American Welding Society

Petrochemical  Service  
Heat  Treatments
 Presentation  Overview
• Requirements  for  Petrochemical  Heat  Treatments
– Mitigation  of  Corrosion
• Sulfide  Induced  Stress  Corrosion  Cracking
• Hydrogen  Embrittlement
• Caustic  Embrittlement
– Improved  Toughness  in  Cold  Service
• C  Mn  Pressure  Vessel  Steel  

– Local  Heat  Treatment  Principals

• Temperature  Measurement
• Local  Heat  Treating  Practices
• The  Hill  Number  

– Local  Furnaces  for  Heat  Treatments

• Case  History  Examples

• Questions  &  Discussion  

 Sulfide  Induced  SCC
• Sulfur  chemical  properties  are  dominated  by  its  
p  sub-­‐shell  electrons
• Hydrogen  sulfide  is  a  common  constituent  found  
in  petrochemical  service
• Hydrogen  sulfide  tends  to  diffuse  into  the  
surface  of  steel
• The  presence  of  hydrogen  sulfide  in  the  surface  
of  the  steel  causes  the  steel  to  become  brittle  
• This  embrittlement  in  combination  with  residual  
will  result  in  crack  failures  of  steel  components  
 Hydrogen  Embrittlement
• In  some  refinery  and  petrochemical  
processes  metal  surfaces  are  exposed  to  
hydrogen  at  high  temperatures
• In  other  processes,  metal  surfaces  are  
exposed  to  very  strong  acids  such  as  
hydrofluoric  or  sulfuric  acid  
• In  such  cases,  hydrogen  may  diffuse  into  the  
metal  causing  the  metal  to  lose  ductility
• Both  PWHT  and  hydrogen  bake  out  prior  to  
weld  repairs  is  required  in  these  services  
 Caustic  Embrittlement
• Metal  surfaces  exposed  to  very  strong  caustic  
environments  can  also  suffer  embrittlement
• In  such  cases,  residual  welding  stress  is  a  
critical  component  to  crack  initiation  and  
eventual  component  failure
• Any  environment  that  is  prone  to  metal  
embrittlement  requires  that  all  weld  receive  
PWHT  to  reduce  residual  stresses  
 Loss  of  Steel  Toughness  at  Low  Temperatures  
• As  temperatures  decrease,  d  subshell  electrons  become  
less  free
• All  metals  lose  ductility  at  low  temperatures
• Many  refinery  and  petrochemical  processes  operate  at  
low  design  temperatures
• In  such  services,  weld  and  HAZ  metal  must  be  heat  
treated  to  reduce  hardness  and  improve  ductility
• Even  in  processes  where  normal  vessel  and  pipe  
operation  is  at  moderate  temperatures,  very  low  
temperatures  can  be  generated  by  a  sudden  
depressuring  of  the  process
• This  phenomena  can  be  demonstrated  with  a  common  
CO2 fire  extinguisher
 Heat  Treatment  in  Petrochemical  Services
• Normally,  only  thick  walled  common  grades  of  carbon  
steel  pipe  require  post  weld  stress  relief  
• However  in  services  where  hydrogen  sulfide,  
hydrogen,  caustic  or  low  temperatures  are  possible,  
all  welds,  regardless  of  wall  thickness  require  PWHT
• Post  bending  heat  treatments  are  also  required
• In  the  U.S.A.,  the  majority  of  heat  treatment  work  
performed  is  associated  with  petrochemical  service
• This  field  includes  gas  and  oil  production  systems,  
pipelines,  gas  treating  plants,  refineries  and  many  
petrochemical  facilities    
 Local  Heat  Treatments  Principals
• Pipe  welding  is  a  very  common  requirement  in  
petrochemical  facilities  and  fabrication  facilities  
servicing  petrochemical  plants  
• Where  possible,  furnace  PWHT  of  welds  is  preferred
• Field  welds  require  local  heat  treatment  methods
• In  the  U.S.A.,  use  of  resistance  heating  elements  is  
the  method  most  commonly  applied
• Induction  and  radiant  heating  equipment  is  also  
commonly  used
• A  key  issue  in  the  local  heat  treatment  of  pipe  in  
petrochemical  service  is  to  insure  complete  relief  of  
stress  on  the  interior  surfaces  of  the  pipe    
 Temperature  Measurement
• Accurate  control  of  all  heat  treatment  processes  requires  reliable  
metal  temperature  measurement
• The  first  rule  of  temperature  measurement  is  to  avoid  heating  the  
work  piece  above  the  lower  critical  transformation  temperature
• For  this  reason,  the  heat  input  source  control  thermocouple  is  
always  located  where  the  highest  temperature  is  expected
• Each  heat  input  zone  must  be  controlled  by  its  own  control  
thermocouple
• Research  has  shown  the  only  reliable  method  for  installing  
thermocouples  is  to  weld  the  thermocouple  to  the  work  piece  
using  a  capacitor  discharge  Thermocouple  Attachment  Unit  (TAU)
• When  two  dissimilar  metal  wires  are  welded  to  a  work  piece  
about  6  mm  apart,  the  piece  becomes  the  thermocouple  junction
• The  Code  bodies  allow  these  low  energy  welds  to  be  performed  
on  the  work  surface  on  condition  the  weld  area  is  ground  away  
once  the  thermocouple  is  removed  
 Capacitor  Discharge  TAUs
• The  first  TAUs  were  introduced  by  Cooperheat  in  the  early  1970s

