CHAPTER 1

Introduction
1.1 Introduction to turbomachine
A turbomachine is a device in which energy transfer occurs between a flowing fluid
and a rotating element due to dynamic action, and results in a change in pressure and
momentum of the fluid. Mechanical energy transfer occurs inside or outside of the
turbomachine, usually in a steady-flow process. Turbomachines include all those machines
that produce power, such as turbines, as well as those types that produce a head or
pressure, such as centrifugal pumps and compressors. The turbomachine extracts energy
from or imparts energy to a continuously moving stream of fluid. However in a positive
displacement machine, it is intermittent.
The turbomachine as described above covers a wide range of machines, such as gas
turbines, steam turbines, centrifugal pumps, centrifugal and axial flow compressors,
windmills, water wheels, and hydraulic turbines.
The definition of turbo-machine as given by more than one definition:
 The Turbo-machine is a device in which the energy exchange is accomplished by
hydrodynamic forces arising between moving fluid and the rotating and stationary
elements of the machine
 A Turbo-machine is characterized by dynamic energy exchange between one or
several rotating elements and a rapidly moving fluid
 A Turbo-machine is characterized by dynamic action between a fluid and one or
more rotating elements
As we can see that the study of turbo-machine comprises of fluid motion in relative to a
moving mechanical elements. When ever some body/ fluid is in motion either forces act on
them or the motion is the result of forces being acted upon the body/ fluid. The resultant of
forces acting result in energy transfer to/from the fluid to the machine.

1
 A turbomachine by definition are those class of machines in which occurs a
continuous energy transfer between a rigid body (Rotor) and a deformable media (fluid).
A large number of machinery is characterized by this energy transfer process.
Every common turbomachine contains a rotor upon which blades are mounted; only
the detailed physical arrangements differ. Fluid flows through the rotor from an entrance
to an exit submit a change in momentum during the process because of the torque exerted
on or by rotor blades.
Energy may exist various forms. Hydraulic Energy is that which may be possessed
by a fluid. It may be in the form of kinetic energy, pressure, potential or thermal energy.
Mechanical energy is that which is associated with moving or rotating shaft, usually
transmitting power.
It is thus purpose of hydraulic machines to transform energy rather from mechanical
to hydraulic or from hydraulic to mechanical. This distinction based on the grouping
hydraulic machines into two categories. All machines in which hydraulic energy of arms
the input and its transformed into mechanical energy known as turbines or motors. In the
other category, the input is mechanical; the transfer is from mechanical into hydraulic
energy. Such machines are called pumps or fans or compressors. Thus, in the first
category, work is done by the fluid and energy is subtracted from it, whereas, in the
second category of machines the work done on the fluid and energy is added to it.
Hydraulic machines deal with the conversion from fluid power to shaft power or
from shaft power to fluid power as conceived in figure (1.1). A fluid machine which
operates to convert fluid power into shaft power is called a turbine. on the other hand, a
fluid machine which operates to convert shaft power into fluid power is called a pump, a
fan, a blower or a compressor.

2
 Fig. (1.1): Concept of fluid machine

1.2 Classification of Fluid Machines

There are many categories in which a turbo-machine is classified:
1.2.1 According to Energy consideration
(a) Turbomachines transferring rotor energy to fluid energy: Machines supply energy
to the fluid such as pump, fan, compressor, and blower.
Pump: In these kinds of machines, mechanical energy in the rotating member is
transferred to the fluid raising its energy (enthalpy) in the form of (KE, PE or IE).
Since energy is gained by the fluid they are called power consuming machines.
(b) Turbomachines transferring fluid energy to rotor energy: Machines that extract
energy from the fluid such as hydraulic turbine, gas turbine, steam turbine, wind
turbine
Turbine: It is a machine where the energy in the fluid in what ever the form (Kinetic
Energy, Potential Energy or Internal Energy) is converted to mechanical energy by
rotating a element (rotor) of the machine. The energy is being extracted from the fluid
in the form of shaft power by decreasing its enthalpy; hence they are also called power
generating machines.

