PLANTS AND ANIMAL ORGAN

SYSTEM
GAS EXCHANGE, TRANSPORT AND CIRCULATION
 GAS EXCHANGE

• THE DIFFUSION OF GASES FROM AN AREA OF HIGHER CONCENTRATION TO AN

AREA OF LOWER CONCENTRATION, ESPECIALLY THE EXCHANGE OF OXYGEN
AND CARBON DIOXIDE BETWEEN AN ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT. IN
PLANTS, GAS EXCHANGE TAKES PLACE DURING PHOTOSYNTHESIS. IN
ANIMALS, GASES ARE EXCHANGED DURING RESPIRATION.
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS IS A KEY BIOLOGICAL PROCESS THAT INVOLVES THE EXCHANGE OF
CARBONDIOXIDE AND OXYGEN.

RESPIRATIO
release carbon dioxide into the surrounding atmosphere and take up oxygen while
respiration.
N
All living things obtain the energy they need by metabolizing energy-rich compounds,
such as carbohydrates and fats. In most organisms, this metabolism takes place by respiration,
a process that requires oxygen. In the process, carbon dioxide gas is produced and must be
removed from the body. In plant cells, carbon dioxide may appear to be a waste product of
respiration, too, but because it is used in photosynthesis, carbon dioxide may be considered a
by-product. Carbon dioxide must be available to plant cells, and oxygen gas must be removed.
Gas exchange is thus an essential process in energy metabolism, and gas exchange is an
essential prerequisite to life, because where energy is lacking, life cannot continue.
 GAS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
Plants use oxygen to respire, and release carbon dioxide by the process in exchange. In
comparison to people and animals, plants do not have any specialized gas exchange
mechanisms, but they do have stomata located in leaves and lenticels located in stems that are
actively involved in the gaseous exchange.
Although plants are complex organisms, they exchange their gases with the
environment in a rather straightforward way. In aquatic plants, water passes among the tissues
and provides the medium for gas exchange. In terrestrial plants, air enters the tissues, and the
gases diffuse into the moisture bathing the internal cells. In plants, oxygen and carbon dioxide
diffuse through the stomata and the intercellular spaces of the leaves, and the lenticels of the
bark.
 GAS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
•LEAF
- In the leaf of the plant, an abundant supply of carbon dioxide must be present, and oxygen from
photosynthesis must be removed. Gases do not pass through the cuticle of the leaf; they pass
through pores called stomata in the cuticle and epidermis. Each stoma (or stomate) is surrounded by
two specialized structures called guard cells. These two cells are attached together at each end of
both cells. Stomata are abundant on the lower surface of the leaf, and they normally open during the
day when the rate of photosynthesis is highest. Physiological changes in the surrounding guard cells
account for the opening and closing of the stomata.
-
•LENTICELS
-In a woody stem, gas exchange is –impeded, except at lenticels, which are pockets of loosely arranged
cork cells not impregnated with suberin.
LEAF
LENTICEL
 GAS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS
•In animals, gas exchange follows the same general pattern as in plants. Oxygen and carbon dioxide
move by diffusion across moist membranes.
•Gas exchange in animals refers to the process by which oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are
exchanged between the animal’s body and the environment. This process is essential for the animal’s
survival because oxygen is needed for cellular respiration, which produces ATP, the energy currency
of cells, and carbon dioxide is a waste product that must be eliminated from the body.
•Overall, gas exchange is a vital process that allows animals to obtain the oxygen they need to survive
and eliminate waste carbon dioxide from their bodies
 GAS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS

• SKIN
- EARTHWORMS EXCHANGE OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE DIRECTLY THROUGH
THEIR SKIN. THE OXYGEN DIFFUSES INTO TINY BLOOD VESSELS IN THE SKIN
SURFACE, WHERE IT COMBINES WITH THE RED PIGMENT HEMOGLOBIN.
HEMOGLOBIN BINDS LOOSELY TO OXYGEN AND CARRIES IT THROUGH THE
ANIMAL’S BLOODSTREAM. CARBON DIOXIDE IS TRANSPORTED BACK TO THE SKIN
BY THE HEMOGLOBIN.
•SPIRACLES
-TERRESTRIAL ARTHROPODS HAVE A SERIES OF OPENINGS CALLED SPIRACLES AT
THE BODY SURFACE. SPIRACLES OPEN INTO TINY AIR TUBES CALLED TRACHEAE,
WHICH EXPAND INTO FINE BRANCHES THAT EXTEND INTO ALL PARTS OF THE
ARTHROPOD BODY.
• GILLS
-FISHES USE OUTWARD EXTENSIONS OF THEIR BODY SURFACE CALLED GILLS FOR
GAS EXCHANGE. GILLS ARE FLAPS OF TISSUE RICHLY SUPPLIED WITH BLOOD
VESSELS. AS A FISH SWIMS, IT DRAWS WATER INTO ITS MOUTH AND ACROSS THE
GILLS. OXYGEN DIFFUSES OUT OF THE WATER INTO THE BLOOD VESSELS OF THE
GILL, WHILE CARBON DIOXIDE LEAVES THE BLOOD VESSELS AND ENTERS THE
WATER PASSING BY THE GILLS.
• LUNGS
-TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATES SUCH AS AMPHIBIANS, REPTILES, BIRDS, AND
MAMMALS HAVE WELL-DEVELOPED RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS WITH LUNGS. FROGS
SWALLOW AIR INTO THEIR LUNGS, WHERE OXYGEN DIFFUSES INTO THE BLOOD TO
JOIN WITH HEMOGLOBIN IN THE RED BLOOD CELLS. AMPHIBIANS CAN ALSO
EXCHANGE GASES THROUGH THEIR SKIN. REPTILES HAVE FOLDED LUNGS TO
PROVIDE INCREASED SURFACE AREA FOR GAS EXCHANGE. RIB MUSCLES ASSIST
LUNG EXPANSION AND PROTECT THE LUNGS FROM INJURY.
• AIR SACS
-BIRDS HAVE LARGE AIR SPACES CALLED AIR SACS IN THEIR LUNGS. WHEN A BIRD
INHALES, ITS RIB CAGE SPREADS APART AND A PARTIAL VACUUM IS CREATED IN
THE LUNGS. AIR RUSHES INTO THE LUNGS AND THEN INTO THE AIR SACS, WHERE
MOST OF THE GAS EXCHANGE OCCURS. THIS SYSTEM IS BIRDS’ ADAPTATION TO
THE RIGORS OF FLIGHT AND THEIR EXTENSIVE METABOLIC DEMANDS.
THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM CONSISTS OF A
COMPLEX SET OF ORGANS AND TISSUES THAT CAPTURE
OXYGEN FROM THE ENVIRONMENT AND TRANSPORT THE
OXYGEN INTO THE LUNGS. THE ORGANS AND TISSUES
THAT COMPRISE THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
INCLUDE THE NOSE, PHARYNX, TRACHEA, AND LUNGS.
• NOSE
-THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF HUMANS BEGINS WITH THE NOSE, WHERE AIR IS
CONDITIONED BY WARMING AND MOISTENING. BONE PARTITIONS SEPARATE THE
NASAL CAVITY INTO CHAMBERS, WHERE AIR SWIRLS ABOUT IN CURRENTS. HAIRS
AND HAIRLIKE CILIA TRAP DUST PARTICLES AND PURIFY THE AIR.
• PHARYNX
-THE NASAL CHAMBERS OPEN INTO A CAVITY AT THE REAR OF THE MOUTH
CALLED THE PHARYNX (THROAT). FROM THE PHARYNX, TWO TUBES CALLED
EUSTACHIAN TUBES OPEN TO THE MIDDLE EAR TO EQUALIZE AIR PRESSURE
THERE. THE PHARYNX ALSO CONTAINS TONSILS AND ADENOIDS, WHICH ARE
POCKETS OF LYMPHATIC TISSUE USED TO TRAP AND FILTER MICROORGANISMS.
• TRACHEA
-AFTER PASSING THROUGH THE PHARYNX, AIR PASSES INTO THE WINDPIPE, OR TRACHEA. THE
OPENING TO THE TRACHEA IS A SLIT-LIKE STRUCTURE CALLED THE GLOTTIS. A THIN FLAP OF TISSUE
CALLED THE EPIGLOTTIS FOLDS OVER THE OPENING DURING SWALLOWING AND PREVENTS FOOD
FROM ENTERING THE TRACHEA. AT THE UPPER END OF THE TRACHEA, SEVERAL FOLDS OF
CARTILAGE FORM THE LARYNX, OR VOICE BOX. IN THE LARYNX, FLAPLIKE PAIRS OF TISSUES
CALLED VOCAL CORDS VIBRATE WHEN A PERSON EXHALES AND PRODUCE SOUNDS. AT ITS LOWER
END, THE TRACHEA BRANCHES INTO TWO LARGE BRONCHI (SINGULAR, BRONCHUS). THESE TUBES
ALSO HAVE SMOOTH MUSCLE AND CARTILAGE RINGS. THE BRONCHI BRANCH INTO SMALLER
BRONCHIOLES, FORMING A BRONCHIAL TREE.” THE BRONCHIOLES TERMINATE IN THE ALVEOLI.
• LUNGS
-HUMAN LUNGS ARE COMPOSED OF APPROXIMATELY 300 MILLION ALVEOLI. RED
BLOOD CELLS PASS THROUGH THE CAPILLARIES IN SINGLE FILE, AND OXYGEN
FROM EACH ALVEOLUS ENTERS THE RED BLOOD CELLS AND BINDS TO THE
HEMOGLOBIN. IN ADDITION, CARBON DIOXIDE CONTAINED IN THE PLASMA AND RED
BLOOD CELLS LEAVES THE CAPILLARIES AND ENTERS THE ALVEOLI WHEN A BREATH
IS TAKEN. MOST CARBON DIOXIDE REACHES THE ALVEOLI AS BICARBONATE IONS,
AND ABOUT 25 PERCENT OF IT IS BOUND LOOSELY TO HEMOGLOBIN.
ANIMALS, DURING RESPIRATION, TAKE IN OXYGEN AND RELEASE
CARBON DIOXIDE GAS. PLANTS, ON THE OTHER HAND, UTILIZE THIS
CARBON DIOXIDE GAS IN THE PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS TO
PRODUCE FOOD AND RELEASE OXYGEN IN THE ATMOSPHERE. THUS, WE
CAN SAY THAT PLANTS AND ANIMALS HELP EACH OTHER IN EXCHANGE
OF GASES IN THE ATMOSPHERE.
 TRANSPORT SYSTEM

