fruits were 1.3 and 2.6
times less decayed than CTS and control samples, respec-
tively (Fig. 1D). Postharvest fruit decay is mostly due to
fungi, as the low acidity of fruit poses high resistance to bac-
terial invasion (Pitt and Hocking 1999). Two constituents,
namely aloin and aloe-emodin, isolated from aloe vera gel
were found to be effective against Colletotrichum gloeospo-
rides; one of the most decay-causing fungi in mango fruit
(Raksha et al. 2014; Zhu et al. 2008). Similarly, positively
charged amino chains of chitosan interact with negatively
charged phospholipids of fungal plasma membrane. This
interaction affects permeability of fungal cells, leading to
loss of cellular components (Kong et al. 2010). Thus, a syn-
ergistic effect of disturbing normal germination and physi-
ology of fungi might be achieved by applying chitosan and
aloe vera simultaneously. Moreover, the activity of major
defence-related enzymes increased in avocado peel about
0.2 mm away from the C. gloeosporioides inoculated point
after the combined application of chitosan and aloe vera gel
(Bill et al. 2014). Hence, higher activity of defence-related
enzymes might contribute to the low decay incidence in
CTS + AVG coated fruits. Moreover, attack of posthar-
vest pathogens during fruit ripening is well documented
(Prusky 1996). CTS + AVG effectively delayed ripening
by reducing respiration rate (Fig. 1A), thereby controlling
fruit decay incidence in the fruits. Similarly, Chauhan et al.
(2015) observed less decay incidence in shellac and aloe
vera gel coated tomatoes. Likewise, Jongsri et al. (2017)
observed significant decay reduction in mango treated with
spermidine chitosan mixed coating. Furthermore, our find-
ings confirm Vieira et al. (2016), established the synergistic
anti-decay property of aloe vera–chitosan combined coating
in blueberries.
3.6 Ascorbic acid
Ascorbic acid is a strong antioxidant and protects fruit
against the damaging effects of reactive oxygen species
(Blokhina et al. 2003). Ascorbic acid degraded in all mango
fruits during storage. Control and CTS samples displayed
more ascorbic acid degradation (p ≤ 0.05) from 21 to 28 days
than CTS + AVG during storage (Fig. 2A). Ascorbic acid
degradation is associated with fruit ripening (Chien et al.
Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology
Fig. 2  Effect of 1% chitosan (CTS), 1% chitosan + aloe vera gel [1:1
v/v] (CTS + AVG), and control on a ascorbic acid content, b weight
loss, c total phenolic content, and (d) antioxidant activity of mango
fruit during storage at 12 ± 1  °C for 28  days followed by simulated
2007), while coatings delay fruit ripening (Benítez et al.
2013). Similarly, coating reduced ascorbic acid degradation
in tomatoes (Mathooko 2003). Moreover, ascorbic acid is an
antioxidant and degrades after reacting with oxygen. There-
fore, avoiding oxygen contact with food could delay oxida-
tive breakdown of ascorbic acid (Ayranci and Tunc 2004).
Consequently, coating restricts the supply of oxygen, thus
keeping oxygen away from the fruit. Furthermore, aloe vera
gel addition may enhance the barrier of chitosan coating to
gas exchange. In addition, CTS + AVG treatment resulted
in higher phenolic content (Fig. 2C). Baldwin et al. (1999)
observed a positive correlation between ascorbic acid con-
tent and the concentration of fruit phenolics. Our results are
in line with Robles-Sánchez et al. (2013), who controlled
ascorbic acid degradation of mango fresh cuts by coating
storage at 25 ± 1  °C for 5  days. Mean values of treatments are pre-
sented in bars for these parameters, n = 5 (except 2b where n = 3).
Means with same letters are not statistically different from each other
by LSD (p ≤ 0.05)
them with antioxidant-incorporated alginates. Similarly, the
combined application of chitosan with calcium chloride fol-
lowed by intermittent warming preserved the level of ascor-
bic acid in peach fruit (Ruoyi et al. 2005). Coating delays
the ripening process and prevents oxygen contact with fruit.
Aloe vera gel addition further enhanced these capabilities
and thus led to higher levels of ascorbic acid in mango fruit.
3.7 Weight loss
Weight loss was significantly controlled by both coating
treatments as compared to the control. However, CTS + AVG
significantly (p ≤ 0.05) reduced weight loss more than CTS
at the end of the storage period (Fig. 2B). Besides financial
losses, weight loss is an important quality indicator, which
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 Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology

yields wilted fruit with less sensory perception. During post-
harvest storage, water loss is responsible for weight reduc-
tion and fruit shriveling (Sogvar et al. 2016). However, it is
well documented that coating restricts water loss and main-
tains high fruit weight during storage (Kittur et al. 2001).
Aloe vera gel increases water holding capacity when mixed
with other edible coating (Chauhan et al. 2015). Addition-
ally, aloe vera added coating suffered less fungal infesta-
tion (Fig. 1A). Fungal infestation disrupts cuticle integrity,
resulting in greater evaporation and more weight loss. This
supports Vieira et al. (2016), who observed weight retention
in blueberry fruit treated with aloe vera gel incorporated into
chitosan coating. Similarly, Qi et al. (2011) found greater
weight retention in apples after coating with chitosan, ascor-
bic acid, and calcium chloride. As a result, this study shows
that mango weight retention can be improved by adding aloe
vera gel to chitosan coating.
3.9 Total soluble solids (TSS)
TSS increased in all fruits during storage (Table 2). How-
ever, the increase was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower in
CTS + AVG treated fruits. During postharvest storage,
starch degrades and is converted to glucose, fructose, and
sucrose, which are identified as the major sugars in mango
fruit (Duan et al. 2011). However, chitosan coating inhib-
its starch degradation and sugar accumulation (Silva et al.
2017). Moreover, edible coating inhibits water loss. Water
loss increases TSS concentration in fruits, which may incor-
rectly be perceived as a true change in fruit TSS (Olivas
and Barbosa-Cánovas 2005). Hydrophobic aloe vera gel
might decrease the permeability of chitosan coating, fur-
ther restricting water loss (Fig. 2B), resulting in low TSS of
CTS + AVG treated fruits.

3.8 Titratable acidity (TA) 3.10 Phenolic content

Titratable acidity (TA) creates sourness in fruit. Table 2
shows a general decline in TA of all treatments, while a
sharp decrease was observed in the control. At the end of the
storage period, CTS + AVG significantly (p ≤ 0.05) reduced
the TA as compared to CTS and control mango fruits. Fruit
TA usually decreases with storage and a sharp TA decline
indicates senescence (Ali et al. 2011). Edible coatings form
a thin layer on fruit surfaces, reducing gas exchange and con-
sequently the fruit respiration rate (Silva et al. 2017). Res-
piration is an enzymatic process and the enzymes involved
in respiration utilize organic acids as a substrate (Yaman
and Bayoindirli 2002). Moreover, a rapid decrease in TA
of control fruit may be attributed to the excessive fungal
population (Fig. 1D), as fungi could also utilize the organic
acids for growth (Vieira et al. 2016).
Phenolic content of all the treatments remarkably increased
in mango flesh and was highly maintained until the end of
the storage period. However, a slight decline in the phenolic
content of the control was observed at the end of the storage
period. Phenolic content was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) retained
in both coated treatments as compared to the control. How-
ever, CTS + AVG maintained significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher
phenolic content than CTS during the entire storage period
(Fig. 2C). The phenolic content was previously reported to
increase in crops treated with chitosan (Agrawal et al. 2002).
Correspondingly, Han et al. (2014) observed an increase in
the phenolic content of sponge gourd treated with chitosan.
Previously, Serrano et al. (2006) reported higher phenolics in
aloe vera gel coated table grapes. Coatings create mild stress
on fruit and composite coating may increase the stress inten-
sity (Han et al. 2014). Therefore, the addition of aloe vera
gel with chitosan coating might synergistically retain the
total phenolic content in mango fruit. Furthermore, phenols

Table 2  Effect of 1% chitosan Treatments Storage days

(CTS), 1% chitosan + aloe vera
gel [1:1 v/v] (CTS + AVG), 0 7 14 21 28 33
and Control on titratable
acidity and total soluble solids Titratable acidity (%)
(TSS) of mango fruit during  Control 0.716a 0.634b 0.560c 0.492e 0.362 g 0.276 h
storage at 12 ± 1 °C for 28 days  CTS 0.728a 0.662b 0.646b 0.572c 0.502de 0.356 g
followed by simulated storage at
25 ± 1 °C for 5 days  CTS + AVG 0.730a 0.668b 0.636b 0.578c 0.540 cd 0.404f
Total soluble solids (TSS)
 Control 11.10j 11.96gh 13.02f 14.80d 15.92c 18.74a
 CTS 11.12j 11.54i 12.00gh 13.76e 15.78c 17.06b
 CTS + AVG 10.96j 11.62hi 12.24 g 13.27e 14.48d 16.14c

Means with the same letters within a column are not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) different using LSD. Mean val-
ues of treatments are presented, n = 5

