OBJECTIVES

 Application of fluid mechanics to design a hydraulic machinery.

 Identify various types of turbines, and understand how they work.

 To learn about basic design procedure of different types of turbine and their

comparisons.
 BASIC CONCEPTS

• Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with both stationary and

moving bodies under the influence of forces.

• The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is called statics,

• While the branch that deals with bodies in motion is called dynamics.

• The subcategory fluid mechanics is defined as the science that deals with the

behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the

interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.

 Introduction

Device which converts the energy stored by a fluid into mechanical

Fluid Machine
energy or vice versa.

Positive The machines whose functioning depends essentially on the

displacement change of volume of a certain amount of fluid within the
machines machine.

Physical displacement of the boundary of a certain fluid mass

as a closed system.

Ex. Reciprocating motion of a piston within a cylinder while

entrapping a certain amount of fluid in it.

Ex. All Reciprocating Machines.

 Introduction cont..

Rotodynamic Whose functioning basically depends on the principle of fluid

machines dynamics.

They are distinguished from positive displacement machines in

requiring relative motion between the fluid and the moving
part of the machine.
Rotating Consists of number of blades or vanes,
element called as rotor or impeller.
Fixed
element Fixed element called as stator.
 Hydraulic Machines
• Hydraulic machine is a general term used for all devices/machines handling liquid.
Hydraulic Machines

Turbomachines Reciprocating Various water Pumps

machines lifting devices transmitting oil
 Turbo-Machines
• The devices in which energy is transferred either to, or from, a continuously flowing fluid
by the dynamic action of moving blades on the runner.
• The word turbo or turbines is of Latin origin and implies that which spins or whirls around.
1. The turbomachines may be classified as :
(a) Open and enclosed machines :
Open turbomachines are those which influence an indefinite quantity of fluid e.g.,
propellers, windmills and unshrouded fans. Such machines come generally under the
category of aerodynamics.
(ii) Enclosed turbomachines in which a finite quantity of fluid passes through a casing in
unit time.
(b) Absorption and production of power :
(i) Those which absorb power to increase the fluid pressure or head
e.g., pump, ducted fans and compressors.
(ii) Those which produce power by expanding fluid to a lower pressure or head e. g.,
hydraulic, steam and gas turbines.
 Turbo-Machines cont.
(c) Type of fluid handled :
(i) Those which handle water e.g., pumps and hydraulic turbines.
(ii) Those which handle steam e.g., steam turbines.
(iii) Those which handle air or gas e.g., ducted fans, compressors and gas turbines.
The enclosed type hydradulic machines
i.e., pumps and hydraulic turbines.
2. Hydraulic Machines-Hydraulic machine is a general term used for all devices/machines
handling liquids.

Hydraulic machines consist of :

(a) Turbomachines e.g., pumps and hydraulic turbines generally known as rotodynamic
machines.
(b) Reciprocating machines e.g., reciprocating pumps. These are known as positive
displacement pumps.
(c) Various water lifting devices e.g., jet pump, air-lift pump, and hydraulic ram.
 Hydraulic Machines cont..
Energy is transferred either to, or from, a continuously
Turbomachines flowing fluid by the dynamic action of moving blades on
the runner.

The word turbo or turbines is

of Latin origin and implies
that which spins or whirls
around.

Circular motion
 Types of Rotodynamic Machines

Turbine: The work is done by the

fluid on the rotor.
Pump, Compressor, Fan, and
Blower: The work is done by the
rotor on the fluid element.

(a) A pump supplies energy to a fluid, (b) A turbine extracts energy

while from a fluid
 Fan, Blower, and Compressor
Air compressors that run
pneumatic tools and
 Fluid machines that move liquids are called pumps. Inflate tires at automobile
service stations, and
 But there are several other names for machines that move gases. refrigerant compressors
used in heat pumps,
Energy Absorbing Devices refrigerators, and air
conditioners.

Fan Blower Compressor

A blower is a gas pump with relatively

moderate to high pressure rise and A compressor is a gas
A fan is a gas pump with relatively pump designed to
low pressure rise and high flow rate. moderate to high flow rate.
Examples: deliver a very high
Examples: pressure rise, typically
 Ceiling fans,  Centrifugal Blowers and Squirrel
Cage Blowers in Automobile at low to moderate
 Propellers flow rates.
Ventilation Systems, Furnaces, and
Leaf Blowers
 Fan, Blower, and Compressor cont..

Leaf Blower
Centrifugal Blowers
Squirrel Cage Blowers

Furnaces Blower
Ship Propeller
Air compressor
 Fan, Blower, and Compressor cont..

Parameters Fan Blower Compressor

Pressure rise ∆𝑃 Low Medium High
Volume flow rate (𝑉) High Medium Low
 Principles of Hydraulic Machinery
Dynamic Action of Fluid
• A stream of fluid entering in a machine such as a hydraulic or steam turbine, a pump or fan, has
more or less a defined direction.
• A force is always required to act upon the fluid to change its velocity either in direction or in
magnitude.
• Newton's Third Law of Motion states that to every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction. According to this law an equal and opposite force is exerted by the fluid upon the
body that causes the change.
• This force exerted by virtue of fluid motion is called a Dynamic Force.
• Whereas hydraulic pressure implies no motion, dynamic force always involves a change in
velocity and thus a change in momentum.
 Principles of Hydraulic Machinery cont.

• The major problem in turbo machinery is to find the power developed (or consumed) by (or in)
a particular machine.
• A turbine produces power while a pump, compressor or fan consumes power in order to run.
• The power is determined from the dynamic force or forces which are being exerted by the
flowing fluid on the boundaries of flow passage and which are due to the change of
momentum.
• These are determined by applying "Newton's Second Law of Motion”.
• Momentum may be linear or angular. In fact angular momentum is moment of linear
momentum.
• Rate of change of linear momentum is equal to the force which is responsible for this change;
while rate of change of angular momentum will be equal to the torque of a fluid mass.
 Principles of Hydraulic Machinery cont.

• If a fluid particle moves in specified direction (i.e., x-direction) and a boundary, change of
linear momentum will be involved, giving rise to force.
• This force will be responsible for the motion of a turbine runner. The force multiplied by the
distance moved by the runner per unit time will give the power developed by the machine. This
is the case of tangential flow machine which is known as Pelton turbine.
• In case the fluid particles move along a curved path change of angular momentum (i.e.
moment of momentum) will be used to determine torque. The torque multiplied by angular
velocity of the runner will give the power of the machine. The torque may be positive or
negative depending upon whether it is exerted on the fluid by the body which is being revolved
by some external energy or it is exerted on the body by the fluid to revolve it.
 Principles of Hydraulic Machinery cont.
• The positive torque multiplied by angular velocity results in power consumed by a machine
such as pump, compressor, blower or fan.
• The negative torque multiplied by angular velocity will give the power developed by the
machine such as turbine, ship and aeroplane propeller including helicopter, windmill and fluid
coupling.
 Newton's Second Law of Motion, Linear Momentum Equation and Impulse
Momentum Equation
The fundamental principle of dynamics is Newton's Second Law of Motion which states that "The
rate of change of momentum is proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction of
the force".

Change of momentum = m.𝒅𝒗

𝒅𝝑
and rate of change of momentum = 𝒎.
𝒅𝒕
According to the above law,
Dynamic force applied in x- direction = Rate of change of momentum in x-direction
𝒅𝝑𝒙
𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝑭𝒙 = 𝒎.
𝒅𝒕
This equation is known as linear momentum equation and can also be written as

𝑭𝒙 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒎. 𝒅𝝑𝒙
Newton's Second Law of Motion, Linear Momentum Equation and Impulse
Momentum Equation cont..

𝑭𝒙 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒎. 𝒅𝝑𝒙 𝟏

Impulse of applied force Resulting change in momentum

Equation 1 is known as Impulse-momentum Equation which states -

"Impulse of dynamic force = resulting change in momentum of body."
𝒅𝝑𝒙
𝑭𝒙 = 𝒎.
𝒅𝒕
Newton's second law of motion is generally applicable to a system. This may be written as
𝒅𝝑𝒙
𝑭𝒙 = 𝒎.
𝒅𝒕
Newton's Second Law of Motion, Linear Momentum Equation and Impulse
Momentum Equation cont..

𝒅𝝑𝒙
𝑭𝒙 = 𝒎.
𝒅𝒕

𝒎
𝑭𝒙 = 𝝑𝒙𝟐 − 𝝑𝒙𝟏
𝒕
Since the dimensions of m/t is mass per unit time that is mass flow 𝝆𝑸

𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝑭𝒙 = 𝝆𝑸 𝝑𝒙𝟐 − 𝝑𝒙𝟏
 Conversion of Hydropower

Power, P = Potential energy of flowing water in turbine

= mass x gravitational acceleration x head
= m.g.H
But mass = discharge x Density
=𝑸×𝝆
P = 𝝆𝑸gH
Turbine Types
 Motivation

Design of fluid machinery

The most common practical engineering application for fluid mechanics

Model Investigation

Hydraulic structures (such as Hydraulic machines (such as

dams, spillways etc.) turbines, pumps etc.)
The engineers
associated with the
design, construction
and efficient working.

How the structure or the machine would behave when it is actually constructed
 Model Investigation
Experiments are also necessitated in the case of the problems which cannot be solved
completely simply by theoretical analysis.

The experiments can not be carried out on the full size hydraulic structures or machines

It is then essential to construct a small scale replica of the structure or the machine and
the tests are performed on it to obtain the desired information.
The small scale replica of the
The actual structure or
actual structure or the
machine is called prototype
machine is known as its model
Mostly the models are much smaller than the corresponding prototypes, but in some cases the models may be
larger than the prototypes.

The laboratory scale systems Models

The full size or actual scale systems Prototypes
 Objectives of Model Investigation

 To provide visual demonstration of the flow pattern.

 To verify the accuracy of theoretical design & concept.

 Principal design tool in cases where established procedures are not available.
 Model Investigation cont..

 The design, construction and operation of the

The model tests are quite
economical and convenient model may be altered several times if
necessary (without incurring much
expenditure),
 Till all the defects of the model are eliminated
and the most suitable design is obtained.
 Similarity

Complete similarity
In a general between a model and When there is:
flow field prototype is  Geometric,
achieved only  Kinematic, and
 Dynamic similarity

Geometric similarity between a prototype car

of length 𝑳𝑷 and a model car of length 𝑳𝒎
 Importance
• Two similar hydraulic machines designed for different specifications are required to be
compared.
• It is possible that a hydraulic machine may not give the desired results for which it has
been designed. Such a machine is costly to manufacture and once it is made, it is difficult
to change its components.
• Therefore it is required to predict the performance of a prototype hydraulic machine
before it is manufactured. This is done by making its model.
• Experiments are first performed on models and from their results, the performance of the
prototype machine is predicted.
 Concept of Physical Similarity

Primary and fundamental requirement for the physical similarity

Physics of the
problems must be the
same

Flow through
closed conduit Flow through an
open channel
 Similarity based on different Physical Quantities

If the specified physical quantities are geometrical dimensions

Geometric
Similarity

If the specified physical quantities are related to motion

Kinematic
Similarity

If the specified physical quantities refer to force

Dynamic
Similarity

Figure: Geometrically similar objects

 Dimensional analysis

Model (m)
Types of Similarity Similar

Prototype (P)

Geometric Similarity Similarity Of Dimensions

Dynamic Similarity
𝐿𝑃 𝐵𝑃
= = 𝐿𝑟 = 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝐹𝑔 𝐹𝑣 𝑃
𝐿𝑚 𝐵𝑚 𝑃
= = 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝐴𝑃 𝐿 ×𝐵 𝐹𝑔 𝐹𝑣 𝑚 𝑟
𝑚
= 𝑃 𝑃 = 𝐿2𝑟
𝐴𝑚 𝐿𝑚 ×𝐵𝑚
Kinematic Similarity
Acceleration & velocity
Similarity Of Acceleration & velocity
At every point we need to have same velocity
𝑉𝑃1 𝑉𝑃2
= = 𝑉𝑟 = Velocity ratio and acceleration on both model and prototype.
𝑉𝑚1 𝑉𝑚2
Both are vectors: Magnitude as well as direction both are same.
𝑎𝑃1 𝑎𝑃2
= = 𝑎𝑟 = Acceleration ratio
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2
 Numerical Problems based on Similarity
Q1. A submarine-launched missile, 2 m in diameter and 10 m long, is to be tested in a water
tunnel to determine the forces acting on it during its underwater launch. The maximum
speed during this initial part of the missile’s flight is 10 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏 . Determine the mean water
tunnel flow velocity if a 𝟏 𝟐𝟎 scale model is employed and dynamic similarity is achieved.
Solution:
To comply with dynamic similarity the Reynolds numbers must be identical for both the
model and the prototype:
𝑹𝒆𝒎 = 𝑹𝒆𝒑 ,
𝝆𝑽𝑳 𝝆𝑽𝑳
=
𝝁 𝒎
𝝁 𝒑
Numerical Problems based on Similarity cont..

𝑹𝒆𝒎 = 𝑹𝒆𝒑 ,
𝝆𝑽𝑳 𝝆𝑽𝑳
=
𝝁 𝒎
𝝁 𝒑

The model flow velocity is thus given by

𝑳𝒑 𝝆𝒑 𝝁𝒎
𝑽𝒎 = 𝑽 𝒑
𝑳𝒎 𝝆𝒎 𝝁𝒑

𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝒂𝒔 𝝆𝒑 = 𝝆𝒎 and 𝝁𝒎 =𝝁𝒑

𝑽𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏 × 𝟏= 200 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏
Q2. A production torpedo has a maximum speed of 11 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏 as originally designed. By
introducing a series of design changes, the following improvements were achieved:

1. The cross-sectional area was reduced by 12%;

2. The overall drag coefficient was reduced by 15%;
3. The propulsion power was increased by 20%.
What was the maximum speed of the redesigned torpedo?

Solution:
Use suffix 1 to denote the original design, and suffix 2 to denote the revised design. Then
𝑨𝟐 = 𝑨𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝑨𝟏 = 0.88𝑨𝟏
𝑪𝑫𝟐 = 𝑪𝑫𝟏 - 0.15𝑪𝑫𝟏 = 0.85𝑪𝑫𝟏
𝐏𝟐 = 𝐏𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝐏𝟏 = 1.2𝟎𝐏𝟏
 Numerical Problems based on Similarity cont..
Since,
Power = Drag Force × Velocity
𝟏 𝟐
𝑫 = 𝝆𝑽 𝑨𝑪𝑫
𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
𝟐 𝝆𝑽 𝑨𝑪𝑫
𝐏𝟐 𝐃𝟐 𝐕𝟐 𝐕𝟐 𝐕𝟐
3
𝐀𝟐 𝑪𝑫𝟐
2
= = =
𝐏𝟏 𝐃𝟏 𝐕𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝐕𝟏 𝐀𝟏 𝑪𝑫𝟏
𝝆𝑽 𝑨𝑪𝑫 𝐕𝟏
𝟐 1

Hence

𝟏 𝟑
𝐕𝟐 𝐏𝟐 𝐀 𝟏 𝑪𝑫𝟏 𝟏.𝟐 𝟏 𝟑
= And 𝐕𝟐 = 11𝒎 ∙ 𝒔−𝟏 ×
𝐕𝟏 𝐏𝟏 𝐀 𝟐 𝑪𝑫𝟐 𝟎.𝟖𝟖×𝟎.𝟖𝟓

𝐕𝟐 = 12.88 𝒎 ∙ 𝒔−𝟏
 Numerical Problems based on Similarity cont..
Q3. Flow through a heat exchanger tube is to be studied by means of a 𝟏 𝟏𝟎 scale model. If
the heat exchanger normally carries water, determine the ratio of pressure losses between
the model and the prototype if (a) water is used in the model, (b) air at normal temperature
and pressure is used in the model.

Solution:
For dynamic similarity the Reynolds numbers must be constant; hence
𝑹𝒆𝒎 = 𝑹𝒆𝒑 ,
𝝆𝑽𝑳 𝝆𝑽𝑳
=
𝝁 𝒎
𝝁 𝒑

𝑽𝒎 𝑳𝒑 𝝆𝒑 𝝁𝒎
= 𝟏
𝑽𝒑 𝑳𝒎 𝝆𝒎 𝝁𝒑
If the Reynolds numbers are equal, then so must be the pressure coefficients; therefore
𝑪𝒑 = 𝑪𝒑
𝒎 𝒑

𝟏 𝟏
∆𝒑/ 𝝆𝒗𝟐 = ∆𝒑/ 𝝆𝒗𝟐 ,
𝟐 𝒎 𝟐 𝒑
𝟐
𝝆𝒎 𝑽𝒎
∆𝒑𝒎 = ∆𝒑𝒑 ,
𝝆𝒑 𝑽𝒑
𝟐
∆𝒑𝒎 𝝆𝒎 𝑽𝒎
= , 𝟐
∆𝒑𝒑 𝝆𝒑 𝑽𝒑
 From equation (1), and (2)
𝟐
∆𝒑𝒎 𝝆𝒎 𝑳𝒑 𝝆𝒑 𝝁𝒎
= ,
∆𝒑𝒑 𝝆𝒑 𝑳𝒎 𝝆𝒎 𝝁𝒑
𝟐
∆𝒑𝒎 𝝆𝒑 𝑳𝒑 𝝁𝒎
= ,
∆𝒑𝒑 𝝆𝒎 𝑳𝒎 𝝁𝒑

(a) In the water model case, as the model and prototype fluid densities and viscosities are
the same it follows that
∆𝒑𝒎
= 𝟏𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏 × 𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
∆𝒑𝒑
(b) If air is used as the model fluid then the full form of the pressure coefficient equivalence
must be used: 𝝆𝒑 𝟏𝟎𝟎
=
𝝆𝒎 𝟏.𝟐𝟑
,
 𝝁𝒎 𝟏.𝟖×𝟏𝟎−𝟓
= 𝟏.𝟎×𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐
𝝁𝒑

∆𝒑𝒎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐
= 𝟏𝟎𝟐 × × 𝟏. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎 −𝟐 =26.34
∆𝒑𝒑 𝟏.𝟐𝟑
 Unit and Specific Quantities
• The rate of flow, speed, power etc., of hydraulic machines are all functions of the
working head which is one of the most fundamental of all quantities that go to determine
the flow phenomena associated with machines such as turbines and pumps.
• To facilitate correlation, comparison and use of experimental data, these quantities are
usually reduced to unit heads.
• Each is expressed as a function of head and its value corresponding to a unit value of
head is determined.
• These reduced quantities are known as unit quantities* e.g., unit flow, unit speed, unit
force, unit power and unit torque etc.
• Thus two similar turbines having different data can be compared by reducing the data of
both turbines under unit head.
 Purpose of Unit Quantities

 1st step in the process of interpreting the performance of a turbo-machine model.

 This offers a broader perspective from limited experimental results.

 Comparative evaluation of the operational characteristics of different machines working

under different condition of speed, head, power and discharge.

 Prediction of performance of given machine under any head from a knowledge of its

action under one head.

 Unit and Specific Quantities
• Concept of 'Unit and Specific Quantities' is a prerequisite for the comparison of hydraulic
machines.
(a) Unit Rate of Flow:-
Rate of flow = Cross-sectional area x Velocity of flow
Symbolically,
𝑸 ∝ 𝒗𝒎𝟎
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝒗𝒎𝟎 = 𝑲𝒗𝒎 . 𝟐𝒈. 𝑯
𝟎

Where H is the head and 𝑲𝒗𝒎 some velocity co-efficient.

𝟎

∴ 𝑸∝ 𝑯
𝒐𝒓 𝑸 = 𝒌𝟏 . 𝑯 𝟏

Now by definition unit rate of flow 𝑸𝟏 is the value of Q

When 𝑯=𝟏
 Unit and Specific Quantities cont..
∴ 𝑸𝟏 = 𝒌𝟏 . 𝟏 = 𝒌𝟏

𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑸𝟏 is numerically equal to 𝒌𝟏

𝑸 = 𝑸𝟏 . 𝑯 From equation 𝟏

Numerically, unit rate of flow

𝑸
∴ 𝑸𝟏 =
𝑯
 Unit Speed
Let N rpm be the speed of the turbine then linear or peripheral velocity of runner at inlet,
𝝅. 𝑫𝟏 . 𝑵
𝒖𝟏 =
𝟔𝟎
𝑨𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒖𝟏 = 𝑲𝒖𝟏 . 𝟐𝒈. 𝑯

∴ 𝑁 ∝ 𝒖𝟏 ∝ 𝑯

𝑜𝑟 𝑁 = 𝑘2 . 𝐻 , 𝟏
Where 𝑘2 is some co-efficient. Now, by definition, unit speed
𝑵𝟏 = 𝑘2 . 𝟏 = 𝑘2

∴ Unit speed is numerically equal to 𝑘2 or numerically,

𝑵 From equation 𝟏
𝑵𝟏 = 𝒌𝟐 =
𝑯
 Unit Power
The available horse-power of a turbine
𝑷𝒂 =
𝜸.𝑸.𝑯
HP Specific weight (𝜸) = 𝝆. 𝒈
𝟕𝟓
and brake horse-power
𝜸. 𝑸. 𝑯
𝑷𝒕 = 𝜼𝒕 HP 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆, 𝜼𝒕 = 𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚
𝟕𝟓

or in general, horse-power
𝑷 ∝ 𝑸. 𝑯
But 𝑸∝ 𝑯 Unit Rate of Flow

∴ 𝑷 ∝ 𝑯. 𝑯
𝟑
𝑷= 𝒌𝟑 . 𝑯𝟐 𝟏 Where 𝑘𝟑 is some co-efficient.
Or
𝟑
Now, by definition, unit power 𝑷𝟏 = 𝒌𝟑 . 𝟏 𝟐 = 𝟏
𝑷
or numerically, 𝑷𝟏 = 𝒌𝟑 = 𝟑
𝑯𝟐
Unit Force and Unit Torque

𝑭
𝑭𝟏 = 𝒌𝟒 =
𝑯

𝑻
𝑻𝟏 = 𝒌𝟓 =
𝑯
 Specific Quantities
• Specific quantity is obtained by reducing any quantity to a value corresponding to unit
head and some unit size.
• When two different turbines are to be compared, it can be done by reducing their data to
specific quantities.
• Thus specific flow is the rate of flow corresponding to unit head and unit diameter.
Similarly specific power is the power corresponding to a unit head and unit diameter.
• The term 'specific' is, however, used in a slightly different sense in connection with speed.
• The specific speed of a turbine is defined as the speed of a geometrically similar turbine
working under a unit head and developing unit power.
• The specific speed of a pump is the speed of a geometrically similar pump working against
a unit head and raising unit quantity of water.
Specific Quantities cont.
 Specific Quantities cont.
(a) Specific Rate of Flow or Specific Flow
For a reaction turbine,

𝑸 = 𝝅 ∙ 𝑫° ∙ 𝑩° ∙ 𝒗𝒎𝟎

The dimensions 𝑩° and 𝑫° generally have linear relations with 𝑫𝟏 the runner diameter at
inlet, and, therefore, since
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝒗𝒎𝟎 = 𝑲𝒗𝒎 . 𝟐𝒈. 𝑯
𝟎

𝒗𝒎𝟎 ∝ 𝑯
Numerically,
𝑸 ∝ 𝑫𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝑯 𝑸𝟏𝟏 = 𝒌𝟔
𝒐𝒓 𝑸 = 𝒌𝟔 ∙ 𝑫𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝑯 𝟏 𝑸
From equation 𝟏 𝒌𝟔 =
Now, by definition, specific rate of flow 𝑫𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝑯
𝑸
𝑸𝟏𝟏 = 𝒌𝟔 ∙ 𝟏𝟐 ∙ 𝟏 ∴ 𝑸𝟏𝟏 = 𝒌𝟔 = 𝟐
𝑫𝟏 ∙ 𝑯
 Specific Quantities cont.

For a Pelton turbine,

𝝅 𝟐
𝑸 = ∙ 𝒅𝟏 ∙ 𝒗𝟏
𝟒

𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝑸 ∝ 𝒅𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝑯

Where 𝑑1 = the least diameter of water jet falling on turbine runner

𝑸
∴ 𝑸𝟏𝟏 =
𝑫𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝑯
 Specific Power
𝜸.𝑸.𝑯
The available horse-power of a turbine 𝑷𝒂 =
𝟕𝟓
HP

𝜸. 𝑸. 𝑯
and brake horse-power 𝑷𝒕 = 𝜼𝒕 HP 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆, 𝜼𝒕 = 𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚
𝟕𝟓
or in general, horse-power 𝑷 ∝ 𝑸. 𝑯
For a reaction turbine, 𝑸 ∝ 𝑫𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝑯
𝟑
∴ 𝑷 ∝ 𝑫𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝑯𝟐
𝟑 𝑷
𝑷 = 𝒌𝟕 ∙ 𝑫𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝑯𝟐 ⇒ 𝒌𝟕 = 𝟑
𝟐
𝑫𝟏 ∙𝑯𝟐
𝟑
Now, by definition, the specific power 𝑷𝟏𝟏 = 𝒌𝟕 ∙ 𝟏𝟐 ∙ 𝟏𝟐 Similarly for a Pelton Turbine,
𝑷 𝑷
𝑷𝟏𝟏 = 𝒌𝟕 = 𝟑 𝑷𝟏𝟏 = 𝒌𝟕 = 𝟑
Numerically, 𝑫𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝑯𝟐 𝟐
𝒅𝟏 ∙ 𝑯 𝟐
 Specific Force of Jet on Periphery of Runner
𝑭 = 𝝆 ∙ 𝑸 𝒗𝒖𝟏 − 𝒗𝒖𝟐
𝒐𝒓 𝑭 ∝ 𝑸 ∙ 𝒗𝒖

But 𝑸 ∝ 𝒅𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝑯 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗𝒖 ∝ 𝑯

𝑭
∴ 𝑭∝ 𝒅𝟐𝟏 ∙𝑯 𝒐𝒓 𝑭 = 𝒌𝒔 ∙ 𝒅𝟐𝟏 ∙𝑯 ⇒ 𝒌𝒔 =
𝒅𝟐𝟏 ∙𝑯

∴ By definition, the specific force

𝑭𝟏𝟏 = 𝒌𝒔∙ 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏

or numerically,
𝑭
𝑭𝟏𝟏 = 𝒌𝒔 =
𝒅𝟐𝟏 ∙𝑯
 Specific Torque cont.