-THE BIOLOGICAL SUCCESS OF THE MULTICELLULAR BODY PLAN LIES IN ITS CAPACITY
FOR TISSUE DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALISATION OF FUNCTION. DIFFERENTIATED
ORGANS AND TISSUES, IN FULFILLING THEIR SPECIALISED ACTIVITIES ON BEHALF OF THE
WHOLE ORGANISM, CANNOT ACT AUTONOMOUSLY. THE FUNCTIONS ARE CO-ORDINATED
(PART V) TO PROVIDE AN INTEGRATED RESPONSE TO THE NEEDS OF THE ORGANISM. A
FURTHER FEATURE OF THE DIFFERENTIATED ORGANISM IS THE PRESENCE OF A
TRANSPORT SYSTEM WHICH CARRIES METABOLIC SUBSTRATES TO THE CELLS OF THE
ORGANISM AND LIKEWISE DISTRIBUTES METABOLIC PRODUCTS. IN ANIMALS THE
TRANSPORT FUNCTION IS CARRIED OUT PRIMARILY BY THE BLOOD SYSTEM AND IN
HIGHER PLANTS BY XYLEM AND PHLOEM.
-A TRANSPORT SYSTEM IS A SYSTEM MOVING OF METABOLIC MATERIALS FROM VARIOUS
PARTS OF AN ORGANISM WHERE THEY ARE PRODUCED AND TRANSPORTED TO OTHER
PARTS WHERE SUCH ARE USED, STORED OR REMOVED FROM THE BODY.
 TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN PLANTS
THE PLANT TRANSPORTS FOOD, WATER AND MINERALS THROUGH ITS SYSTEM BY USING THE XYLEM AND THE
PHLOEM. XYLEM VESSELS ARE COMPOSED OF DEAD LIGNIFIED CELLS CONNECTED END TO END. THIS ALLOWS
THE TRANSPORT OF WATER AND MINERALS UPWARD. PHLOEM IS COMPOSED OF SIEVE TUBES, WHICH ARE
CLOSELY ASSOCIATED WITH COMPANION CELLS TO FACILITATE MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS ACROSS THE CELL
CYTOPLASM. THESE TUBES CARRY THE PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN A BIDIRECTIONAL MOVEMENT TO
ENSURE SUPPLY OF MATERIALS FOR THE GROWTH OF BUDS, ROOTS, AND OTHER PLANT PARTS.