3
1.2.2 According to the Direction of flow
(a) Radial Flow: Fluid is in the direction perpendicular to the axis of the rotating element
and leaves radially such as centrifugal pump, centrifugal compressor.
(b) Axial Flow: Fluid enters parallel to the axis of the rotating element and leaves axially
such as axial pump, axial turbine, and axial compressor.
(c) Mixed Flow: Fluid enters radially or axially and leaves axially or radially.
(d) Tangential Flow: Fluid enters tangent to the rotor such as pelton wheel.
1.2.3 Types of Fluids used
The flow in compressible machines may be further classified into
(a) Compressible Type Turbo-machine: machines use air such as compressor, fan, and
gas turbine
Compressible: If the changes in the pressure caused by the fluid motion results in changes
in density of the fluid then such type of fluid is known to be a compressible fluid. In a
given turbo-machine since pressure changes are inevitable and if accompanied by
density changes then it is under the category of compressible flow turbo-machine. Gas
turbines, air compressors etc fall in this category.
(b) Incompressible type Turbo-machine: machines use liquid such as pump, hydraulic
turbine
Incompressible: If the changes in the pressure doesn't a ect much of the density changes
then they are considered to be incompressible flow turbo-machines. Steam turbine and
all hydraulic turbines fall in this category
1.2.4 According to the action of fluid on rotor blade
(a) Impulse type: Static Pressure change is zero in the rotor
Fluid energy is converted into impulsive force by changing direction of fluid such as
pelton wheel
(b) Reaction type: Static Pressure drop occurs in the rotor.
The pressure energy of fluid is continuously drops as it flows over the blades and the
velocity increase. The fluid leaving the blades will exert a reactive force in the backword

4
direction of its flow. This reactive force sets the blades in motion as in Francis turbine
and Kaplan turbine.

(a) Radial Flow Fan

(b) Axial Flow Pump

(c) Centrifugal Compressor

5
 (d) Axial Flow Compressor

(e) Centrifugal Pump

(f) Kaplan Turbine

Fig. (1.2): Types and Shapes of Turbomachines

6
1.3 Dimensional Analysis
Fluid flow is influenced by several parameters like, the geometry, fluid properties
and fluid velocity. In the previous chapters analytical methods used in fluid flow studies
were discussed.
In the study of flow of real fluids analytical methods alone are found insufficient.
Experimental methods and results have contributed heavily for the development of fluid
mechanics. The solution of realistic problems usually involves both analytical and
experimental studies.
Experiments are used to validate analytical results as well as generalize and extend
their applications. Depending either solely on analytical methods or experiments for the
design of systems is found to lead to inadequate performance and high cost.
Experimental work is rather costly and time consuming, particularly when more than three
parameters are involved. Hence it is necessary to plan the experiments so that most
information is obtained from fewest experiments. Dimensional analysis is found to be a
very useful tool in achieving this objective. The mathematical method of dimensional
analysis comes to our help in this situation. The number of parameters can be reduced
generally to three by grouping relevant variables to form dimensionless parameters. In
addition these groups facilitate the presentation of the results of the experiments
effectively and also to generalize the results so that these can be applied to similar
situations.

7
1.4 Buckingham PI Theorem
The statement of the theorem is as follows: If a relation among n parameters exists
in the form f q1 , q2 ,.................................qn   0

Then the n parameters can be grouped into n – m independent dimensionless ratios or π

parameters, expressed in the form
g  1 ,  2 ,...............................,  n m   0 (1.1)
or  1  g1  2 ,  3 ,.......................,  n m   0
Where m is the number of dimensions required to specify the dimensions of all the
parameters, q1 , q2, ..........., qn . It is also possible to form new dimensionless  parameters as
a discrete function of the n  m  parameters.
1.4.1 Determination of π Groups
Irrespective of the method used the following steps:
Step (1): List all the parameters that influence the phenomenon concerned. This has
to be very carefully done. If some parameters are left out, π terms may be formed but
experiments then will indicate these as inadequate to describe the phenomenon. If unsure
the parameter can be added. Later experiments will show that the  term with the doubtful
parameters as useful or otherwise. Hence a careful choice of the parameters will help in
solving the problem with least effort. Usually three type of parameters may be identified in
fluid flow namely fluid properties, geometry and flow parameters like velocity and
pressure.
Step (2): Select a set of primary dimensions, (mass, length and time), (force, length and
time), (mass, length, time and temperature) are some of the sets used popularly.
Step (3): List the dimensions of all parameters in terms of the chosen set of primary
dimensions. Table (1.1) lists the dimensions of various parameters involved.

