Chapter 12

Chapter 12
STRESS AND DEFORMATION

ANALYSIS OF LINEAR
ELASTIC BARS IN TORSION
12.1 Introduction
In Chapter 11, the analysis of long bars subjected only to axial loads was considered. We now
consider similar bars but subjected to torsional loads that cause twisting of the bar about its axis.
Typical examples include shafts in engines, turbines, torque converters, transmissions, electric motors
and similar devices.
Figure 12.1: PT6-A Turbine Engine
Simple tools like a screwdriver develop a torsional stress and twist of the screwdriver when a
screw is driven into wood; likewise a wrench applied to the head of a bolt applies a torque to the
bolt which causes twisting of the bolt and internal torsional stresses. When these torsional stresses
exceed the shear strength of the material, failure will occur. In addition, the torsional load may
induce twisting of the shaft that is excessive.
267
268CHAPTER 12. STRESS AND DEFORMATION ANALYSIS OF LINEAR ELASTIC BARS IN TORSION
Figure 12.2: Various Shafts Subjected to Torsion
In the theoretical developments which follow, we will find that the shear stress is proportional
to the torque applied (Mt ) and the radius (r) of the shaft, and inversely proportional to the polar
moment of inertia (J) of the shaft cross-section. In addition, the angle of twist is proportional to
the applied torque and length of the shaft, and inversely proportional to the shear modulus of the
12.2. THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENT FOR TORSION OF A BAR 269
Figure 12.3:
material (G) and the polar moment of inertia (J). With sufficient knowledge of these parameters, a
shaft can easily be designed to prevent material failure and excessive twisting.
12.2 Theoretical Development for Torsion of a Bar

Consider a long, slender bar with a circular cross-section that is subjected to torsion by applied
concentrated and distributed torques as shown below. The x-axis is placed at the centroid of the
cross-section.
OD = 3 in OD = 2.5 in
y
100 in-lb/in
500 in-lb 1,000 in-lb
z
12 in 10 in 7 in 8 in 10 in
Figure 12.4: Circular Bar Subjected to Torque Loading
The cross-section may be either a solid circular section or a circular tube. The restriction to
a circular cross-section is due to the simplified analysis that will be developed herein. An applied
torque with a counterclockwise action is considered positive (such as the torque applied at the right
end of the bar in Figure 12.4); and such a torque would have a moment (torque) vector pointed in
the positive x direction when following the usual right-hand rule.
Consider now a section of a bar that has a constant internal torque about the x-axis. An example
might be a bar that is fixed at its left end and has a torque T applied at its right end as shown
below. Cut the shaft as some point x and assume the internal torque is Mt (x).
y free-body cut
x x T
T
z
L
Mt (x)
Mt (x) Mt (x) Mt (x + ∆x) Mt (x) = T

T
x ∆x x x
Mt (x) = T
x
free-body “a” free-body “b” torque diagram
Figure 12.5: Circular Bar Subjected to End Torque T
Applying conservation of angular momentum (i.e., summing moments about the x-axis) in free-
body “a”, we see that that the internal torque Mt (x) is a constant for this case and equal to the
applied external torque T . Hence any section between x and x + ∆x will have constant torque
applied to it as shown in Figure 12.5 (free-body “b”). Note that a positive torque on a right face
is in the +x direction while the same positive torque is in the −x direction on the left face (torque
must be equal and opposite on opposite ends for moment equilibrium to exist). This is the same type
of sign convention as was used for positive tension in a truss member or for stresses. The internal
torque diagram is also shown in Figure 12.5 and we see that the internal torque, Mt (x), plots as a
constant value of T . For a more general torque loading as shown in Figure 12.4, the internal torque
Mt (x) would be a function of x and the torque diagram would be more complex; this case will be
discussed shortly.
Before developing a theory for how much a bar twists and it’s resultant stress state under a
torque loading, it is very instructive to experimentally observe the deformation pattern of a twisted
bar as shown in the following photograph. The bar has a solid circular cross-section and is subjected
to equal and opposite torques as shown (provided by the opposite twisting of each hand). The
internal torque, Mt (x), must therefore be constant throughout the bar. The undeformed bar has
been marked with straight lines that run the length of bar as well as circular lines around the
circumference as shown in the top photograph.
Note that these lines form a pattern of squares on the surface of the bar. After twisting (lower
photograph), the straight lines spiral around the bar and the circular lines remain circles. For a
small area on the curved surface (say one of the squares), the spiraling lines would be straight if the
curved surface were laid out flat. The squares after twisting are now parallelograms, which suggests
that a shear stress has been applied to the squares.
To begin the development of a torsional theory, consider a circular bar such as that shown in
Figure 12.5 with the left end fixed from rotation and a torque T applied at the right end. As
discussed previously, the internal torque Mt = T will be a constant through out the bar.
We scribe a line on the surface of the bar that runs the length of the bar from 0 to a. After the
torque is applied, line 0a moves to 0a . The displacement of point “a” can be described in Cartesian
coordinates by the components uz and uy or in cylindrical coordinates as uθ , as shown in Figure
12.7. Looking at the end cross-section where the torque is applied, we see that line b-a has rotated
CCW to b-a by the angle φ. The angle φ represents the angle of twist of the cross-section located
at some point x relative to the left end (x = 0) which is assumed fixed from rotation. Note: Do
Figure 12.6: Circular Bar Twisted by End Torques
not confuse the present use of θ as a cylindrical coordinate measurement with that in a normal
cylindrical (or polar) coordinate system as has been previously used.
line 0a moves y y