BOTH OF THESE CONDUCTING TUBES RUN ACROSS THE PLANT STRUCTURE; HOWEVER, THE ARRANGEMENT OF
VASCULAR BUNDLE VARIES DEPENDING ON WHETHER IT IS THE STEM, LEAF, OR ROOT, OR IF THE PLANT IS
CLASSIFIED AS MONOCOT OR DICOT.
 TRANSPIRATION
TRANSPIRATION IS THE EVAPORATION OF WATER FROM PLANTS. MOST OF THE
WATER ABSORBED BY THE ROOTS OF A PLANT—AS MUCH AS 99.5 PERCENT—IS NOT
USED FOR GROWTH OR METABOLISM; IT IS EXCESS WATER, AND IT LEAVES THE
PLANT THROUGH TRANSPIRATION
 •STOMATAL TRANSPIRATION

- STOMATAL TRANSPIRATION IS THE EVAPORATION OF WATER FROM A

PLANT’S STOMATA. MOST OF THE WATER THAT IS TRANSPIRED FROM
A PLANT IS TRANSPIRED THIS WAY; AT LEAST 90% OF THE WATER
TRANSPIRED FROM A PLANT’S LEAVES EXITS THROUGH THE
STOMATA.
 • CUTICULAR TRANSPIRATION
-CUTICULAR TRANSPIRATION IS THE EVAPORATION OF WATER FROM
A PLANT’S CUTICLE. THE CUTICLE IS A WAXY FILM THAT COVERS THE
SURFACE OF A PLANT’S LEAVES. THIS FORM OF TRANSPIRATION DOES
NOT ACCOUNT FOR MUCH OF A PLANT’S WATER LOSS; ABOUT 5-10
PERCENT OF THE LEAVES’ WATER IS LOST THROUGH THE CUTICLE.
 •LENTICULAR TRANSPIRATION
.-LENTICULAR TRANSPIRATION IS THE EVAPORATION OF WATER
FROM THE LENTICELS OF A PLANT. LENTICELS ARE SMALL
OPENINGS IN THE BARK OF BRANCHES AND TWIGS.
 TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN ANIMALS
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

IN ANIMALS, THE TRANSPORT SYSTEM IS GENERALLY CALLED A CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

BECAUSE THE BLOOD FLOWS THROUGH A CIRCUIT. MOST ANIMALS HAVE ONE OR MORE
ORGANS CALLED HEARTS FOR PUMPING BLOOD. THE CHANNELS THROUGH WHICH THE
BLOOD FLOWS ARE THE ARTERIES (WHICH LEAD AWAY FROM THE HEART), THE VEINS
(WHICH LEAD TO THE HEART), AND THE CAPILLARIES (THE MICROSCOPIC BLOOD VESSELS
BETWEEN ARTERIES AND VEINS).
•
THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM FUNCTIONS TO TRANSPORT BLOOD AND OXYGEN
FROM THE LUNGS TO THE VARIOUS TISSUES OF THE BODY.
 HEART
• THE HUMAN HEART IS ABOUT THE SIZE OF A CLENCHED FIST. IT CONTAINS FOUR CHAMBERS: TWO
ATRIA AND TWO VENTRICLES.
• OXYGEN-POOR BLOOD ENTERS THE RIGHT ATRIUM THROUGH A MAJOR VEIN CALLED THE VENA
CAVA. THE BLOOD PASSES THROUGH THE TRICUSPID VALVE INTO THE RIGHT VENTRICLE.
• NEXT, THE BLOOD IS PUMPED THROUGH THE PULMONARY ARTERY TO THE LUNGS FOR GAS
EXCHANGE. OXYGEN-RICH BLOOD RETURNS TO THE LEFT ATRIUM VIA THE PULMONARY VEIN. THE
OXYGEN-RICH BLOOD FLOWS THROUGH THE BICUSPID (MITRAL) VALVE INTO THE LEFT VENTRICLE,
FROM WHICH IT IS PUMPED THROUGH A MAJOR ARTERY, THE AORTA. TWO VALVES CALLED
SEMILUNAR VALVES ARE FOUND IN THE PULMONARY ARTERY AND AORTA.
• CORONARY ARTERIES SUPPLY THE HEART MUSCLE WITH BLOOD.
 BLOOD
• BLOOD IS THE MEDIUM OF TRANSPORT IN THE BODY.
• THE FLUID PORTION OF THE BLOOD, THE PLASMA, IS A STRAW-COLORED LIQUID
COMPOSED PRIMARILY OF WATER. ALL THE IMPORTANT NUTRIENTS, THE HORMONES,
AND THE CLOTTING PROTEINS, AS WELL AS THE WASTE PRODUCTS, ARE TRANSPORTED
IN THE PLASMA. RED BLOOD CELLS AND WHITE BLOOD CELLS ARE ALSO SUSPENDED IN
THE PLASMA.
 BLOOD VESSELS