8
 Table (1.1): Units and Dimensions of Variables
Variable Unit (SI) Dimension MLT system
Mass kg M
Length m L
Time s T
Area m2 L2
Volume m3 L3
Volume Flow Rate m3 s L3T 1

Mass Flow Rate Kg s MT 1

Velocity m s LT 1
Angular Velocity rad s T 1
Force N MLT 2
Pressure, Stress N m2 ML1T 2

Moment N.m ML2T 2

Work, Energy J  N .m ML2T 2
Power WJ s ML2T 3
Density Kg m 3 ML3

Dynamic Viscosity Kg m.s ML1T 1

Kinematics Viscosity m2 s L2T 1

Step (4): Select from the list of parameters a set of repeating parameters equal to the
number of primary dimensions. Some guidelines are necessary for the choice. (i) the
chosen set should contain all the dimensions (ii) two parameters with same dimensions
should not be chosen. Say L, L2 , L3 , (iii) the dependent parameter to be determined should
not be chosen.

9
Step (5): Set up a dimensional equation with the repeating set and one of the
remaining parameters, in turn to obtain n  m  such equations, to determine  terms
numbering n  m  . The form of the equation is,

 1  qm 1.q1a .q2b .q3c ..................qmd

As the LHS term is dimensionless, an equation for each dimension in terms of a, b, c, d
can be obtained. The solution of these set of equations will give the values of a, b, c and d.
Thus the  term will be defined.
Step (6): Check whether  terms obtained are dimensionless. This step is essential
before proceeding with experiments to determine the functional relationship between the
 terms.
1.5 Dimensional Analysis for Turbomachines
To study the performance characteristics of turbomachines, a large number of
variables are involved. The use of dimensional analysis reduces the variables to a number
of manageable dimensional groups. Usually, the properties of interest in regard to
turbomachine are the power output, the efficiency, and the head. The performance of
turbomachines depends on one or more of several variables.
A summary of the physical properties and dimensions is given in Table (1.1) for
reference. Dimensional analysis applied to turbomachines has two more important uses:
(1) Prediction of a prototype’s performance from tests conducted on a scale model
(similitude)
(2) Determination of the most suitable type of machine, on the basis of maximum
efficiency, for a specified range of head, speed, and flow rate. It is assumed here that the
student has acquired the basic techniques of forming non-dimensional groups.

10
1.6 Hydraulic Machines
Consider a control volume around the pump or hydraulic turbine through which an
incompressible fluid of density  flows at a volume flow rate of Q . Since the flow enters
at one point and leaves at another point the volume flow rate Q can be independently
adjusted by means of a throttle valve. The power P  consumed by the pump or produced
by turbine is depend on:
P  f  , D, N , Q , gH ,  
P  Hydraulic Power  = viscosity of fluid
gH = Pressure head D = Diameter of turbomachine rotor
 = density of fluid N = rotational speed of the rotor

Q = Volume flow rate of fluid

We want to find the dimensionless groups for hydraulic turbomachines

P  f  , D, N , Q , gH ,  
(1) Dimensions of all parameters:
S. NO. Parameter Unit (SI) Dimension
1 Power, P J s  N .m s ML2T 3
2 Density,  Kg m 3 M .L3

3 Diameter, D m L
4 Rotational speed, N rev min T 1
5 Volume flow rate, Q m3 s L3T 1

6 Pressure Head, gH m2 s2 L2T 2

7 Viscosity,  Kg m.s ML1T 1

(2) Number of parameters: n  7

Number of dimensions : q  3
Number of dimensionless quantity: m  n  q  7  3  4
11
(3) Choose repeated variables;  , D , N
(4) Obtain each dimensionless parameters
 1   a1  D b1  N c1  P