y to 0 a uz a a
uθ
0 a uy
φ φ
Mt a x a a
r θ
Mt
z b z x
z
x
Cartesian Polar (r − θ in y − z plane)
Figure 12.7: Displacement Kinematics of Twisted Bar
• Displacement Assumptions
Based on the physical observation discussed earlier, we postulate the following displacements.
Since we saw no motion in the x direction, then ux = 0. For small angular rotations, we can
relate the motion in the Cartesian y-z plane, i.e., uy and uz , through geometry to the angle
of twist φ and write uy = −φz and uz = φy. These kinematic relations are obtained from the
u
approximations: tan φ ≈ φ = uyz and tan φ ≈ φ = − zy . The negative in uy is because uy is
negative (down) for positive φ (φ follows the right-had rule as is CCW as viewed in Figure
12.6). These kinematic assumptions are reasonable if φ is not too large. We note that the
angle of twist is a function of x so that φ = φ(x).
φ uy
a z

a
uz
y
φ
Figure 12.8:
In polar coordinates, we assume ur = 0 and ux = 0. These last two kinematic assumptions

are equivalent to saying that the diameter of the bar does not change and the bar does not
change length during twisting, which is consistent with experimental observation. Finally,
from geometry (see Figure 12.6), the circumferential displacement of a point is proportional
to the angle of twist φ and it’s radial position r so that uθ = rφ.
While we could use either Cartesian components or polar components of displacement, it should
be clear that the polar components would be easier to work with. These are summarized below:
ur = 0, ux = 0, uθ = rφ (12.1)
• Strains (Kinematics)
With these kinematic displacement assumptions, the strains may now be evaluated. In order
to determine the strain in polar coordinates, consider the experiment referred to above. If one
rolls out the curved surface of the bar into a flat surface, we have the following (for a length
of the bar between x and x + ∆x):
In the x-θ plane, the angle β represents the change in right angle for one of the original squares
and will define the strain εxθ (or engineering shear strain, γxθ . We can write the following for
the engineering shear strain:

−1
uθ |x+∆x − uθ |x uθ |x+∆x − uθ |x ∂uθ
γxθ = β = tan ≈ = (12.2)
∆x ∆x ∂x
But the displacement is given by: uθ = rφ so that
∂φ
γxθ = r (12.3)
∂x
and
1 1 ∂φ
εxθ = γxθ = r (12.4)
2 2 ∂x
x + ∆x y
x ∆x
a a
uθ
x
β uθ φ

a
a r θ
z x
Figure 12.9: Deformation Pattern Showing Shear Strain in x-θ Plane
Note that the above assumes that the bar is prismatic (r is a constant).
If we want to do this more precisely, we can use the tensor strain definitions in polar coordinates
to obtain (recall that ur = 0, ux = 0, uθ = rφ):
∂ur ∂ux ur 1 ∂uθ

εrr = = 0, εxx = = 0, εθθ = + =0
∂r ∂x r r ∂θ

1 ∂uθ 1 ∂ux 1 ∂φ ∂φ
εxθ = + = r , =⇒ γxθ = 2εxθ = r
2 ∂x r ∂θ 2 ∂x ∂x

1 1 ∂ur ∂uθ uθ 1 ∂ur ∂ux
εrθ = + − = 0, εrx = + =0
2 r ∂θ ∂r r 2 ∂x ∂r
As stated previously, the development of the torsional stress and twisting equations is mostly
easily done in polar coordinates. However, for the interested student, the Cartesian strain
components are given by:
εxx = 0
εyy = 0
εzz = 0

1 ∂ux ∂uy 1 dφ
εxy = + =− z
2 ∂y ∂x 2 dx

1 ∂ux ∂uz 1 dφ
εxz = + = y
2 ∂z ∂x1 2 dx

1 ∂uy ∂uz 1
εyz = + = (−φ + φ) = 0
2 ∂z ∂y 2
• Stresses (Constitutive Equations)

For an elastic, isotropic material, we can write the stress-strain relation as
E E γxθ E
σxθ = εxθ = = γxθ = Gγxθ (12.5)
(1 + ν) (1 + ν) 2 2(1 + ν)
where
E
G = shear modulus =
2(1 + ν)
• Equilibrium equations (COLM)

Note that these stresses must satisfy the equilibrium equations to be a valid state of stress.
The static equilibrium equations reduce to (for the case of no body forces):

∂σxy d2 φ
y equilibrium : ∂x = 0 =⇒ dx2 =0 dφ
∂σzx d2 φ
=⇒ = constant (12.6)
z equilibrium : ∂x = 0 =⇒ dx2 =0 dx
The last result requires that φ varies linearly with x.
• Stress Resultant (equilibrium between internal stress and internal torque)
At any point x along the length of the bar, the internal torque Mt must be in equilibrium with
the moment produced by the internal shear stress σxθ .
y
dA = rdrdθ
σ xθ r
z x
Mt
Figure 12.10: Equilibrium of Shear Stress and Internal Torque on Cross-Section
The moment caused by the shear stress σxθ acting over a differential area dA located at a distance
r from the x-axis (center of the cross-section) is given by r(σxθ dA). Thus the total moment on the

cross-section is σxθ r dA and must be in equilibrium with the internal torque Mt acting on the
A
cross-section:

Mt = σθx r dA (12.7)
A
We now substitute the kinematic (12.3) and constitutive (12.5) relations into Equation (12.7) to
obtain:

dφ dφ 2
Mt = rσxθ dA = rGγxθ dA = rG r dA = G r dA (12.8)
dx dx
A A A A
Both the shear modulus G and the angle of twist φ are constant for a given cross-section located
at x so that the above can be written as:

dφ
Mt = G r2 dA (12.9)
dx
A
The integral is a geometrical property of the cross-section A called J, the polar moment of inertia,
so that we define:

J≡ r2 dA = polar moment of inertia = Iyy + Izz (12.10)
A
Equation (12.9) becomes
dφ
Mt = JG (12.11)
dx
Equation (12.11) is an ordinary differential equation and, given the internal torque Mt , J and G,
the equation may be integrated to obtain the angle of twist φ. We rewrite it in a more convenient
form as:
dφ Mt
= (12.12)
dx JG
The above equation is valid for any point x and depends upon the value of the internal torque
at point x. Consequently, equation (12.12) is valid for any internal torque distribution Mt (Mt does
not have to be constant).
Polar moments of inertia for circular cross-sections are easily obtained using polar coordinates.
For the solid and tubular cross-sections, we may obtain the following results (review your calculus):
To determine the shear stress at any cross-section, substitute the strain-displacement equation
(12.3) into the constitutive equation (12.5) to obtain:
dφ
σxθ = Gr
dx
Substitute equation (12.12) into the last equation to obtain
y Do
Di
z
D
4
J= D (Do4 −Di4 )
32 J= 32
Figure 12.11:
Mt r
σxθ = (12.13)
J
Note that the shear stress varies directly with the radial position r; hence, the shear stress is a
maximum at the outside surface of the bar. Note that for a problem such as that shown in Figure
12.4, Mt and J may both vary with x. Hence, the location of maximum shear stress along the length
of the bar can be determined by computing the value of MJt r at all likely maximum locations and
thus determining the location of the maximum shear stress.
In order to determine the angle of twist φ(x), we must integrate equation (12.12). Assume that
we know the value of the angle of twist at some point x0 is given by φ0 and that we know the internal
torque distribution Mt (x) over the length of the bar. For example, the internal torque diagram for
the bar in Figure 12.4 will have a torque diagram given by:
Mt
1,000 in-lb
500 in-lb
12 22 29 37 47 x (in)
-500 in-lb
Figure 12.12: Internal Torque Diagram for Bar in Figure 12.3
The determination of the internal torque diagram is easily accomplished with free-body diagrams
and will be demonstrated in examples below. With the internal torque diagram, we can then
integrate equation (12.12) between two points on the bar, say x0 and x1 to obtain
x1
Mt
φ(x1 ) = φ(x0 ) + dx (12.14)
x0 JG
Note that Mt = Mt (x) and that one must know φ0 at x0 (as a boundary condition) in order do
determine φ1 at x1 .
It is useful to consider a special case when the torque Mt does not vary with x, as is the case of
the bar shown in Figure 12.5. In this case, Mt = constant. For a bar of length L (L = x1 − x0 ) and
constant JG, equation (??) reduces to:
Mt L
φ(L) = φ(x0 ) +
JG
If the bar is fixed from rotation at x0 = 0 (boundary condition), then equation reduces to
Mt L
φ(L) =
JG
Consider now the case of an external distributed torque mt (units of torque per unit length)
applied to the bar as shown below. Such distributed torque occurs, for example, when a shaft passes
through a bushing that causes friction on the shaft; or when you grip the handle of a screwdriver
such that the applied torque is distributed over a finite length of the handle.
mt
x
Figure 12.13: Bar With Distributed Torque
Consider a free-body of the bar located at point x that is ∆x long and apply moment equilibrium
to the free body:
Mt (x) m t (x) Mt (x + ∆x)
x ∆x x + ∆x
Figure 12.14: Free-Body of Bar With Distributed Torque
Note that we have used double-headed arrows to indicate torque (moment) which will make
visualization of the direction of the torque much easier. For moment equilibrium about the x-axis
(COAM), we write:

0= Mx = Mt (x + ∆x) − Mt (x) + mt dx (12.15)
Divide by ∆x and take limit to obtain:
∂Mt
+ mt = 0 (12.16)
∂x
Given the expression for the applied distributed torque mt , the above can be integrated to obtain
the internal torque, Mt (x). We can then substitute Mt (x) into the differential equation defining φ
[equation (12.12)] and integrate from x1 to x2 to obtain
x2
Mt (x)
φ(x2 ) = φ(x1 ) + dx (12.17)
x1 JG
Alternately, we can substitute (12.12) into (12.16) to obtain:

∂ dφ
JG + mt = 0 (12.18)
∂x dx
This last equation can be integrated twice to obtain φ(x). However, the solution process may
be conceptually easier to understand by applying equation (12.16) to obtain Mt (need boundary
condition for Mt at some value of x) and then applying equation (12.17) to obtain φ(x) (need
boundary condition for φ at some value of x).
12.3 Example Problems

This load frame is set up to do remote torsion experiments on a circular specimen; you can see the
camera in the lower right corner.
Example 12-1
The aluminum circular bar below has a constant diameter of 0.5 in. and a shear modulus of 4
million psi.
a) Determine the internal torque (Mt ) as a function of x.