•ARTERIES, WITH THICK WALLS, TAKE BLOOD AWAY FROM THE

HEART TO ARTERIOLES, WHICH TAKE BLOOD TO CAPILLARIES THAT
HAVE WALLS COMPOSED ONLY OF EPITHELIAL CELLS. VENULES TAKE
BLOOD FROM CAPILLARIES AND MERGE TO FORM VEINS, WHICH
HAVE THINNER WALLS THAN ARTERIES HAVE.
 IMMUNE RESPONSE

-THE WAY THE BODY DEFENDS ITSELF AGAINST SUBSTANCES IT SEES

AS HARMFUL OR FOREIGN. IN AN IMMUNE RESPONSE, THE IMMUNE
SYSTEM RECOGNIZES THE ANTIGENS (USUALLY PROTEINS) ON THE
SURFACE OF SUBSTANCES OR MICROORGANISMS, SUCH AS BACTERIA
OR VIRUSES, AND ATTACKS AND DESTROYS, OR TRIES TO DESTROY,
THEM.
 IMMUNE RESPONSE OF PLANTS
Plants, unlike mammals, lack mobile defender cells and a somatic adaptive immune system. Instead, they rely
on the innate immunity of each cell and on systemic signals emanating from infection sites. To successfully
defend against biotic threats, plants have evolved a complex immune system responsible for surveillance,
perception, and the activation of defense. Plant immunity requires multiple signaling processes, the outcome of
which vary according to the lifestyle of the invading pathogen(s). In short, these processes require the activation
of host perception, the regulation of numerous signaling cascades, and transcriptome reprograming, all of which
are highly dynamic in terms of temporal and spatial scales. At the same time, the development of a single
immune event is subjective to the development of plant immune system, which is co-regulated by numerous
processes, including plant ontogenesis and the host microbiome. Immunogenic plant host factors can be roughly
divided into two categories: molecules which are passively released upon cell damage (‘classical’ damage-
associated molecular patterns, DAMPs), and peptides which are processed and/or secreted upon infection to
modulate the immune response (phytocytokines). In addition, plants can launch specific, self-tolerant immune
responses and establish immune memory.
 IMMUNE RESPONSE OF ANIMALS
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
-THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM IS A NETWORK OF TISSUES AND ORGANS THAT HELP RID THE BODY OF TOXINS, WASTE
AND OTHER UNWANTED MATERIALS. THE PRIMARY FUNCTION OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM IS TO TRANSPORT
LYMPH, A FLUID CONTAINING INFECTION-FIGHTING WHITE BLOOD CELLS, THROUGHOUT THE BODY. INSTEAD OF
RETURNING TO THE HEART THROUGH THE BLOOD VEINS, THIS LYMPH ENTERS A SERIES OF ONE-WAY LYMPHATIC
VESSELS THAT RETURN THE FLUID TO THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. ALONG THE WAY, THE DUCTS PASS THROUGH
HUNDREDS OF TINY, CAPSULE-LIKE BODIES CALLED LYMPH NODES. LOCATED IN THE NECK, ARMPITS, AND
GROIN, THE LYMPH NODES CONTAIN CELLS THAT FILTER THE LYMPH AND PHAGOCYTIZE FOREIGN PARTICLES.
THE SPLEEN IS COMPOSED PRIMARILY OF LYMPH NODE TISSUE. LYING CLOSE TO THE STOMACH, THE SPLEEN IS
ALSO THE SITE WHERE RED BLOOD CELLS ARE DESTROYED. THE SPLEEN SERVES AS A RESERVE BLOOD SUPPLY
FOR THE BODY.