 2   a 2  D b2  N c 2  Q

 3   a3  D b3  N c3  gH

 4   a 4  D b4  N c4  
(i) Obtain  1 

 1   a1  D b1  N c1  P


1  ML 3 a1
 
 L b1  T 1
c1
 ML2T  3

M 0 L0T 0  M a1 1  L 3a1  b1  2  T  c1  3

For M: 0  a1  1 a1  1

For T: 0   c1  3 c1  3

For L: 0  3a1  b1  2

0  3  b1  2 b1  5

 1   a1  D b1  N c1  P
P
 1   1  D 5  N 3  P 1 
 N 3D5
(ii) Obtain  2 

 2   a2  D b2  N c2  Q


1  ML3 a2 b
 
 L  2  T 1
c2
 L3T 1
a 3a2 b2  3  c2 1
M 0 L0T 0  M  2  L   T 

For M: 0  a2 a2  0

For T: 0   c2  1 c2  1

For L: 0  3a 2  b2  3

0  0  b2  3 b2  3

12
  2   a2  D b2  N c2  Q
Q
 2   0  D 3  N 1  Q or 2 
N D3
(iii) Obtain  3 

 3   a3  D b3  N c3  gH


1  ML3 a3 b
 
 L  3  T 1
c3
 L2T 2
a 3a3  b3  2  c3 2
M 0 L0T 0  M  3  L   T 

For M: 0  a3 a3  0

For T: 0   c3  2 c3  2

For L: 0  3a3  b3  2

0  0  b3  2 b3  2

 3   a 3  D b 3  N c 3  gH
gH
 3   0  D 2  N 2  gH or 3 
N 2D2
(iv) Obtain  4 

 4   a4  D b4  N c4  


1  ML3 a4 b
 
 L  4  T 1
c4
 ML1T 1
a 1 3a4 b4 1  c4 1
M 0 L0T 0  M  4  L   T 

For M: 0  a4  1 a4  1

For T: 0   c4  1 c4  1

For L: 0  3a 4  b4  1

0  3  b4  1 b4  2

 4   a4  D b4  V c4  

 4   1  D 2  N 1   or 4 
 N D2
Then we have:

13
 P
1 
 N 3D5
Q
2 
N D3
gH
3 
N 2D2

4 
 N D2
The following few dimensionless terms are useful in the analysis of incompressible fluid
flow machines:
1. Power coefficient C P  : The dimensionless quantity P N 3 D 5  is called the power
coefficient. It shows the relation between power, fluid density, rotational speed and wheel
diameter.
P
CP 
 N 3D5
2. The flow coefficient   : The term Q ND 3  is called the flow coefficient and indicates
the volume flow rate of fluid through a turbomachine of unit diameter runner, operating at
unit speed. It is constant for similar rotors.
Q

N D3
3. The head coefficient   : The term gH N 2 D 2 is called the specific head. It is the
kinetic energy of the fluid spouting under the head H divided by the kinetic energy of the
fluid running at the rotor tangential speed. It is constant for similar impellers.
gH

N 2D2
4. The Reynolds number Re : The term ND 2   is called the Reynolds number It
shows the relation between Fluid Viscosity, fluid density, rotational speed and wheel
diameter.
 N D2
Re 

14
5. Specific speed N S  : The most important parameter of incompressible fluid flow
machinery is specific speed. It is the non-dimensional term. All turbomachineries
operating under the same conditions of flow and head having the same specific speed,
irrespective of the actual physical size of the machines.
(i) Specific speed for hydraulic pump:
12
Ns  3 4

12 34
 Q   N 2D2 
Ns   3
  
N D   gH 

Q1 2 N 3 2D3 2
Ns  
N 1 2 D 3 2 gH 3 4

Q1 2 N3 2
Ns  1 2 
N gH 3 4
N Q
Ns  (1.2)
gH 3 4
(ii) Specific speed for hydraulic turbine:
12
Ns 
CP 
5 4

Ns 
CP 1 2
3 4

P1 2 N 5 2 D5 2
Ns  1 2 3 2 5 2 
 N D gH 5 4
P1 2 N5 2
Ns  1 2 3 2 
 N gH 5 4
N P
Ns  (1.3)
 gH 5 4
The specific speed parameter expressing the variation of all the variables N , Q and
H or N , P and H , which cause similar flows in turbomachines that are geometrically
similar. The specific speed is a nondimensional quantity.
15
 Equation (1.2) is used for specifying the specific speeds of pumps and Eq. (1.3) is
used for the specific speeds of turbines. The turbine specific speed may be defined as the
speed of a geometrically similar turbine, which develops 1 hp under a head of 1 meter of
water. It is clear that N S is a dimensional quantity. In metric units, it varies between 4 (for
very high head Pelton wheel) and 1000 (for the low-head propeller on Kaplan turbines).

16
1.7 Similitude and Model Testing
Fluid flow analysis is involved in the design of aircrafts, ships, submarines,
turbines, pumps, harbors and tall buildings and structures. Fluid flow is influenced by
several factors and because of this the analysis is more complex. For many practical
situations exact solutions are not available. The estimates may vary by as much as ± 20%.
Because of this it is not possible to rely solely on design calculations and performance
predictions. Experimental validation of the design is thus found necessary. Consider the
case of a hydraulic turbine of 50 MW size. It will be a very costly failure if the design
performance and the actual performance differ. If we can predict its performance before
manufacturing the unit it will be very useful. