5.

3 Chemical Effect – Electric Cells

What can you do with a potato?
Understandings

• Cells
• Internal resistance
• Secondary cells
• Terminal potential difference
• Emf
Applications and skills
• Investigating practical electric cells (both primary and
secondary)
• Describing the discharge characteristic of a simple cell
(variation of terminal potential difference with time)
• Identifying the direction of current flow required to recharge a
cell
• Determining internal resistance experimentally
• Solving problems involving emf, internal resistance and other
electrical quantities
Electric Cells
• Electric cells operate as direct current (DC) devices that drive
charges in one direction.
• The electron charge carriers leave the negative terminal of the
cell and re-enter the cell at the positive terminal.
• The positive terminal has a higher potential than the negative
terminal.
• A current will be driven around a circuit when a cell is connected.
• The chemical energy of the battery is eventually converted into
thermal energy (wires), into mechanical work (motor) and into
chemical again if it is used to charge another battery in the
external circuit.
• Within the cell itself, negative charge carriers are pushed from
the negative to the positive terminal. This requires work that
must be done on the charge carriers. This work is provided by the
chemical energy stored in the energy and is released by chemical
reactions taking place inside the battery.
Ideal vs Real Cells
Ideal Battery Real Battery

What is the difference between them?

Electromotive Force and Internal Resistance
• The electromotive force () or e.m.f. is the work done per unit
charge in moving charge from one terminal of the battery to
the other. The unit of emf is the volt, V.

• Batteries and cells have an internal resistance (r) which is

measured in ohms (). When electricity flows round a circuit
the internal resistance of the cell itself resists the flow of
current and so thermal (heat) energy is wasted in the cell
itself.
𝜀 = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟)
Where
•  = electromotive force in volts, V
• I = current in amperes, A
• R = resistance of the load in the circuit in ohms, 
• r = internal resistance of the cell in ohms, 
Internal Resistance and terminal potential difference

Since 𝜀 = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟)
• We can rearrange the above equation;
𝜀 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟
• and then to 𝜀 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟

• In this equation (𝑉 ) appears which is the terminal potential

difference, measured in volts (V).
• This is the potential difference across the terminals of the cell
when current is flowing in the circuit, it is always less than the
e.m.f. of the cell.
Internal Resistance
• In reality, no real device is a perfect source of electrical energy.
• Some energy is dissipated within the source as work is done by
the charges to overcome the internal resistance.
• Potential drop occurs across this internal resistance such that the
terminal p.d. (V) is lower than the emf ().
• V =  - Ir
 Internal Resistance

• When the source is connected to an external circuit, the terminal

p.d. of source is reduced by the amount Ir.
• When the current I through a source is zero, (open circuit), the
terminal p.d. V will be equal to the e.m.f. 
• When the internal resistance is negligibly small or zero, the terminal
p.d. V will also be equal to the e.m.f. .
TOK - Modelling
Can you give an example of a model which was used in this
unit?
• The model of a cell with a fixed internal resistance and a
constant emf is an example of modelling.
• In this case, the model is a simple one that cannot be realised
in practice.
• Can you name another model which we used earlier?
• Ideal Ammeters and Ideal voltmeters
• Scientists frequently begin with a very simple model of a
system and then explore the possibilities that this model can
offer in terms of analysis and behaviour.
• The next step is to make the model more complicated and to
see how much complexity is needed before the model
resembles the real system that is being modelled.
 Experiment 5.3
To investigate the internal resistance of a battery

• Suggest an experiment to deduce the internal resistance of

the battery using a voltmeter, an ammeter and a resistor.
Example
The p.d. across the terminals of a cell is 3.0 volts when it is
not connected to a circuit and no current is flowing. When
the cell is connected to a circuit and a current of 0.37 A is
flowing the terminal p.d. falls to 2.8 V. What is the internal
resistance of the cell?

