Proceedings of the Seventeenth

Sixteenth (2007)
(2007)
International
International
Offshore
Offshore
andand
Polar
Polar
Engineering
Engineering
Conference
Conference
Lisbon, Portugal, July 1-6, 2007
Copyright © 2007 by The International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers(ISOPE)
ISBN 978-1-880653-68-5; ISBN 1-880653-68-0(Set); ISSN 1098-6189 (Set)

Generalized Mathematical Model of Extreme Ice Loads on Offshore Engineering

Structures in Frozen Seas

Alexander T. Bekker, Olga A. Sabodash, Oleg A. Shubin

Far-Eastern State Technical University,

Vladivostok, Russia

ABSTRACT - to develop the simplified mathematical models of interaction

The subject of this study is estimation of extreme ice loads from
drifting hummocks and hummocky fields, as well as those from the
even ice fields of occasional recurrence which affect the marine
engineering structures on shelf of the freezing seas. The authors have
improved the previous deterministic model of dynamic contact
interaction of drifting ice floes by simulation of frictional forces in
contact. This model was realized as original computer animation
model of ice floes impact, developed on the base of Delphi 7.0
software.
KEY WORDS: extreme ice loads, ice floes, hummocks,
deterministic model, dynamic parameters.
between the ice and the structure in every design scenario;
- to determine design ice loads with the specified exceedance of
probability for various ice conditions in every design scenario.
In the previous studies (Bekker et al, 2006) the authors offered the
deterministic model of a local ice drift in the water area including
contact interactions of level ice fields with each other and with the
fixed objects. In this model, the ice cover was considered as a
mechanical system of single drifting ice floes which can interact with
each other and with the fixed object. As a result, kinematic
characteristics of the ice cover were received in terms of the equation
of balance of the exterior moving forces affecting the single ice floes.

INTRODUCTION The purpose of this study is mathematical simulation of formation of

When designing ice-resistant platforms for the development of the
largest Russian Arctic deposits, the reliable estimation of the design
ice loads is necessary with the target level of safety during all the
lifetime of the structure. The level of reliability of ice load estimations
directly depends on quality and a degree of accuracy of mathematical
models describing ice-structure interaction.
Generally the ice cover of the freezing seas represents the composite
spatially-non-uniform structure consisting of constituents various in
the origin and properties, such as the rare and layered ice fields, first-
year or perennial hummocks, hummock’s rows, stamukha, and other
ice formations drifting in water areas in condition of rarefaction with a
various degree of unity (Bekker et al, 2001).
In order to describe mathematically the formation of extreme ice loads
on offshore engineering structures, first of all, it is necessary:
- to select and analyze the design scenario with the ice cover including
the analysis of the mode of a structure failure and target levels of
structure reliability;
the extreme ice loads of various securities on offshore engineering
structures affected by an integral ice cover. Thus the method of
discrete units was used, i.e. the ice cover was represented in the form
of a population of a great number of drifting single fragments random
in the form and sizes (the large ice fields, the single ice floes, solid
hummocky ridges and single hummocks). The interaction between
adjacent fragments was set as the function of their relative
displacements and velocities.
This paper continues the studies of the authors concerning the given
subjects, thus the following tasks were solved:
- The design scenario of interaction of ice floes on contact with each
other and with the fixed rigid object was analyzed;
- The deterministic model of the dynamic contact interaction of the
drifting ice floes by simulation of the frictional forces in contact was
improved;
- The original computer animation was developed in order to analyze
the extreme ice loads in view of specificity of ice conditions offshore
Sakhalin, described by previous studies (Bekker et al, 2001).

723
THE DETERMINISTIC MODEL
In order to embedding the generalized deterministic model of the local
ice drift in the water area including contact interactions of the ice
fields between each other and with the fixed objects the following
assumptions were developed (Bekker et al, 2006):
1) The ice cover represented a mechanical system from single
fragments - ice floes which can interact with each other and with the
fixed rigid objects (a leg of the structure, single hummocks,
hummocky ridges, etc.).
2) The flow of N ice floes with the initial known (according to
natural observations) kinematical and geometrical performances
moves uniformly in the water area affected by wind forces and
currents.
3) The impacts of ice floes with each other or with other objects
were considered as elastic-plastic interaction between absolutely rigid
bodies.
4) Initially all the ice floes had an angular velocity w=0. Should an
ice floe impact an object, its angular velocity varies.
5) The form of ice floes was considered circular in the plan.
6) Local motion of the ice floes was considered in a local (plane)
The given forces lay on a tangent line to a circle in the point of
interaction of the ice floes, and their direction is determined by
direction of inertial forces projection on axis parallel to a tangent line.
It is obvious that F frr _ nk = F frr _ kn ;
M n is a torque of n th ice floe in interaction with kth ice floe;
M k is a resultant moment arising in kth ice floe.
At the instant of interaction of the ice floes, a redistribution of inertial
forces occurred through points of contact. If circle ice floes interacted,
such redistribution occurred along the straight line connecting their
centers with a point of contact and by means of the inertial forces of
both ice floes projected on such straight line. If one ice floe interacted
with several ice floes from time to time, the inertial force of the given
ice floe reallocated to the other ice floes. It is obvious, that the
majority of inertial forces would be perceived with those ice floes
which were located more close to the resultant.
Thus, it is possible to express redistribution of the inertial forces as
follows (Fig.1):
⎧ 2 2
⎪ Fk = X k + Yk
⎪ F = k ⋅ F + k ⋅ F + ... + k ⋅ F
⎪ k 1 k 2 k n k
⎨
( )
⎪ F pressue _ k _ i = ki ⋅ Fk ⋅ cos α i
/
, (1)

frame (x, y). That is why the effect of a buoyancy force and the effect
of a gravitational force on the ice floe were not considered.
⎪
( )
⎩⎪ Fdrag _ k _ i = k i ⋅ Fk ⋅ sin α i
/

7) Generally a moving ice floe was affected by frictional forces on

"air-ice" and "ice-water" contact surfaces. Force of Coriolis was ( )
where Fpressure _ k _ i = ki ⋅ Fk ⋅ cos α i/ is a part of the inertial force of
neglected. k ice floe projected on the line connecting its centre with centre of ith
th

ice floe; where ki (i=1,2,….n) are the factors of redistribution of the

The kinematic analysis of a single ice floe drift was considered in
detail in the previous studies (Bekker et al, 2006), thus the differential
equations of Lagrange of II- type were used.
In this paper, the kinematic and dynamic parameters resulted from
driving and interactions of single fragments of an ice cover were
determined under the following scenarios:
inertial forces; Fdrag _ k _ i = ki ⋅ Fk ⋅ sin α i/( ) is a part of the inertial
force of kth ice floe, projected on a perpendicular to the line
connecting its centre with centre of ith ice floe; α i/ is an angle
between a direction of kth ice floe resultant and a line (Ok Oi ) of
interaction with ith ice floe.

1. Interaction between single drifting ice floes of random form and The geometrical factors, which define a share of the inertial force of
sizes; kth ice floe at interaction with ith ice floe, were determined from:
2. Interaction of single drifting ice floes of random form and sizes
with the single hummock leant against a structure and frozen thereto; 4 ⋅ Si
1−
3. Interaction of single drifting ice floes of random form and sizes π ⋅ Ri2
with an extended ridge of hummocks; ki = , (2)
n ⎛ 4 ⋅ Si ⎞⎟
4. Interaction of single drifting ice floes of random form and sizes ∑ ⎜⎜1 −
with a fixed, absolutely rigid leg of a structure. i =1⎝ π ⋅ Ri2 ⎟⎠

Scenario 1 - Interaction of the drifting single ice floes: where Si is an area of ith sector, appropriate of angle ∠OOk Oi (Fig.1
/ O O // = 180o ; O is point
and Fig.2); OOk is bisector of angle ∠Olim
a) Force interaction k lim i
of contact of kth ice floe with ith ice floe.
Let's introduce legend as follows:
Some limitation is imposed on Si value like it cannot fall outside the
Fk is inertial force of the kth ice floe;
/ O O // , otherwise k = 0 .
limits of Olim
X k is projection of force Fk on axis OX ; k lim i

Yk is projection of force Fk on axis OY ;

This factors are characterized the part of inertia, which given by ith ice
F frr _ n _ k is a force of rolling friction arising from interaction floe in result of contact.
between n and kth ice floe in the point of contact.
th
Thus, the frictional forces arising on contact of kth ice floe with other

Paper No. 2007-ATB-06 Alexander T.724

Bekker Page 2 of 7
ice floes may be calculated from: ⎧ ν drag _ k _ 1
⎪ wk _ 1 =
[ ( )
⎧ F frr _ k _ 1 = μ r ⋅ k1 ⋅ Fk ⋅ cos α1/ − X 1 ⋅ cos (α1 ) − Y1 ⋅ sin (α1 ) ] ⎪
⎪
Rk
ν drag _ k _ 2
⎪ s
[ ( )
⎪ F fr _ k _ 2 = μ s ⋅ k 2 ⋅ Fk ⋅ cos α 2/ − X 2 ⋅ cos (α 2 ) − Y2 ⋅ sin (α 2 ) ,
⎨
] (3)
⎪wk _ 2 =
⎨ Rk (5)
⎪ .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .... ⎪ ..........................
⎪F r [ ( )
⎩ fr _ k _ n = μ r ⋅ k n ⋅ Fk ⋅ cos α n − X n ⋅ cos (α n ) − Yn ⋅ sin (α n )
/
] ⎪
⎪w =
ν drag _ k _ n
⎪⎩ k _ n Rk
where μ r is a coefficient of rolling friction; μ s is a coefficient of
sliding friction; αi is an angle between X i and (Ok Oi ) line Thus, the total angular velocity of kth ice floe may be defined as
n
connecting the centers of ith and kth ice floes. follows: wk = ∑ wk _ i + wok .
i =1
The choice of the corresponding coefficient depended on a cross
direction of the torques organized at the time of interaction. If they c) Rotational movement at ice floe interaction
were directed clockwise, we used μ s , or else μ r .
Until the moment of ice floes interaction, every ice floe may have
b) Velocity pulse at impact of ice floes only wi damping angular velocity (i.e. angular velocity tending to
zero with time because of water friction), while missing moment of
Let's introduce legend: torsion M i .
wi is angular velocity of ith ice floe;
w0i is angular velocity of ith ice floe before interaction; Taking as an example kth ice floe at the time of interaction from Fig. 1
ε i is angular acceleration of ith ice floe; we can see that:

ε 0i is angular acceleration of ith ice floe before interaction; ⎧ Fdrag _ k _ 1 = k1 ⋅ Fk ⋅ sin α1/ ( )
ν i is velocity of ith ice floe; ⎪
⎪ Fdrag _ k _ 2 = k 2 ⋅ Fk ⋅ sin α 2
⎨
( ) /
. (6)
ν xi is projection of ν i to OX axis;
⎪ .................... ....................
ν yi is projection of ν i to OY axis; ⎪F
⎩ drag _ k _ n = k n ⋅ Fk ⋅ sin α n ( ) /

Ppressure _ k _ i
ν pressure _ k _ i = is projection of ν k to a line
mk Thus, it is obvious (Fig. 1) that at the time of interaction between the
connecting centers of kth and ith ice floes; ice floes, each of them had some force couples which quantity was
determined by the quantity of interactions (contacts). These forces
( )
Ppressure _ k _ i
ν pressure _ k _ i = is projection of ν k perpendicular to were the frictional force F frr _ k _ i F frs _ k _ i and the drag
mk
a line connecting centers of kth and ith ice floes. force Fdrag _ k _ i .

By analogy to the previous expressers (Case a)), we receive: From here it was possible to make two outputs:

⎧
( )
a) If Fdrag _ k _ i ≤ F frr _ k _ i F frs _ k _ i , kth ice floe would not rotate
2 2
⎪ Pk = mk ν xk + ν yk relative to the point of contact with ith ice floe;
⎪ P = k ⋅ P + k ⋅ P + ... + k ⋅ P
⎪ k 1 k 2 k n k
( )
b) If Fdrag _ k _ i > F frr _ k _ i F frs _ k _ i , n th ice floe would rotate
( )
⎨ , (4)
⎪ Ppressure _ k _ i = ki ⋅ Pk ⋅ cos α i
/ relative to the point of contact with kth ice floe.
⎪
⎪⎩ Pdrag _ k _ i = k i ⋅ Pk ⋅ sin α i/ ( ) Then we have:

where Pk is principal impulse of kth ice floe; mk is a mass of kth ice (

⎧ M k _ 1 = Fdrag _ k _ 1 − F frr _ k _ 1 ⋅ Rk )
floe; Ppressure _ k _ i is projection of Pk to a line connecting centers of
⎪
⎨
(
⎪M k _ 2 = Fdrag _ k _ 2 − F frs _ k _ 2 ⋅ Rk ), (7)
ith and kth ice floes, thus Pdrag _ k _ i = mk ⋅ν drag _ k _ i ; Pdrag _ k _ i is ⎪ .................... ...............................
projection of a part of Pk to a line connecting centers of ith and kth ice
⎪M ( r
⎩ k _ n = Fdrag _ k _ n − F fr _ k _ n ⋅ Rk )
floes, thus Pdrag _ k _ i = mk ⋅ν drag _ k _ i ; ki are coefficients defined
where Rk is radius of kth ice floe.
from Eq.2.

From the above, we found angular velocities of rotation of ice floes at Therefore, the resultant moment of kth ice floe at every time of
the time of interaction: interaction would be determined by total moments arising on contacts

( )
n
to the other ice floes: M k = ∑ M k _ i .
i =1

Paper No. 2007-ATB-06 Alexander T.725

Bekker Page 3 of 7
From here it was possible to determine the angular accelerations of ⎧ M knew
_ 1 = M k _ 1 − M1 _ k
rotation of the ice floes at the time of interaction: ⎪ new
⎪M k _ 2 = M k _ 2 − M 2 _ k
⎨ . (11)
⎧ a drag _ k _ 1 ⎪ .................... ..............
⎪ ε k _1 = ⎪M new = M
⎪ Rk ⎩ k _n k _n − Mn_k
⎪ a drag _ k _ 2
⎪ε k _ 2 = ⎧ new M k _ 1 − M1 _ k
⎨ Rk . (8) ⎪ Fdrag _ k _ 1 =
⎪ .................... ...... ⎪ Rk
⎪ a drag _ k _ n ⎪ new Mk _ 2 − M2_k
⎪ε = ⎪ Fdrag _ k _ 2 =
⎪⎩ k _ n Rk ⎨ Rk . (12)
⎪ .......................................
⎪ Mk _ n − Mn_ k
Thus, the total angular acceleration of kth ice floe could be found as ⎪ F new =
n
⎪⎩ drag _ k _ n Rk
follows: ε k = ∑ ε k _ i + ε 0k .
i =1
From Eq. 11 and Eq.12 we can see that the angular momentum M knew
_i
Scenarios 2, 3 and 4: Interaction of drifting single ice floes of new
formed the new drag force Fdrag _ k _ i (determined from Eq.6) which
random form and sizes with absolutely rigid fixed objects
(hummocks, ridges of hummocks, structure support, etc) in a following instant would form a new angular momentum, if there
was a contact with another ice floe. Thus increase of the force
new
From Fig. 3 we can see that only the frictional force varied in case of Fdrag _ k _ i was limited by the air/water frictional forces.
interaction of the ice floes with various objects if compared with the
frictional force at interaction of an ice floe with another ice floe. The As a result, the principal vector of forces for the given ice floe was
essence of modification was that the object did not have any active determined as the vector sum of its components, such as
pressure on the ice floe, i.e. r new r new
F pressure _ k _ i and Fdrag _ k _ i . This rule concerned all the ice floes.
⎧ F frr _ k _ 1 = μ r ⋅ k1 ⋅ Fk ⋅ cos α1/ ( )
⎪ s
⎪ F fr _ k _ 2 = μ s ⋅ k2 ⋅ Fk ⋅ cos α 2
⎨
( ) /
. (9)
We found new dynamic responses similarly, as follows:

_ k _ 1 = Ppressure _ k _ 1 − P1 ⋅ cos (α 1 ) − P1 ⋅ sin (α1 )

⎪ .................... ............................. ⎧ Ppressure
new
⎪F r
⎩ fr _ k _ n = μ fr ⋅ k2 ⋅ Fk ⋅ cos α n ( ) / ⎪ new
⎪ Ppressure _ k _ 2 = Ppressure _ k _ 2 − P2 ⋅ cos(α 2 ) − P2 ⋅ sin (α 2 )
⎨ , (13)
th ⎪ ........................................ ...................................
The other dynamic responses of k ice floe remained without
⎩ pressure _ k _ n = Ppressure _ k _ n − Pn ⋅ cos(α n ) − Pn ⋅ sin (α n )
⎪ P new
modifications.