• Today  there  are  many  manufacturers  of  TAUs

• After  the  thermocouple  wires  are  welded  to  the  surface,  the  junction  
must  be  shielded  from  the  heat  source  to  prevent  an  inaccurate  reading
• Thermocouple  junctions  must  also  be  covered  by  insulation,  a  junction  
exposed  to  the  cold  environment  will  be  inaccurate
• Preheating  metal  surface  prior  to  TC  welding  will  insure  good  fusion
• It  is  important  to  file  or  grind  the  surface  to  remove  scale  and  
contamination  prior  to  TC  installation  
 Thermocouple  Placement
• The  AWS  D10.10  committee  document  on  
recommended  local  heat  treatment  practices  
provides  details  on  recommended  practices  for  
the  placement  of  control  and  monitoring  
thermocouples  
• This  document  also  provides  guidance  on  the  
number  of  heat  input  zones  for  various  pipe  
diameters
• It  is  important  to  remember  that  to  assure  
proper  completion  of  heat  treatments,  the  
reliability  of  temperature  measurement  means  
is  critical
 Through  Wall  Temperature  Gradients
• Stress  corrosion  cracking  occurs  at  the  pipe  interior
• As  a  result,  it  is  critical  for  all  post  weld  stress  is  relieved  at  the  interior  surfaces  
of  the  pipe  joints
• Experience  has  shown  in  many  cases,  stress  corrosion  cracking  still  occurs  in  
pipe  following  local  PWHT
• Research  conducted  to  address  this  issue  revealed  large  metal  temperature  
differences  between  pipe  exterior  and  interior  surfaces  

Nearly  52  °C

Nearly  67  °C  

 Radiation  &  Convection  Losses
• Test  results  indicated  interior  temperatures  were  not  sufficient  to  relieve  all  weld  
induced  stress  on  pipe  interior  surfaces
• Further  tests  revealed  large  through  wall  temperature  gradients  existed  even  with  
thin  walled  pipe
• To  determine  radiation  and  convection  heat  losses  on  interior  metal  surface  
temperatures,  a  test  was  performed  with  a  insulation  plug  place  inside  the  pipe
• The  solid  plug  of  insulation  prevented  both  radiant  and  convection  heat  loss  from  
the  pipe  interior  surfaces

Only  3.3  °C

Only  13.3  °C  

 Theoretical  Approach  to  Through  Wall  △T
• To  achieve  proper  stress  relief,  minimum  stress  relief  metal  
temperature  must  be  achieved  in  the  weld  metal  and  the  HAZ
• The  volume  of  metal  to  be  heat  treated  is  called  the  soak  zone
• The  soak  zone  extends  two  wall  thicknesses  from  the  weld  center
• Heat  transferred  from  the  soak  zone  is  the  sum  of  three  distinct  
heat  transfer  mechanisms;  conduction,  convection  and  radiation  
• Although  heat  transferred  into  a  weldment  may  be  uniform,  
temperature  uniformity  of  the  work  piece  is  also  controlled  by  the  
rate  of  heat  loss
• During  local  heat  treatments  using  resistance  elements,  induction  
or  radiant  heaters,  adequate  temperature  uniformity  may  not  be  
achieved  unless  non-­‐uniform  rates  of  heat  loss  are  addressed
 Conduction  Heat  Loss
• Metals  are  an  efficient  conductor  of  heat
• As  metal  temperatures  increase,  d  subshell  electrons  are  
excited
• Since  these  electrons  are  not  tightly  held  to  each  nucleus,  
they  move  and  excite  electrons  of  neighboring  atoms
• Conductive  heat  transfer  is  represented  by  the  equation
Qc =  kc Ac dt/dx
• Qc  is  the  rate  of  conductive  heat  transfer  in  kW/hr
• kc  is  the  coefficient  of  conductivity  for  the  metal
• Ac is  the  metal  area  through  which  the  heat  is  transferred
• dt/dx  is  the  temperature  gradient  through  the  metal
 Convection  Heat  Loss
• Heat  will  be  transferred  from  a  hot  metal  surface  to  air  in  
contact  with  that  surface
• Convective  heat  transfer  is  represented  by  the  equation
Qcv =  hcv Acv ∆T  
• Qcv is  the  rate  of  convective  heat  transfer  in  kW/hr
• hcv is  a  coefficient  unique  to  conditions  at  the  metal  surface
• Acv  is  the  metal  area  in  contact  with  the  air
• ∆T  is  the  temperature  difference  between  the  metal  and  air
 Radiation  Heat  Loss
• Heat  will  be  transferred  from  a  hot  metal  surface  to  other  
surfaces  in  view  by  radiation
• As  electrons  of  a  hot  metal  move  from  an  excited  orbitals  to  
lower  orbitals,  electromagnetic  radiation  is  generated
• Radiant  heat  transfer  is  represented  by  the  equation
Qr =  hr Ar (Th4 – Tc4)  
• Qr is  the  rate  of  radiant  heat  transfer  in  kW/hr
• hr  is  a  coefficient  unique  to  conditions  at  the  metal  surface
• Ar is  the  metal  area  from  which  the  heat  is  radiating
• Th is  temperature  of  the  hot  metal  surface
• Tc   is  temperature  of  cold  surfaces  in  view  of  the  hot  surface
 Dynamic  Heat  Balance
• At  a  constant  temperature,  heat  entering  a  volume  of  metal  
is  equal  to  heat  leaving  the  volume
Qhs =  Qc +  Qcv +Qr  
• Qhs  is  the  rate  of  heat  input  from  the  heating  source
• Heat  input  is  controlled  on  the  pipe  top  outside  surface
• This  is  the  hottest  part  of  the  pipe,  it  is  important  to  limit  
the  hottest  part  of  the  pipe  to  avoid  exceeding  the  lower  
critical  temperature
• Because  of  convection  currents  inside  the  pipe,  cooler  air  is  
drawn  toward  the  soak  zone  along  the  bottom  of  the  pipe
• Hot  air  flows  away  from  soak  zone  along  the  pipe  top  inside  
 Non-­‐Uniform  Temperatures
• As  a  result,  the  heat  loss  rate  on  the  bottom  inside  surfaces  
of  the  soak  zone  is  much  greater
• With  separate  control  zones  on  the  pipe  top  and  bottom,  
large  through  wall  temperature  gradients  still  occur
 Research  Findings
• Heavier  walled  pipe  has  increased  conductive  losses
• Weld  joints  is  between  thicker  and  thinner  wall  components  
have  greater  heat  loss  through  the  heavier  walled  section