Since torque is applied only at point B and C, the internal torque will be constant between A
and B and between B and C. Assume the internal torque in section A-B is Mt1 and in B-C is
Mt2 (note: assume Mt is positive).
Make cuts between A and B and between B and C, and draw free-body diagrams as below:
Starting with the free-body 2, we write moment (torque) equations:

free-body #2 : M = 0 = 75 − Mt2 =⇒ Mt2 = 75 in lb

free-body #1 : M = 0 = Mt2 − 40 − Mt1 =⇒ Mt1 = Mt2 − 40 = 75 − 40 = 35 in lb
This structure is STATICALLY DETERMINATE since we could find all internal torques
by equilibrium alone. The internal torque diagram can now be drawn:
b) Determine the twist of each section.
πD4 π(0.5)4
J1 = J2 = = = 0.00613 in4
32 32
Mt1 L1 35(20)
φ1 = = = 0.0285 rad
J1 G1 0.00613(4 × 106 )
Mt2 L2 75(35)
φ2 = = = 0.107 rad
J2 G2 0.00613(4 × 106 )
12.3. EXAMPLE PROBLEMS 279
Axial Load Cell

Torsion Load Cell
Upper Jaw Grip
Circular Rod Specimen
Lower Jaw Grip
Figure 12.15:
40 in-lb
A 75 in-lb
x B C
20 in 35 in
Figure 12.16:
Mt1 Mt1 Mt2 Mt2

1 2
A B B C
Figure 12.17:
75 in-lb
40 in-lb
Mt1 B Mt2
A
free-body 1 free-body 2
Figure 12.18:
Mt
75 in-lb
35
0 20 x
55 in
Figure 12.19:
35 35 75 75
1 2
A B B C
Figure 12.20:
φA = rotation at A = 0
φB = rotation at A + twist of bar 1 = φA + φ1 = 0 + 0.0285 = 0.0285 rad = 1.63 deg
φC = rotation at B + twist of bar 2 = φB + φ2 = 0.0285 + 0.107 = 0.136 rad = 7.77 deg
An alternate method for part b is to integrate the torque diagrams using equation (12.17).
B 20
Mt 35 20
φB = φA + dx = 0 + dx = (0.00143)x|0
A JG 0 0.00613(4 × 10 6)
= 0.00143(20 − 0) = 0.0285 rad = 1.64 deg

C 55
Mt 75 55
φC = φB + dx = 0.0285 + dx = 0.0285 + 0.0031x|20
20 0.00613(4 × 10 )
6
B JG
= 0.0285 + 0.0031(55 − 20) = 0.0285 + 0.107 = 0.136 rad = 7.77 deg
c) Determine the maximum stress in each section

Mt1 r1 35 0.52
σxθ1 = = = 1427 psi
J1 0.00613
0.5
Mt2 r2 75 2
σxθ2 = = = 3059 psi
J2 0.00613
Example 12-2
Consider the following aluminum bar in torsion. The diameters of sections AB, BC and CD are
0.5 in, 0.75 in and 0.5 in, respectively. The shear modulus for aluminum is 4 million psi.
a) The internal torques in each of the bars are labeled Mt1 , Mt2 , and Mt3 (from left to right).
Make cuts in each bar and isolate the free-bodies. Now use equilibrium to relate the internal
torques.

free-body #1 : M = 0 = Mt2 − 40 − Mt1

free-body #2 : M = 0 = Mt3 + 75 − Mt2
Note that this structure is STATICALLY INDETERMINATE since we CANNOT find

all internal torques by equilibrium alone.
A B C D
2
1 3
40 in-lb 75 in-lb
20 in 35 in 20 in
Figure 12.21:
40 in-lb 75 in-lb
Mt1 Mt2 Mt3

A B C D
free-body 1 free-body 2
Figure 12.22:
b) Determine the J and angle of twist of each bar.
πD4 π(0.5)4 πD4 π(0.75)4

J1 = J3 = = = 0.0061 in4 J2 = = = 0.031 in4
32 32 32 32
Mt1 L1 Mt1 (20)

φ1 = = = 0.00082Mt1
J1 G1 0.0061(4 × 106 )
Mt2 L2 Mt2 (30)
φ2 = = = 0.000242Mt2
J2 G2 0.031(4 × 106 )
Mt3 L3 Mt3 (20)
φ3 = = = 0.00082Mt3
J3 G3 0.0061(4 × 106 )
c) Apply the boundary condition. Since the bar is fixed between two rigid walls, the total twist
must be zero.
total angle of twist = φ1 + φ2 + φ3 = 0.00082Mt1 + 0.000242Mt2 + 0.00082Mt3 = 0
d) Now combine the two equilibrium equations and the one boundary condition equation.
−Mt1 + Mt2 = 40
−Mt2 + Mt3 = −75
0.00082Mt1 + 0.000242Mt2 + 0.00082Mt3 = 0
or in matrix notation,
    