Torque = Peripheral Force X Radius of Runner

Symbolically, 𝑻∝𝑭

𝒐𝒓 𝑻 ∝ 𝒅𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝑯

𝒐𝒓 𝑻 = 𝒌𝟗 ∙ 𝒅𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝑯

By definition, the specific torque,

𝑻𝟏𝟏 = 𝒌𝟗 ∙ 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏

Numerically, 𝑻
𝑻𝟏𝟏 = 𝒌𝟗 ⇒ 𝟐
𝒅𝟏 ∙ 𝑯
 Specific Torque cont.

Alternatively, 𝑷=𝑻×𝝎
𝑷
∴ 𝑻=
𝝎
𝒗=𝒓∙𝝎
and since 𝝎 is the angular velocity and is proportional to 𝑯
𝒖𝟏 ∝ 𝑯
𝟑
𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑷 ∝ 𝑫𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝑯𝟐

𝟑
∴
𝑫𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝑯𝟐
𝑻∝
𝑯

𝒐𝒓 𝑻 ∝ 𝑫𝟐𝟏 ∙H
𝑻
∴ 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆, 𝑻𝟏𝟏 = 𝟐
𝑫𝟏 ∙ H
 Reference books

 Fluid Mechanics by Victor L. Streeter and E. Benjamin Wylie, McGraw-Hill.

 Fluid Mechanics by Yunus A. Cengel and Cimbala, McGraw-Hill.

 Hydraulic Machine including Fluidics by J. Lal, Metropolitan Book Co. Private Ltd.

 Turbines, Compressors, and Fans by S M Yahya, Tata McGraw-Hill.

 Specific Speed of a Turbine
Unlike other specific quantities, specific speed is the speed of a geometrically similar turbine
working under unit head and delivering unit brake horse-power.
It has been shown previously that
𝒖𝟏 = 𝝅 ∙ 𝑫𝟏 ∙ 𝑵
𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒖𝟏 ∝ 𝑯
𝑯
∴ 𝑫𝟏 ∝
𝑵
Also it has been shown earlier that brake horse-power

𝑷𝒕 ∝ 𝑸. 𝑯,
where 𝑸 ∝ 𝑫𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝑯
𝟑
∴ 𝑷𝒕 ∝ 𝑫𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝑯𝟐 ,
 Specific Speed of a Turbine cont.
Substituting for 𝑫𝟏 , 𝑯 𝟑
𝑷𝒕 ∝ 𝟐 ∙ 𝑯𝟐
𝑵
𝟓
𝑯𝟐 𝟓
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑷𝒕 ∝ 𝑯𝟐
𝑵𝟐 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑷𝒕 = 𝒌𝒕
𝑵𝟐
𝟓
𝟏
𝑯𝟐 𝟏 = 𝒌𝒕 𝟐 ⇒ 𝒌𝒕 = 𝑵𝟐𝒔
𝒐𝒓 𝑵∝ 𝑵𝒔
𝑷𝒕
𝟓 𝟓
𝑯𝟒 𝑯𝟐
𝒐𝒓 𝑵 = 𝑵𝒔 ∙ ∴ 𝑷𝒕 = 𝑵𝟐𝒔
𝑷𝒕 𝑵𝟐
𝑵∙ 𝑷𝒕
where 𝑵𝒔 = 𝟓
𝑯𝟒
If 𝑷𝒕 = 1 and H = 1, then numerically 𝑵𝒔 = N
𝑵𝒔 is, therefore, by definition, the specific speed of turbine.
 Values of Specific Speed of Turbine
Types of Turbine Types of runner Specific Speed

Pelton Slow 10 to 20

Normal 20 to 28

Fast 28 to 35

Francis Slow 60 to 120

Normal 120 to 180

Fast 180 to 300

Kaplan - 300 to 10,000

 Specific Speed of a Pump
Specific speed of a pump is the speed of a geometrically similar pump delivering a unit
quantity of water against a unit head.

𝒖𝟏 = 𝝅. 𝑫𝟏 . 𝑵

𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒖𝟏 ∝ 𝑯
𝑯
∴ 𝑫𝟏 ∝
𝑵
𝑭𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝑸 ∝ 𝑫𝟐𝟏 ∙ 𝑯
Substituting for 𝑫𝟏 ,
𝑯 𝟏
𝑸 ∝ 𝟐 ∙ 𝑯𝟐
𝑵
𝟑
𝑯𝟐
𝒐𝒓 𝑵 ∝
𝑸
 Specific Speed of a Pump cont.
𝟑
𝑯𝟒
𝒐𝒓 𝑵 = 𝑵𝒔 ∙
𝑸
∴
When Q = 1, and H = 1, then numerically, 𝑵𝒔 = N ∴ N, is, by definition, the specific speed
of a pump.

𝑵∙ 𝑸
𝑵𝒔 = 𝟑
𝑯𝟒
Problem: The two turbines installed at D. V. C. works under a maximum head of 23.4 m

producing 2,800 HP at 250 rpm. Determine :

(a) The HP and rpm of this turbine under a head of one metre,

(b) The rpm of this turbine under one metre head and producing one HP, and

(c) The HP of this turbine working under one metre head and running at 1 rpm.
Solution:
𝟑 𝟑
𝒂. 𝒊 𝑷𝒕𝟏 𝑯𝟏 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝟐
= 𝑷𝒕𝟐 = 𝑷𝒕𝟏
𝑷𝒕𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑯𝟏
𝟑
𝟏 𝟐
𝑷𝒕𝟐 = 𝟐, 𝟖𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟐 𝑯𝑷
𝟐𝟑. 𝟒
𝟏 𝟏
𝒂. 𝒊𝒊 𝑵𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
= 𝑯𝟐
𝑵𝟏 𝑯𝟏 𝑵𝟐 = 𝑵𝟏
𝑯𝟏
𝟏
𝟏 𝟐
𝑵𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 × = 51.6 rpm
𝟐𝟑. 𝟒

𝒃 𝑵∙ 𝑷𝒕
𝑵𝒔 = 𝟓
𝑯𝟒
 𝟐𝟓𝟎∙ 𝟐,𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝑵𝒔 = 𝟓 = 257 rpm
𝟐𝟑.𝟒𝟒

𝒄
𝑵𝒔 must be same

𝟓 𝟐 𝟓 𝟐
𝑵𝒔 × 𝑯𝟒 𝟐𝟓𝟕 × 𝟏𝟒
𝑷𝒕 = = = 𝟔𝟔, 𝟎𝟒𝟗 𝑯𝑷
𝑵 𝟏
Q. It is proposed to develop 2,000 HP at a site where 150 m of head is available. What type of
turbine—impulse or a low, medium, or high head reaction turbine would be employed if it had
to run at 300 rpm ? If the same turbine is now used under a head of 30 m, find the power
developed and its-rpm.
Solution: 𝑷𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑯𝑷
H = 150 m
N = 300 rpm

(a) Specific speed of the turbine

𝑵∙ 𝑷𝒕
𝑵𝒔 = 𝟓
𝑯𝟒
 𝟑𝟎𝟎× 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑵𝒔 = 𝟓 = 25.6
𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟒

The specific speed of a Pelton (impulse) type turbine ranges from 10 to 35, therefore Pelton
turbine would be selected for the above project and according to Table a normal runner would be
employed.
𝑷
𝒃 𝑷𝟏 = 𝒌𝟑 = 𝟑
𝑯𝟐
𝟑
𝑷𝒕𝟏 𝑯𝟏 𝟐
=
𝑷𝒕𝟐 𝑯𝟐
𝟑
𝑯𝟐 𝟐
𝑷𝒕𝟐 = 𝑷𝒕𝟏
𝑯𝟏
𝟑
𝟑𝟎 𝟐
𝑷𝒕𝟐 = 𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝑯𝑷
𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝒄 𝟏
𝑵𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝟐
=
𝑵𝟏 𝑯𝟏
𝟏
𝑯𝟐 𝟐
𝑵𝟐 = 𝑵𝟏
𝑯𝟏

𝟏
𝟑𝟎 𝟐
∴ 𝑵𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 ×
𝟏𝟓𝟎

= 134.2 rpm
 Cascade Theory for Rotodynamic Machines

Series of well-designed curved guide vanes (known as a cascade).

Rotodynamic machines

All rotodynamic machines have a rotor, that is, a rotating part

through which the fluid passes.

In a turbine this rotor is called the runner. Pump the term impeller is more often used.

Series of similar
blades or vanes,
called a cascade
 Cascade Theory for Rotodynamic Machines cont..
Blades or vanes

(a) Stationary vanes (b) Rotating cascade within a fixed cascade

Fig: Cascades of vanes on periphery of a circular cylinder

Since turbomachine are rotational devices, the cascade system may be arranged symmetrically
around the periphery of a circle as in figure (a).
 Cascade Theory for Rotodynamic Machines cont..

Real flow through an impeller 3D

Velocity of the fluid is a function of three positional coordinates, say, in the cylindrical
system, r, 𝜃 and z
𝑽 = 𝒇 𝒓, 𝜽, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒛
• The velocity distribution
is therefore, very
complex and dependent
upon the number of
blades, their shapes and
thicknesses, as well as on
the width of the impeller
and its variation with
radius.
 Cascade Theory for Rotodynamic Machines cont..

3 dimensional flow 𝑽 = 𝒇 𝒓, 𝜽, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒛

One dimensional flow 𝑽=𝒇 𝒓

 Cascade Theory for Rotodynamic Machines cont..
• Variations in flow
parameters occur only in
the streamwise direction
between the entry and exit
planes.
• The assumption of 1D flow
in a cascade is an
oversimplification of the
actual flow problem.
𝑐2 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 • Quick and approximate
𝛼2 = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 solutions of tedious
problems.
• Velocity and angle are
Fig: 1D flow through a cascade. Fig: 2D flow through a cascade.
constant in the tangential or
pitch-wise direction.
 2D flow model:- Both pitchwise as well as streamwise variation.
 Cascade Theory for Rotodynamic Machines cont..

• The flow in the blade passages of an actual turbomachine is 3D.

• This is due to the rotation and growth of the boundary layers on the blade surfaces and

the hub and casing of the annulus.

• However, to reduce a rather complex problem to a simpler one the flow is often assumed

to be 2D in which the variations along the blade height are ignored.

 THE EULER TURBINE EQUATION
The velocity triangles are key to the analysis of turbomachinery problems, and are usually
combined into one diagram. These triangles are usually drawn as a vector triangle:
• The rotating disc may be either a turbine
or a compressor.
Figure: Velocity components for
a generalized rotor. 2

A-A, Axis of the rotor

Point 1: Fluid enters the rotor
Rotor 1 Point 2: Fluid leaves the rotor
Assumption: C: Absolute velocity of fluid
V: Relative velocity
• Steady flow over a long period of time. r1: Radial distance of point 1 from
• Turbulence and other losses may be neglected, and the axis A–A

• The mass flow rate (m) is constant.

 THE EULER TURBINE EQUATION cont..
• Let 𝝎 (omega) be the angular velocity (rad/sec) about the axis A–A.
• In turbomachine flow analysis, the most important variable is the fluid velocity and its
variation in the different coordinate directions.
• In the designing of blade shapes, velocity vector diagrams are very useful.
• It is necessary to restrict the flow to a steady flow, i.e., the mass flow rate is constant (no
accumulation of fluid in the rotor).
 The velocity C1 at the inlet to the rotor can be resolved into three components; viz.;

𝑪𝒂𝟏
Axial velocity in a direction parallel to the axis of the rotating shaft.
𝑪𝐫𝟏
C1 Radial velocity in the direction normal to the axis of the rotating shaft.
𝑪𝐰𝟏
Whirl or tangential velocity in the direction normal to a radius.
 THE EULER TURBINE EQUATION cont.

• Similarly, exit velocity C2 can be resolved into three components.

• The change in magnitude of the axial velocity components 𝑪𝐚 through the rotor gives
rise to an axial force, which must be taken by a thrust bearing to the stationary rotor
casing.
• The change in magnitude of the radial velocity components 𝑪𝐫 produces radial force.
• The whirl or tangential components 𝑪𝐰 produce the rotational effect.

 Angular momentum is moment of linear momentum.

 If a fluid particle of mass (m) is moving along a curved path
 Moment of momentum of particle about the axis of rotation = m. 𝑪𝐰 .r
 The unit mass of fluid entering at section 1 and leaving in any unit of time produces:
 THE EULER TURBINE EQUATION cont.

The angular momentum at the inlet: 𝑪𝒘𝟏 𝒓𝟏

The angular momentum at the outlet: 𝑪𝒘𝟐 𝒓𝟐

And therefore the rate of change of angular momentum = 𝑪𝒘𝟏 𝒓𝟏 − 𝑪𝒘𝟐 𝒓𝟐

 By Newton’s laws of motion, this is equal to the summation of all the applied forces on the
rotor; i.e., the net torque of the rotor 𝝉 (tau).
 Under steady flow conditions, using mass flow rate m, the torque exerted by or acting
on the rotor will be:
𝝉= m 𝑪𝒘𝟏 𝒓𝟏 − 𝑪𝒘𝟐 𝒓𝟐

Therefore the rate of energy transfer, W, is the product of the torque and the angular
velocity of the rotor 𝝎 (omega), so:
 THE EULER TURBINE EQUATION cont.

𝑾 = 𝝉𝝎 ⟹ m 𝝎 𝑪𝒘𝟏 𝒓𝟏 − 𝑪𝒘𝟐 𝒓𝟐

For unit mass flow, energy will be given by: 𝑾 = 𝝎 𝑪𝒘𝟏 𝒓𝟏 − 𝑪𝒘𝟐 𝒓𝟐
= 𝑪𝒘𝟏 𝒓𝟏 𝝎 − 𝑪𝒘𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝝎
But, 𝝎𝒓𝟏 = 𝑼𝟏 and 𝝎𝒓𝟐 = 𝑼𝟐

Hence; W= 𝑪𝒘𝟏 𝑼𝟏 − 𝑪𝒘𝟐 𝑼𝟐 is referred to as Euler’s turbine equation.

Where, W = Energy transferred per unit mass

𝑼𝟏 and 𝑼𝟐 = Rotor speeds at the inlet and the exit respectively.
 The standard thermodynamic sign convention is that work done by a fluid is positive, and
work done on a fluid is negative.
 This means the work produced by the turbine is positive and the work absorbed by the
compressors and pumps is negative.
 THE EULER TURBINE EQUATION cont.

Hence; W= 𝑪𝒘𝟏 𝑼𝟏 − 𝑪𝒘𝟐 𝑼𝟐 for turbine

W= 𝑪𝒘𝟐 𝑼𝟐 − 𝑪𝒘𝟏 𝑼𝟏 for compressor and pump

 Note:- To calculate torque from the Euler turbine equation, it is necessary to know the
velocity components.
 These quantities can be determined easily by drawing the velocity triangles at the rotor
inlet and outlet.
 The velocity triangles are key to the analysis of turbo machinery problems, and are
usually combined into one diagram.
 These triangles are usually drawn as a vector triangle.
 Jet Falling on Moving Curved Plate with Obtuse Discharge Angle as 𝜶𝟐

• When the jet strikes the moving plate, its position is given by full lines (refer Fig).
• As the plate moves with velocity u, it reaches the position shown by dotted lines when the
jet leaves it.
 Velocity Diagrams for Turbine Blades

Inlet

Outlet (b) (b)

𝒗𝒖𝟏 = 𝒗𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟏 Tangential components: Parallel to the direction of motion of vane

i.e., u and are responsible for doing the work. Therefore they are
𝒗𝒖𝟐 = 𝒗𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟐
termed as Velocity of Whirl.
𝒗𝒎𝟏 = 𝒗𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶𝟏 Radial or axial components: These components are perpendicular
to the direction of motion of vane and hence they do not do any
𝒗𝒎𝟐 = 𝒗𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶𝟐 work on the blades. Called the Velocities of Flow.
 Moving vane of double hemispherical type used for pelton turbine

• The water stream impinges at the center of the vane and deflects through an angle of
180°.
• At the same time the water stream is symmetrically divided at the center of vane, the Y-
components of dynamic forces (𝑭𝒚 ), one of them acting towards the bottom and the other
acting towards the top, neutralize each other.
• Thus the only force acting on the vane, is 𝑭 .
 Work Done/sec or Power Produced by Radial Runner cont..
The fluid may leave the vanes of turbine runner with an absolute velocity in a direction
(a) against the motion of wheel,
(b) same as motion of wheel,
(c) radially.
𝑰𝒇 𝜶𝟐 = Obtuse angle 𝑰𝒇 𝜶𝟐 = Acute angle
∴ 𝒗𝒖𝟐 is negative ∴ 𝒗𝒖𝟐 is positive

Figure: Outlet Velocity Triangles

 Radial Flow Over Turbine Blade
• Figure shows the section
through the radial flow turbine.
• The water from the pipes first
reaches the guide vanes which
guide the water to the runner
vanes of turbine.
• The guide vanes are stationary
and the runner revolves about a
fixed centre with angular

Figure: Section Through a Radial Flow Turbine velocity 𝝎.

• The flow over the runner vanes
is radial.
 Work Done/sec or Power Produced by Radial Runner
• Let an elementary mass of water m in enters the
rotating vane of the runner with velocity 𝒗𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟏 at
radius 𝒓𝟏 and leaves with velocity 𝒗𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟐 at radius
Pressure side 𝒓𝟐 in time t.
• Draw the velocity triangles at inlet and outlet of
turbine vane as shown in Figure.

Angular momentum at inlet = 𝒎 𝒗𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟏 𝒓𝟏

Angular momentum at outlet = 𝒎 𝒗𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟐 𝒓𝟐
Suction side
∴ 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕
= 𝒎 𝒓𝟐 . 𝒗𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 . 𝒗𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟏

∴ Rate of change of angular momentum =

𝒎
Figure: Velocity Triangles at Inlet (Pressure 𝒓𝟐 . 𝒗𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 . 𝒗𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟏
𝒕
Side) and Outlet (Suction Side) of Vane
 Work Done/sec or Power Produced by Radial Runner cont..
𝒎
But = 𝝆𝑸 ⇒ mass of flowing fluid per unit time.
𝒕

∴ Rate of change of angular momentum = 𝝆𝑸 𝒓𝟐 . 𝒗𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 . 𝒗𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟏

Rate of change of angular momentum is equal to the torque = 𝑻𝒑

𝑻𝒑 = 𝝆𝑸 𝒓𝟐 . 𝒗𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 . 𝒗𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟏

This is the torque acting on the fluid by the vanes. The torque acting on the vanes by the
fluid will therefore be
𝑻𝒑 = 𝝆𝑸 𝒓𝟏 . 𝒗𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟏 − 𝒓𝟐 . 𝒗𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟐

Work done/sec by the runner or Power produced = Torque on the runner x angular velocity
of runner 𝑷 = 𝑻𝒕 . 𝝎
𝑷 = 𝝆𝑸 𝒓𝟏 . 𝒗𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟏 − 𝒓𝟐 . 𝒗𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟐 . 𝝎
But, 𝝎𝒓𝟏 = 𝒖𝟏 and 𝝎𝒓𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐
 Work Done/sec or Power Produced by Radial Runner cont..
Where 𝒖𝟏 and 𝒖𝟐 are the peripheral velocities of vanes at inlet and outlet.
Work done/sec or Power produced by runner
P = 𝝆𝑸 𝒖𝟏 . 𝒗𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐 . 𝒗𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶𝟐

P = 𝝆𝑸 𝒖𝟏 . 𝒗𝒖𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐 . 𝒗𝒖𝟐

• This is the Fundamental Equation of Fluid Machines.

• As mentioned above, this is applicable to the turbine as well as to the pump runner.
• In such a case point 1 will denote the pressure side and point 2 the suction side of the
turbine or pump.
• Thus the value of power (P) will he positive in case of turbine as it is delivering power and
this value is negative in case of pump which is consuming power.
 Work Done/sec or Power Produced by Radial Runner cont..
Case (a), if 𝜶𝟐 > 𝟗𝟎° , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒗𝒖𝟐 is negative and substituting this value in equation
P = 𝝆𝑸 𝒖𝟏 . 𝒗𝒖𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐 . 𝒗𝒖𝟐
Work done/sec or Power = 𝝆𝑸 𝒖𝟏 . 𝒗𝒖𝟏 + 𝒖𝟐 . 𝒗𝒖𝟐
Case (b), if 𝜶𝟐 < 𝟗𝟎° , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒗𝒖𝟐 is positive
∴ Work done/sec or Power = 𝝆𝑸 𝒖𝟏 . 𝒗𝒖𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐 . 𝒗𝒖𝟐
Case (c), if 𝜶𝟐 = 𝟗𝟎° , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒗𝒖𝟐 = 𝟎
∴ Work done/sec or Power = 𝝆𝑸 𝒖𝟏 . 𝒗𝒖𝟏

Figure: Outlet Velocity Triangles

 Impulse Hydraulic Turbine: The Pelton Wheel

Figure (a): Flow along the bucket of a pelton wheel

(b): Inlet velocity triangle
(c): Outlet velocity triangle
• Suited for high heads.
• The rotor consists of a large circular disc or wheel on which a number of spoon-shaped
buckets are spaced uniformly.
Design Aspects of Pelton Wheel cont.
Design Aspects of Pelton Wheel cont..
Design Aspects of Pelton Wheel cont..
 Definition of Head and Efficiency cont..

Figure: Layout of hydroelectric power plant using an impulse turbine (Pelton wheel)
Definition of Head and Efficiency cont..
 Definition of Head and Efficiency cont..

Work done by the

jet on the runner
Definition of Head and Efficiency cont..
Definition of Head and Efficiency cont..
Definition of Head and Efficiency cont..
 Numerical Problems

Q.1 The mean bucket speed of a pelton wheel is 15 m/s. The rate of flow of water supplied by
𝒎𝟑
the jet under a head of 42 m is 1 𝒔. If the jet is deflected by the buckets at an angle of
𝟏𝟔𝟓° , find the power and efficiency of the turbine. Take coefficient of velocity 0.985.

Q.2
 Velocity Triangles for a Rotor

 Since these are vector triangles, the two velocities U and V are relative to one another, so
that the tail of V is at the head of U.
 Thus the vector sum of U and V is equal to the vector C.
Point 1: Fluid enters the rotor
Point 2: Fluid leaves the rotor
C: Absolute velocity of fluid
𝑼𝟏 and 𝑼𝟐 = Rotor speeds at the inlet and the exit respectively.
• The flow through a turbomachine rotor, the absolute velocities
C1 and C2 as well as the relative velocities V1 and V2 can have
three components as mentioned earlier.
• However, the two velocity components, one tangential to the
rotor (Cw) and another perpendicular to it are sufficient.
 Velocity Triangles for a Rotor cont.

The velocity components 𝑪𝐫𝟏 and 𝑪𝐫𝟐 are the flow velocity
components, which may be axial or radial depending on the type
of machine.

Figure: Velocity triangles for a rotor.

 VELOCITY TRIANGLES FOR PELTON TURBINE

Figure: Velocity triangles for a Pelton wheel

Since the angle of entry of the jet is nearly zero, the inlet velocity triangle is a straight line,
as shown in Figure. If the bucket is brought to rest, then the relative fluid velocity, V1, is
given by
 General Layout of a Hydro-Electric Power Plant

• One of the essential requirements of the hydroelectric power generation is the availability of a
continuous source of water with a large amount of hydraulic energy.
• Such a source of water may be made available if a natural lake or a reservoir may be found at a
higher elevation or an artificial reservoir may be formed by constructing a dam across a river.
 General Layout of a Hydro-Electric Power Plant
• The water surface in the storage reservoir is known as head race level or simply head race.
• Water from the storage reservoir is carried through penstock or canals to the power house.
• Penstocks are the pipes of large diameter, usually made of steel, wood or reinforced concrete,
which carry water under pressure from the storage reservoir to the turbine.
• The water coming out of nozzle at high velocity is directed to the blades mounted on the wheel
where the K.E. of water is converted into mechanical energy.
• The water passing through the turbine is discharged to the tail race.
• The tail race is the channel which carries water (known as tail water) away from the power
house after it has passed through the turbine.
• The water surface in the tail race channel is known as tail race level or simply tail race.
• The mechanical energy developed by the turbine is used to generate electrical energy as
generator is directly coupled to turbine.
 General Layout of a Hydro-Electric Power Plant

 The mechanical energy coming out is further used to generate electrical power which is most

desirable as it is easy to transmit, easy to operate and easy to control.

 The running cost of hydraulic system is considerably less than thermal system and the

hydraulic energy is the nature’s output.

 It is totally free from the atmospheric pollution which is considered major factor throughout the

world as it is affecting global atmosphere.

 Flow Through Rotodynamic Machines
All rotodynamic machines, as previously stated, have a rotating part called the impeller, through
which the fluid flow is continuous.
Fluid approaches the
impeller axially Radial flow
Direction of
Fluid

• Flow to be perpendicular to the impeller and, hence, along its axis of rotation, as shown in
Machines of this kind are called axial flow machines.
• In centrifugal machines (sometimes called ‘radial flow’), although the fluid approaches the
impeller axially, it turns at the machine’s inlet so that the flow through the impeller is in the
plane of the impeller rotation.
 Flow Through Rotodynamic Machines cont..
• Mixed flow machines constitute a third category. They derive their name from the fact that the
flow through their impellers is partly axial and partly radial.
• Shows a mixed flow fan impeller from the discharge side.

All impellers consist of a supporting disc or cylinder and blades attached to it.
Figure: A mixed flow fan impeller. (b) A centrifugal pump impeller (shrouded).
(Courtesy of Airscrew-Howden Ltd) (Courtesy of Worthington-Simpson Ltd)
 Flow Through Rotodynamic Machines cont..
• Mixed flow machines :-They derive their name from the fact that the flow through their
impellers is partly axial and partly radial.
• Shows a mixed flow fan impeller from the discharge side.
• It should be noted that the hub is conical; thus the direction of flow leaving the impeller is
somewhere between the axial and radial.

(c) A centrifugal pump impeller (unshrouded). (Courtesy of Worthington-Simpson Ltd)

 Flow Through Rotodynamic Machines cont..

• Both pumps and turbines can be axial flow, mixed flow or radial flow.

• In the case of pumps, the last are normally referred to as centrifugal.

• It is the motion of the blades which is related to the motion of the fluid, one doing the work on

the other or vice versa.

• In any case, there are forces exerted on the blades and, since they rotate with the impeller,

torque is transmitted because of the rate of change of angular momentum.

 Reference books

 Fluid Mechanics by Victor L. Streeter and E. Benjamin Wylie, McGraw-Hill.

 Fluid Mechanics by Yunus A. Cengel and Cimbala, McGraw-Hill.

 Hydraulic Machine including Fluidics by J. Lal, Metropolitan Book Co. Private Ltd.

 Turbines, Compressors, and Fans by S M Yahya, Tata McGraw-Hill.