• Convection  and  radiation  losses  increase  with  pipe  diameter
• Radiation  losses  increase  with  increased  temperatures
• As  a  result,  to  achieve  temperature  uniformity,  heat  input  
must  be  matched  with  heat  losses  
• Rates  of  heat  loss  by  conduction,  convection  and  radiation  
are  all  a  function  of  a  constant,  an  area  and  a  temperature  
gradient    
 Hill  Number
• A  local  heat  treatment  with  good  temperature  uniformity  
will  have  a  small  temperature  gradient
• Heat  transfer  coefficients  for  conduction,  convection  and  
radiation  cannot  not  be  easily  changes,  they  are  constants
• Research  findings  showed  the  area  of  heat  input  divided  by  
the  sum  of  heat  loss  areas  predicts  temperature  uniformity  
• This  area  ratio  is  the  Hill  Number  expressed  by  the  equation
Hi =  Ahs /  (Ac +  Acv +  Ar)
• The  Hill  Number  is  dimensionless,  it  can  be  applied  to  pipe  
of  all  sizes  and  configurations  
 Hill  Number  Logic
• Remember,  a  local  heat  treatment  is  essentially  a  furnace  
built  around  the  weld  metal  to  be  heat  treated
• A large  component  extending  out  both  ends  of  a  furnace,  
would  not  have  good  temperature  uniformity
• However,  in  a  very  long  furnace,  there  would  be  good  
temperature  uniformity  at  the  furnace  center    
• Research  showed  for  PWHT  of  horizontal  pipe  a  Hill  Number  
of  5  would  provide  good  temperature  uniformity
• As  the  previous  example  of  test  results  showed,  blocking  the  
area  of  convective  and  radiant  heat  loss  on  the  pipe  interior  
with  an  insulation  plug  will  provide  good  temperature  
uniformity  with  a  Hill  Number  of  less  than  2
 Hill  Number  Rules
• When  treating  pipe  joints  with  different  wall  thicknesses,  
more  heat  input  area  is  required  on  the  thick  walled  side  of  
the  soak  zone
• When  treating  joints  with  a  diameter  change,  more  heat  
input  area  is  required  on  the  larger  ID  side  of  the  joint
• A  weld  joint  near  an  elbow  where  a  portion  of  the  soak  zone  
is  in  view  of  colder  surfaces  down  the  elbow,  more  heat  
input  area  is  required  on  the  elbow  side  of  the  joint    
• Heat  treatment  of  a  weld  joint  on  a  vertical  pipe  requires  
twice  the  heat  input  area  below  the  joint  to  compensate  for  
convection  losses
 Insulation
• Insulation  plays  a  critical  role  in  minimizing  heat  loss  
from  the  exterior  surfaces  of  the  soak  zone,  the  heated  
zone  and  the  gradient  control  zone
• Two  layers  of  insulation  provided  the  best  results
• It  is  important  to  always  lap  joints  in  the  insulation
• Where  ever  possible,  insulating  the  interior  surfaces  of  
the  pipe  or  work  piece  is  preferred
• A  good  indication  of  temperature  uniformity  during  the  
soak  period  is  a  very  low  rate  of  heat  source  input
• If  very  little  heat  input  is  required  to  maintain  the  soak  
temperature,  heat  losses  are  low  and  therefore  
uniformity  is  very  good
 Local  Furnaces  for  Heat  Treatments
• Frequently  it  is  not  practical  to  furnace  heat  treat  
vessels  or  piping  at  the  fabrication  facility
• Repair  welding  in  the  petrochemical  sector  is  also  
common
• For  large  vessels  and  field  fabricated  piping,  
assembly  of  local  furnaces  is  often  a  good  solution
• The  following  slides  provide  a  number  of  case  
histories  of  typical  applications  
 Non-­‐Traditional  Furnaces  
• Large  pressure  vessels  are  often  too  large  for  heat  
treatment  in  a  conventional  furnace
• Insulating  the  vessel  and  installing  high  velocity  gas  
burners  can  effectively  heat  treat  such  vessels