−1 1 0  Mt1   40 
 0 −1 1  Mt2 = −75
   
0.00082 0.000242 0.00082 Mt3 0
Solving for the unknown torques, one obtains using Scientific Workplace
 
−1 1 0
A= 0 −1 1 
0.00082 0.000242 0.00082
 
40
b =  −75 
0
 
10. 10626 99256 111
A−1 b =  50. 10626 99256 111 
−24. 89373 00743 889
Thus, Mt1 = 10.11 in-lb, Mt2 = 50.11 in-lb, Mt3 = −24.9 in-lb
e) We can now solve for the individual angles of twist or the shear stress. For example,
Rotation of point B = φ1 = 0.00082Mt1 = 0.00082(10.11) = 0.00829 rad = 0.47 deg
Rotation of point C = φ1 + φ2 = 0.00829 rad +0.000242Mt2 = 0.00829 + 0.000242(50.11) =
0.0204 rad = 1.17 deg
Mt1 r1 10.11(0.5/2)
Stress in bar 1 σxθ1 = J1 = 0.0061 = 414 psi
Mt2 r2 50.11(0.75/2)
Stress in bar 2 σxθ2 = J2 = 0.031 = 606 psi
Example 12-3
Bar with distributed torque of 60 in-lb

in applied from A to B and a concentrated torque of 400 in-lb
at C. Materialis steel with a shear modulus of 11.5 million psi. Bars are cylindrical with diameters
of 0.4 in (A-B) and 0.25 in (B-C).
a) First construct the distributed torque diagram (mt vs. x)
b) Now construct the internal torque diagram by using integration ∂Mt

∂x = −mt [see equation
(12.16)]:
At x = 13 , Mt (13) = 400 in-lb
x x
For 5 ≤ x ≤ 13, Mt (x) = Mt (13) − 13
mt dx = 400 − 13
(−60) dx = 400 + 60(x − 13)
At x = 5, Mt (5) = −80 in-lb
x x
For 0 ≤ x ≤ 5, Mt (x) = Mt (5) − 5
mt dx = −80 − 5
(0) dx = −80
Now construct the internal torque diagram for the structure.
60 in-lb/in
1
400 in-lb
A B C
x
5 in 8 in
Figure 12.23:
mt
5 13 in
0 x
−60 in-lb/in
Figure 12.24:
Mt
400 + 60 (x − 13) 400 in-lb
5 13 in x
−80 in-lb
Figure 12.25:
c) Now determine the angle of twist using integration of the internal torque.
πD4 π(0.4)4 πD4 π(0.25)4

J1 = = = 0.00251 in4 J2 = = = 0.000383 in4
32 32 32 32
x x (−80)
for 0 ≤ x ≤ 5, φ(x) = φ(0) + Mt
0 J1 G 1
dx = 0 + 0 (0.00251)(11×106 )
dx = −0.0029x
φ(5) = −0.0029(5) = −0.0145 rad = −0.83 deg
x t x
φ(x) = φ(5) + 5 JM dx = −.0145 + 5 [400+60(x−13)]
J2 G 2 dx
for 5 ≤ x ≤ 13, 2 G2
2 x
= −.0145 + .000383(11×10
1
6 ) (−380x + 30x )
5
= −0.0145 + 1
4,213 [−380x + 30x2 + 1150]
φ(13) = −0.0145 + 0.304 = 0.289 rad = 16.6 deg
d) Now determine stresses at various x points. Be sure to use Mt , r and J for desired x value.
Mt (x=5)r −80( 0.4
2 )
At x = 5 in, σxθ (x = 5) = J1 = 0.00251 = −6375 psi
Mt (x=9)r 160( 0.25
2 )
At x = 9 in, σxθ (x = 9) = J2 = 0.000383 = 52219 psi
Mt (x=13)r 400(0.25
2 )
At x = 13 in, σxθ (x = 13) = J2 = 0.000383 = 130, 550 psi
Note: depending upon the type of steel, the material may fail before reaching a shear stress of
130 ksi.
Example 12-4
Mt
l1 l2
2a1 2a2
x1 x1
Mt
M1 M1 M2 M2
Figure 12.26:
Equilibrium of disc Mt = M1 + M2 (I)

Continuity of rotation: φ1 = φ2 at junction point.
We know
dφ1 M1
φ1 = =
dx G1 J (1)
therefore by integration
M1
φ1 = x1 + c, x1 = 0, φ1 = 0 =⇒ c = 0
G1 J (1)
M1
1
φ1 (x1 =
1 ) = (1)
G1 J (1)
We do the same for φ2 :
M2 M2
φ2 = =⇒ φ2 = x1 + c, x1 = 0, φ2 = 0 =⇒ c = 0
G2 J (2) G2 J (2)
M2
2
φ2 (x1 =
2 ) = (2)
G2 J (2)
M 1 1 M 2 2 M 1 1 M 2 2 M 1 1 M 2 2
Using (1) & (2) =⇒ G1 J (1)
= G2 J (2)
=⇒ πa4
= πa4
=⇒ G1 a41
= G2 a42
(II)
G1 1 G2 2
2 2
M 1 1 (Mt −M1 )2
Using (I) & (II) =⇒ G1 a41
= G2 a42