Dynamic responses of ice floes on contact new new

where Ppressure _ k _ i = m k ⋅ν pressure _ k _ i is a new impulse of the
The previous studies showed that principal dynamic responses at projection Pk on a line connecting centers of ith and kth ice floes.
interaction of the ice floes were as follows: a force of
(
pressure F pressure _ k _ i , a frictional force F frr _ n _ k F frs _ n _ k ) and a Further, it is possible to find angular velocity and angular acceleration
for every ice floe:
drag force Fdrag _ n _ k . The first of them worked for modification of
an inertial force, and the second and the third worked for formation of ⎧ υ drag
new
_ k _1
a rotation. Thus, on interaction of the ice floes with each other (basing ⎪ wknew
_1 =
on the assumption 3) the inertial forces of kth ice floe could be ⎪ Rk
⎪
⎪w new = υ drag _ k _ 2
determined from: new

⎨ k _2 Rk (14)
⎪
_ k _ 1 = F pressure _ k _ 1 − X 1 ⋅ cos(α1 ) − Y1 ⋅ sin (α1 )
⎧ F pressure
new
⎪ new ⎪ .......... .......... ......
⎪ F pressure _ k _ 2 = F pressure _ k _ 2 − X 2 ⋅ cos(α 2 ) − Y2 ⋅ sin (α 2 ) ⎪ new υ drag _ k _ n
new

⎨ . (10) ⎪wk _ n =
⎪ .................................................. ......................... ⎩ Rk

⎩ pressure _ k _ n = F pressure _ k _ n − X n ⋅ cos(α n ) − Yn ⋅ sin (α n )

⎪F new
⎧ new
a drag _ k _1
⎪ ε knew
_1 =
And angular momentums M kнов нов
_ i and drag forces Fтяг _ k _ i were
⎪ Rk
⎪ new
determined as: ⎪ε new = a drag _ k _ 2
⎨ k_2 Rk , (15)
⎪
⎪ .......... .......... ......
new
⎪ new a drag _ k _ n
⎪ε k _ n =
⎩ Rk

Paper No. 2007-ATB-06 Alexander T.726

Bekker Page 4 of 7
 new
where adrag _ k _i =
new
Fdrag _ k _i
is a new tangential acceleration of kth
3
5
( )
will separate in F2/ and F2// , respectively, where F2/ = ⋅ cos 00 ⋅ F1/
mk
ice floe relative to the point of contact with ith ice floe. // 2
( )
0
and F2 = ⋅ cos 60 ⋅ F1 .
5
/

Now let’s consider an ice floe with centre O5 . The forces of pressure
CALCULATION ALGORITHM AND RESULTS F2// transmitted to it from ice floes with centers O2 and O3 but as it

We could show the following algorithm (Fig. 4) for the generalized contacted the ice floes with centers O4 and O6 each of these forces
mathematical model describing drift of single ice floes of random
form and sizes, their interaction with each other or with the fixed rigid
1
would develop in the following components: F3/ = ⋅ cos 600 ⋅ F2//
3
( )
( )
object: 2
// 0 // /
and F3 = ⋅ cos 60 ⋅ F2 , where F3 would be transmitted both to
1. Input of initial kinematic, physical and geometrical parameters of 3
ith ice floes from random flow N of ice floes, and also input of the ice floe with centre O4 , and to the ice floe with centre O6 . But
parameters of the fixed object (for example, a structure, a single besides this force, they would also receive force F2/ . From that we
hummock or a ridge).
could determine values of boundary pressure forces of the ice floes
2. Definition of the active wind/current driving forces applied to ith ice with centers O4 , O5 , and O6 in contact with a structure and we could
floe. build an approximate pressure curve (Fig.5).

3. Searching out equations of motion of ith ice floe by numerical For ice floes with centers O4 , O6 forces of pressure in contact were
solution of Lagrange II-type differential equations at every given kth equal:
time step-interval (Bekker et al, 2006).
( ) 35 ⋅ cos(0 )⋅ F ⋅ cos(30 ) =
F4 = F6 = F2/ ⋅ cos 30 0 = 0
1
/ 0

4. Check of run-time of the program: t≤tn, where tn is a time of ,

= ⋅ cos (0 )⋅ ⋅ cos (30 )⋅ F ⋅ cos (30 ) =
3 0 1 0 0 9
duration of the design scenario with the ice cover. If the condition was ⋅F
fulfilled, further calculation was made according to Item 5, otherwise 5 2 40
according to Item 8.
and for the ice floe with centre O5 :
5. Representation of outcomes of computer-animated of ith ice floes
motion and impact in the water area.
2
3
( ) 2
3
( ) ( ) 2
F5 = 2 ⋅ F3// = 2 ⋅ ⋅ cos 600 ⋅ F2// = 2 ⋅ ⋅ cos 600 ⋅ ⋅ cos 60 0 ⋅ F1/ =
5

= 2 ⋅ ⋅ cos (60 )⋅ ⋅ cos(60 )⋅ ⋅ cos(30 )⋅ F =

6. Check of ith ice floe impact with the fixed rigid object. If no impact,
calculation was realized according to Item 7, and in case of impact an
object was identified (a hummock, a ridge, or a structure). Depending
on a type of the object, dynamic and kinematic parameters of ith ice
floe were determined according to the offered scenarios.
7. Check of ith ice floe presence in the given water area.
8. The program termination and output of results.
EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION OF INTERACTION
BETWEEN ICE FLOES AND A STRUCTURE
From Fig.5 we can see that on an ice floe impact with centre O1
against the ice floes with centers O2 and O3 its inertial force F was
shared into two forces of pressure F1/ (besides that drag forces would
be there, as well, but we did not consider them), because the ice floes
with centers O2 and O3 were positioned symmetrically relative to
r 1
( )
force direction F . It was obvious that F1/ = ⋅ cos 300 ⋅ F .
2
Further, ice floes with centers O2 and O3 would receive the inertial
r interaction on ice contact;
forces F1 which, in turn, from conditions of contact (the ice floe with
centre O2 contacts the ice floes with centers O4 and O5 , and the ice
floe with centre O3 touches the ice floes with centers O5 and O6 ),
2 0 2 01 3
0
⋅ F.
3 5 2 30
CONCLUSIONS
1. In this paper, the authors improved the deterministic model
of the dynamic contact interaction between the drifting ice floes
offered in their previous studies. Thus formations of the frictional
forces on contact between the ice floes and the structure, as well as
kinematic and dynamic parameters of the ice floes, were considered
under various most probable scenarios of interaction.
2. Reliability of the outcomes was approved by the control
animation model developed on the basis of Delphi programming
technologies, in view of specificity of the ice conditions offshore
Sakhalin.
3. The authors assumed the directions of their further
investigations as follows:
- Introduction in the model of probability parameters of ice
floes of various plan sizes;
- Detailed investigation of the point of contact of ice floes as
boundary condition and solution of problem of elastic-plastic
- Simulation modeling of the dynamic process of interaction
both between ice floes and between the ice floes and a structure;
- Simulation modeling of the extreme ice loads on offshore
structures with specified exceedance of probability.

Paper No. 2007-ATB-06 Alexander T.727

Bekker Page 5 of 7
REFERENCES

Bekker, AT and Sabodash, OA, and Venkov, AV (2001),

“Investigation of Extreme Ice Loads on Offshore Structures”, Proc.
Int. Society of Offshore and Polar Engineering Conf., Stavanger,
Vol. 1, pp 788-795.

Bekker, AT and Sabodash, OA and Shubin, OA (2006),”Global

Simulation Model of Extreme Ice Loads On Marine Offshore Ice-
Resistant Platforms”, Proc. the 7th ISOPE Pacific/Asia Offshore
Mechanics Symposium, Dalian, pp 73-80.

Fig. 2. The scheme of kinematic interaction between drifting single

ice floes.

Fig. 1. Scheme of force interaction between drifting single ice floes.

Fig. 3. The scheme of interaction between drifting single ice floes of

random sizes and absolutely rigid fixed objects.

Paper No. 2007-ATB-06 Alexander T.728

Bekker Page 6 of 7
 Fig. 5. The scheme of the pressure forces distribution between the ice
floes and the structure.
Fig.4. The total block-diagram of task implementation.

Paper No. 2007-ATB-06 Alexander T.729

Bekker Page 7 of 7