r = 0.54 
Primary and Secondary Cells
What is the difference?
Primary and Secondary Cells
• Batteries are either primary or secondary.
• Primary batteries can be used only once because the chemical
reactions that supply the electrical current are irreversible.
• Secondary (or storage) batteries can be used, charged, and
reused. In these batteries, the chemical reactions that supply
electrical current are readily reversed so that the battery is
charged.
• Primary batteries are common since they are cheap and easy
to use. Familiar primary battery uses are in flashlights,
watches, toys, and radios.
• The most common use for secondary (storage) batteries is for
starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) in automobiles and engine-
generator sets. Other applications include uninterruptible
power supplies (UPSs) for emergency and backup power,
electric vehicles (traction), telecommunications, and portable
tools.
Chemistry of a primary cell
Leclanché cell
• It is a primary cell invented by
Georges Leclanché in 1886.
• Zinc atoms on the inside surface of
the case oxidize to become positive
ions. They then begin to move away
from the inside of the case through
the chloride paste leaving the case
negatively charged.
• When the cell is connected to an
external circuit, these electrons
move around the circuit eventually
reaching the carbon rod.
• A reaction inside the cell uses these
electrons together with the
components of the cell eventually
forming the waste products of the
cell.
Chemistry of a secondary cell
Lead-acid accumulator
• It was invented by Gaston Planté in 1859.
• In its charged state, the cell consists of two plates, one of
metallic lead, the other of lead (IV) oxide immersed I a bath of
dilute sulphuric acid.
• During discharge when the cell is supplying current to an
external circuit, the lead plate reacts with the acid to form
lead (II) sulphate and the production of two free electrons.
• At the oxide plate, electrons are gained and lead (II) sulphate
is formed. The liquid surrounding the plates becomes dilute.
• During charging, electrons are forced from the positive plate
by an external circuit and forced onto the negative plate.
• The charge-recharge cycle can be repeated many times.
Investigate: Discharge of a cell
Set up a circuit to investigate how the terminal volatge across
the cell varies with time from the start of the discharge.

Voltage senor and

resistor data logger
Investigate: Charging of a cell
Recharging a cell
Consider the circuit shown which
shows a battery with emf 2.0 V being
charged.
Determine the current I flowing in the
circuit.
12-2-6I-2I-6I-2I = 0
I = 0.625 A
Calculate the power generated by the
battery.
P = (12)(0.625) = 7.5 W

Determine the total power dissipated

by the resistors.
P = (16)(0.625)2 = 6.25 W

Determine the power of the 2.0V

battery. P = (-0.625)(2.0) = -1.25 W
The -1.25 W is stored in the 2.0 V battery that is being charged.
The negative sign for the power means that this is power being stored and
being dissipated.
Discharging a cell
A cell is connected to an external
resistor and the terminal voltage is
monitored.
The following are the distinctive
features of the graph:
• The larger the current, the faster
the cell discharges.
• After an initial drop in p.d., the
terminal voltage remains constant
until the capacity of the cell is
exhausted.
• At the end, there is a sudden drop
in p.d.
• The gentle drop can be explained
by an increasing internal
resistance.
Example
A car battery has an e.m.f of 12.0V. When a car is started, the battery
supplies a current of 105A to the starter motor. The terminal potential
difference between the battery terminals drops at this time to 10.8V
due to the internal resistance.
Calculate
a) The internal resistance of the battery.
b) The manufacturer warns against short-circuiting the battery.
(i) Calculate the current which would flow if the terminals
were to be short-circuited.
(ii) Calculate the power dissipated if short-circuiting occurs.
c) When completely discharged, the battery can be fully recharged
by a current of 2.5A supplied for 20 hours.
(i) How much charge is stored in the battery?
(ii) For how long could the motor be operated on a fully
charged battery? Assume that the motor could be operated
continuously.

(a) 0.0114 (bi) 1050A (bii) 12600 W (ci) Q=1.8 x 105C (cii) 28.6 min
Homework
Cambridge pg 230
Pg 230 Q30, 32, 33, 35 and 36