1
2
2
M1 4 + = Mt
G1 a1 G2 a42 G2 a42
−1 

∴ M1 = 2
G2 a42
1
G1 a41
+ 2
G2 a42
Mt 
−1
M2 = 1
G1 a41
1
G1 a41
+ 2
G2 a42
Mt 

Example 12-5
Consider the bar below, which is subjected to combined tension and torsion.
Mt Mt
P P
Figure 12.27:

σ0 − λ −βz βy

Eigenvalues: −βz −λ 0 = 0 =⇒

βy 0 −λ

σ0 + σ02 + 4β 2 r2 σ0 − σ02 + 4β 2 r2
λx = , λy = 0, λz = , r2 = y 2 + z 2
2 2
√
σ0 + σ02 +4β 2 a2
(σn ) max = 2
λx −λz 1
(σs ) max = 2 = 2 σ02 + 4β 2 a2
Example 12-6
A brass shaft is 20 in. long and has a 4 in. diameter (D). It is fixed at its left end and is
subjected to torque of 25,000 lbf · in. at the right end. What is the largest shear stress σθx occurring
anywhere in the shaft? If G for brass is 5.5 × 106 psi, what is the angle of twist at x = 8 in. and at
the right end of the shaft?
G = 5.5 × 106 psi
25,000 lbf - in
x

4 dia
20
Figure 12.28:
Solution
πD 4
Now τθx = G rφLL and τθx = Tr
J ; J= 32
TR TD −16T D
(σθx )max = σθx |r=R = = =
J 2J πD4
16T 16 × 25, 000

= 3
= = 1989.4psi
πD (π) (43 )
dφ φL φ(x)
= constant =⇒ =
dx L x
Grφ
σθx =
x
(σθx )R x 1989.4 × 8
φ(x = 8 ) = = rad
GR 5.5 × 106 × 2
φ(x = 8 ) = 0.001447 rad = 0.083◦
(τθx )R x 1989.4 × 20
φ(x = 20 ) = = rad = 0.21 deg
GR 5.5 × 106 × 2
Deep Thought
Torsion: A threat to mankind !

12.4. QUESTIONS 289
12.4 Questions
12.1 Provide the stress tensor for the case of a circular rod in pure torsion by indicating the tensor’s
components with appropriate variables and/or zeros in a 3 × 3 matrix array.
12.2 Repeat 12.1 for the strain tensor, again using appropriate variables and/or zeros in a 3 × 3
matrix array.
12.5 Problems
12.3 Given a bar with applied torque at each end, find the rotation of the bar.
Mt Mt
x
z
y
uz
θ uy
z
Problem 12.3
Apply the Boundary Conditions on the two ends and find θ with known Mt , E, and υ. Explain
the calculation.
12.4 A 50 mm solid circular shaft is made of 6061-T6 aluminum. Determine the maximum torque
T that can be transmitted by the shaft so that the material remains elastic.
12.5 A torque of 1,000 in-lb is to be transmitted using a circular thin-walled hollow shaft made
of A36 structural steel. If the wall thickness is 5% of the diameter, determine the minimum
diameter required so that the material does not yield.
12.6 A brass shaft is fixed at one end and is subjected to a torque of 2,200 lbf - ft at the other end.
a) What is the largest shear stress σθz occurring anywhere in the shaft?
b) What is the angle of twist (in degrees) at z = 6 in, and at the right end of the shaft?
12.7 Consider the circular shaft subjected to three torques located at the spacing shown below.
Determine the following:
a) Angle of twist at x = 190 cm for the shaft shown below.
2,200 lbf -ft
2 in
x 8 in
G = 5.7 × 106 psi
Problem 12.6
475 N-m
400 N-m
350 N-m
x
50 cm Shaft Diameter = 5 cm
65 cm G = 8.3 × 1010 Pa
75 cm
Problem 12.7
b) Maximum shear stress in the bar and its location (x, relative to the fixed end).
12.8 A 40 in. long circular shaft with varying diameter has an end torque of 5,000 in-lb at one end
and a distributed torque of 1, 000 in-lb.
in applied over 5 in. at the other end as shown below.
The shaft has a diameter of 1 in from A to B, and a diameter of 0.5 in from B to C. The shaft
is made of steel with a shear modulus of 11 million psi.
a) What is the angle of twist (in degrees) of end C relative to end A?

b) What is the maximum shear stress in each portion of the shaft (A-B and B-C)?
12.9 A stepped solid cylindrical bar with varying diameters is fixed at A and subjected to torque
loads as shown below.
The bar is made of steel with a shear modulus of 11.5 million psi. Determine the following:
a) What is the angle of twist (in degrees) at point C?