13
Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology
are antimicrobial compounds used as a first defense response
by the plants against invading microorganisms. The accumu-
lation of phenols in plants increases upon pathogen attack.
Therefore, the increase in phenolic content of all treatments
after 7 days of storage might be a reaction to fungal attack
(Fig. 1D). The decline in phenolic content of the control at
the end of storage might be attributable to the fact that dur-
ing senescence the fruit phenolic content decreases (Palafox-
Carlos et al. 2012). These findings are consistent with Liu
et al. (2007), who observed that phenolic content reached a
maximal value and was maintained until the end in chitosan
treated tomatoes. Similarly, Jongsri et al. (2017) observed
effective retention in the phenolic content of mango treated
with chitosan and spermidine composite coating. This study
shows that combined application of chitosan and aloe vera
synergistically improve the phenolic content of mango fruit.
3.11 Antioxidant activity
Control mango fruit achieved high antioxidant activity
until 14 days of storage and sharply decreased thereaf-
ter. Chitosan coating also maintained high antioxidant
activity until 21 days and decreased gradually afterward.
Conversely, CTS + AVG coated mango fruit sustained
high antioxidant activity during the entire storage period
with peak values after 21 days of storage. The antioxidant
activity of CTS + AVG coated fruit were significantly
(p ≤ 0.05) higher than CTS after 7, 28, and 33 days of
storage (Fig. 2D). Mango is a climacteric fruit and its
respiration is remarkably high during ripening, which
elevates the cellular metabolic activity of fruit. Moreo-
ver, to maintain these metabolic activities, a sufficient
amount of energy is required. Hence, the high respiration
signals the electron transport chain for energy genera-
tion, which leads to the production of reactive oxygen
species (ROS). Therefore, fruit often activate a defense
mechanism to combat ROS and the antioxidant com-
pounds are subsequently synthesized by activation of the
phenylpropanoid pathway (Palafox-Carlos et al. 2012).
This suggests that the increase in respiration rate dur-
ing ripening stimulates fruit antioxidant activity. Control
treatment resulted in a peak respiration rate after 14 days,
while the coated treatments did so after 21 days of storage
(Fig. 1A). Therefore, peak antioxidant activity for control
and coated treatments might be observed on these days,
respectively. In line with this, a positive correlation has
been observed between phenolic content and antioxidant
activity (Reyes and Cisneros-Zevallos 2003). The phe-
nolic content of CTS + AVG was higher than CTS coated
mango fruit (Fig. 2C). Therefore, antioxidant activity of
CTS + AVG might be higher as compared to CTS dur-
ing storage. Moreover, antioxidant activity depends on
fruit physiological status and is reduced during senes-
cence (Ali et al. 2013). Fruit senescence was delayed by
both coatings and comparatively more by CTS + AVG.
Hence, CTS + AVG might sustain high antioxidant activ-
ity without any decline during the whole storage period.
These results match Robles-Sánchez et al. (2013), who
observed an increase in antioxidant capacity of fresh-cut
mango treated with citric and ascorbic acid incorporated
into alginate coating. Furthermore, Palafox-Carlos et al.
(2012) found that antioxidant activity declines during
over-ripening of mango fruit. This study demonstrates
that CTS + AVG maintains high antioxidant activity in
mango fruit during postharvest storage.
4 Conclusion
Together, aloe vera–chitosan coating has great poten-
tial to expand the postharvest storage life of mango fruit
(cv. White Chaunsa). Aloe vera gel in combination with
chitosan coating successfully delayed postharvest decay
incidence and retained quality attributes such as titrat-
able acidity, total soluble solids, firmness, weight loss,
and peel color of the fruit during storage. Moreover, to
our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate that
aloe vera gel incorporated into chitosan coating inhibited
respiration rate and ethylene production, while sustaining
high ascorbic acid, total phenolic content, and antioxidant
activity of mango fruit during storage. This suggests that
chitosan–aloe vera coating improves antimicrobial prop-
erties and decreases permeability to water and gaseous
exchange. Therefore, besides reducing decay incidence,
chitosan–aloe vera coating effectively controls weight loss
and reduces respiration rate and ethylene production, lead-
ing to a delay in fruit ripening and senescence. Therefore,
it is concluded that chitosan–aloe vera combination can be
used to extend the storage life of mango fruit. However,
an in-depth study is needed for successful commercializa-
tion of this new organic, edible coating in the mango fruit
industry.
Acknowledgments  The authors are grateful to the Higher Education
Commission of Pakistan for financially supporting this study.
Authors contribution  The experiment was designed and conducted
by Mr. Sadiq, while Dr. Hashmi supervised the whole process and
analyzed the final data.
Data availability  It is stated that all raw data of this manuscript would
be free available to the interested readers.
13

Compliance with ethical standards  Giovannoni J, Nguyen C, Ampofo B, Zhong S, Fei Z (2017) The epig-
Conflict of interest  It is stated that there is no conflict of interest be-
tween the authors of this manuscript.
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