Insulated  Storage  Sphere                                                                          High  Velocity  Burner                                                                          

 Case  History  
• After  the  vessel  is  insulated  the  high  velocity  burner  is  
installed  at  the  top  of  the  vessel,  combustions  gas  is  
exhausted  from  the  vessel  bottom
• Provisions  are  made  with  the  supports  to  allow  for  
thermal  growth

Burner  Installed  in  Vessel                                                    Depiction  of  Heat  Treatment                                                  

 Use  of  Temporary  Furnaces    
• Vessels  already  in  place  may  be  heat  treated  by  
building  a  furnace  around  the  vessel
• Large  gas  separators  on  an  offshore  platform  were  
heat  treated  in  this  manner
• Cost  to  remove  separator  vessels  from  the  platform  
was  excessive
• Months  of  platform  outage  were  saved  by  
performance  of  in  situ  heat  treatment
 Build  in  Place  Electric  Furnace
• Offshore  platform  vessels  required  major  weld  modifications
• Weld  modifications  required  a  furnace  heat  treatment
• An  electric  furnace  was  built  around  the  vessel

Separator  vessels                                    Temporary  Furnace                                          Roof  placement

on  platform                                                    wall  construction                                                        on  furnace                                              
 HF  Alkylation  Tower  Case  Study
• Refinery  HF  Alkylation    
tower  required  weld  
repairs
• Hydrogen  bakeout  
was  performed  prior  
to  welding  at  450  °C
• Preheat  was  applied  
at  93  °C
• PWHT  was  performed  
at  620  °C  via  multiple  
zones  of  electric  four  
bank  heaters
 Hydrogen  Reformer  Crack  Repair
• After  many  years  of  service,  a  
header  on  a  hydrogen  reformer  
furnace  cracked
• Time  to  secure  a  replacement  
header  would  seriously  impair  
refinery  output
• Before  weld  repairs  could  be  
performed,    the  HK  40  metal’s  
ductility  needed  to  be  restored  
by  performance  of  a  solution  
annealing  heat  treatment  at  
1,175  °C
 HK40  Annealing
• The  crack  on  the  hydrogen  
reformer  furnace  header  was  at  
the  weld  between  the  outlet  
header  and  an  elbow  
• The  elbow  was  removed  and  
sent  to  a  furnace  for  heat  
treatment
• Before  the  elbow  could  be  
reinstalled,  it  was  necessary  to  
anneal  both  the  outlet  header  
and  the  reducer  fitting  on  the  
outlet  piping
 Special  Resistance  Element  Design
• To  insure  proper  heat  input  to  the  outlet  reducer  a  custom  resistance  
heater  was  designed  and  fabricated
• Conventional  resistance  heaters  were  installed  on  the  end  of  the  
furnace  header
• The  heaters  and  insulation  were  installed  in  a  manner  allowing  quick  
removal  to  for  rapid  air  cooling  at  completion  of  the  soak  period
 Large  Propylene  Tower  Seam  Weld  PWHT
• A  6  meter  diameter  propylene  fractionator  was  fabricated  in  
sections  and  shipped  to  the  erection  site
• Pressure  vessel  plate  (SA  516-­‐70)  of  70mm  thickness  was  used
• A  local  furnace  using  resistance  elements  was  built  at  each  joint

Two  Vessel  Sections                                                  Interior  Resistance  Elements  Installed  

Questions
&
Discussion