12.5. PROBLEMS 291
5,000 in-lb 1,000 in-lb/in
A B C
35 in 5 in
Problem 12.8
D = 1 in D = 0.75 in
3,000 in-lb
5,000 in-lb
20 in 30 in
A B C
Problem 12.9
b) What is the magnitude and location of the maximum shear stress?
12.10 Consider a 1 inch diameter bar that is 50 inches long and made of steel with a shear modulus
of 11 million psi. Determine:
a) How much torque (in ft.-lb.) can be applied to the ends of the bar so that the shear stress
does not exceed an allowable of 25,000 psi?
b) Angle of twist of point C relative to point A for torque obtained in part a?
12.11 Consider a 50 in. long steel tube with an outer diameter of 1 in and inner diameter of 0.75
in. How much torque (in ft-lb.) can be applied to the ends of the tube so that the total twist
does not exceed 5 degrees?
12.12 Consider a 50 in. long tube made of structural steel (A36) with an outer diameter of 4 in and
inner diameter of 3.75 in. How much torque (in ft-lb.) can be applied to the ends of the tube
so that the total twist does not exceed an allowable of 5 degrees AND the shear stress does
not exceed the yield strength?
12.13 GIVEN : A stepped shaft of circular cross-section is subjected to the torsion shown below. The
diameter of the larger shaft is 2 in, and the diameter of the thinner shaft is 1 in.
REQUIRED:
fixed end
4,000 lbf -in
1,000 lbf -in
30 in
x
G = 12 × 106 psi
20 in
Problem 12.13
a) The angle of twist at the right end of the circular bar.

b) The maximum shear stress at x = 0 , 15 , 29 , 31 (relative to the fixed end).
12.14 What is the minimum required diameter of a solid circular shaft 8 ft long that must transmit
of torque of 2,500 ft-lb without exceeding an allowable angle of twist of 5 degrees AND an
allowable shear stress of 21 ksi? Assume the shaft is made of structural steel (A36).
12.15 Same as Problem 12.14 except that the shaft is made Titanium Ti-6M-4V.
12.16 Same as Problem 12.14 except that the shaft is made of a thin-walled hollow tube whose
thickness is 5% of its diameter.
12.17 Rigid gears B and C, as shown below, connect two solid circular steel (A36) shafts.
Determine the largest torque T that can be applied to shaft CD if the maximum allowable
shear stress is 21 ksi.
12.18 Rigid gears B and C, as shown below, connect two solid circular steel (A36) shafts. Shaft AB
is 30 in. long and shaft CD is 20 in. long.
Determine the largest torque T that can be applied to the end of shaft CD if the maximum
allowable angle of twist is 1 degree for the entire shaft-gear system.
12.19 Rigid gears B and C as shown below connect two steel thin-walled hollow steel (A36) shafts.
The wall thickness of each shaft is 10% of its diameter. Shaft AB is 30 in. long and shaft CD
is 20 in. long.
Determine the largest torque T that can be applied to the end of shaft CD if the maximum
allowable angle of twist is 1 degree for the entire shaft-gear system AND the allowable shear
stress is 21 ksi.
12.20 Same as problem 12.19 except that the shafts are made of 6061-T6 aluminum.
12.5. PROBLEMS 293
10 in. dia.
2 in. dia.
B
A 1.25 in. dia.
T
4 in. dia C D
Problem 12.17
10 in. dia.
2 in. dia.
B
A 1.25 in. dia.
T
4 in. dia C D
Problem 12.18
10 in. dia.
2 in. dia.
B
A 1.25 in. dia.
T
4 in. dia C D
Problem 12.19
12.21 Same as problem 12.19 except that the shafts are made of Titanium Ti-6M-4V.
12.22 A T-handle is used to close a valve on a pump and is constructed of two solid circular A36
steel bars welded to form a T-section as shown below. Bar AB is normal to CD.
valve A 36 steel F
0.75 in. dia.
A L = 2 ft D
B
A 36 steel
1 in. dia. 1 ft
C 1 ft
Problem 12.22
The handle CD is turned by applying equal forces F at points C and D (the forces F act in a
plane that is normal to bar AB). Assume that handle CD does not bend significantly.
a) Determine the maximum value of F such that the shear stress in bar AB does not exceed
the allowable yield strength in shear of 21 ksi. Use a safety factor of 2.
b) What is angle of twist of point B relative to point A (in degrees)?
12.23 A gear system is required to change the torque on an input shaft from 1,000 ft-lb to a torque
of 2,000 ft-lb on the output shaft (an example is shown below; other gear boxes may contain
several gears with connecting shafts). The input and output shafts are each 12 inches long.
T2 T1
Problem 12.23
The diameter of the input shaft cannot exceed 0.75 in. and that of the output shaft cannot
exceed 1.25 in. The bear box, which encloses the gear system, cannot exceed 8 in. on any side.
Gears are available in diameters from 2 to 6 in., in increments of 0.5 in. Design the gear system
including input and output shaft diameters, gear diameters used, connecting shafts between
gears (if used) and materials used for all shafts (document source of material properties used).
The design of gear teeth, gear material, etc. should not be considered for this problem. In
12.5. PROBLEMS 295
addition to the constraint on input and output shaft diameter, the following requirements must
be met:
– Use a safety factor of 1.4 when considering the yield strength for the shaft material.
– Design the gear system for minimum weight.
– The total angle of twist for the input and output shafts cannot exceed 5 degrees (end of
input shaft relative to end of output shaft).
12.24 GIVEN : A solid elastic circular rod is loaded as shown:
y
mt (x) = 5x [in-lb/in] 3000 [in-lb] x
Case A
2 ft
y
px (x) = 5x [lb/in] 3000 [lb] x
Case B
2 ft
Problem 12.24
ASSUME : Radius=2 inches. NOTE: mixed units. Work this problem in English units and
inches. G = 5 × 105 psi, E = 5 × 105 psi.
REQUIRED:
a) Determine the maximum shear stress, σxθ , in case A, and the maximum axial stress, σxx ,
in case B.
b) Determine the rotation (Case A) and axial deflection (case B) at the free end.
c) Plot Mt (x) vs. x and P (x) vs. x on separate but side by side graphs. P (x) is the internal
axial force.
d) Plot φ(x) vs. x and ux (x) vs. x on separate but side by side graphs.
e) Why are the plot sets in c) and d) so similar?
NOTE: That for linear loads, internal resultants are quadratic and rotations/displacements
are cubic. Also, check your graphs to make sure that the boundary conditions used to solve
the differential equations plot correctly.
12.25 GIVEN : A solid rod is fixed at both ends as shown. Assume a solid circular bar with radius
of 0.5 in.
REQUIRED:
a) Plot Mt (x) vs. x.

G = 10 × 106 psi G = 15 × 106 psi G = 10 × 106 psi
3000 in-lbs 2000 in-lbs

x
5 in 15 in 5 in
Problem 12.25
b) Determine the rotations at both ends.

c) Determine the rotation at x = 5 and x = 20 .
d) Determine the reactions at both ends.
e) Determine the maximum shear stress, σxθ , and it’s x location.
12.26 GIVEN : The axle-gear system shown below:
Problem 12.26
You May Assume That The Circular Gears Are Rigid. Also, the distances from A to B, B to
C and C to D are each 18 .
REQUIRED:
a) What is the value of the force, F ?

b) Using A36 Steel, determine the minimum diameters of each of the sections (AB,BC,CD)
so that the material does not yield.
c) Determine the angle of twist of D relative to A.

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Chapter 12

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Chapter 12

STRESS AND DEFORMATION

Figure 12.1: PT6-A Turbine Engine

Figure 12.2: Various Shafts Subjected to Torsion

12.2 Theoretical Development for Torsion of a Bar

Figure 12.4: Circular Bar Subjected to Torque Loading

Mt (x) Mt (x) Mt (x + ∆x) Mt (x) = T

Figure 12.5: Circular Bar Subjected to End Torque T

Figure 12.6: Circular Bar Twisted by End Torques

Cartesian Polar (r − θ in y − z plane)

Figure 12.7: Displacement Kinematics of Twisted Bar

In polar coordinates, we assume ur = 0 and ux = 0. These last two kinematic assumptions

But the displacement is given by: uθ = rφ so that

Figure 12.9: Deformation Pattern Showing Shear Strain in x-θ Plane

∂ur ∂ux ur 1 ∂uθ

• Stresses (Constitutive Equations)

• Equilibrium equations (COLM)

The last result requires that φ varies linearly with x.

• Stress Resultant (equilibrium between internal stress and internal torque)

Figure 12.10: Equilibrium of Shear Stress and Internal Torque on Cross-Section

Equation (12.9) becomes

Figure 12.12: Internal Torque Diagram for Bar in Figure 12.3

Figure 12.13: Bar With Distributed Torque

Mt (x) m t (x) Mt (x + ∆x)

Figure 12.14: Free-Body of Bar With Distributed Torque

Divide by ∆x and take limit to obtain:

Alternately, we can substitute (12.12) into (12.16) to obtain:

12.3 Example Problems

a) Determine the internal torque (Mt ) as a function of x.

Axial Load Cell

Upper Jaw Grip

Circular Rod Specimen

Lower Jaw Grip

Mt1 Mt1 Mt2 Mt2

= 0.00143(20 − 0) = 0.0285 rad = 1.64 deg

c) Determine the maximum stress in each section

Note that this structure is STATICALLY INDETERMINATE since we CANNOT ﬁnd

Mt1 Mt2 Mt3

b) Determine the J and angle of twist of each bar.

πD4 π(0.5)4 πD4 π(0.75)4

Mt1 L1 Mt1 (20)

total angle of twist = φ1 + φ2 + φ3 = 0.00082Mt1 + 0.000242Mt2 + 0.00082Mt3 = 0

Bar with distributed torque of 60 in-lb

a) First construct the distributed torque diagram (mt vs. x)

b) Now construct the internal torque diagram by using integration ∂Mt

πD4 π(0.4)4 πD4 π(0.25)4

Equilibrium of disc Mt = M1 + M2 (I)

G = 5.5 × 106 psi

16T 16 × 25, 000

Torsion: A threat to mankind !

2,200 lbf -ft

a) What is the angle of twist (in degrees) of end C relative to end A?

a) What is the angle of twist (in degrees) at point C?

5,000 in-lb 1,000 in-lb/in

b) What is the magnitude and location of the maximum shear stress?

1,000 lbf -in

a) The angle of twist at the right end of the circular bar.

12.24 GIVEN : A solid elastic circular rod is loaded as shown:

a) Plot Mt (x) vs. x.

G = 10 × 106 psi G = 15 × 106 psi G = 10 × 106 psi

3000 in-lbs 2000 in-lbs

b) Determine the rotations at both ends.

12.26 GIVEN : The axle-gear system shown below:

a) What is the value of the force, F ?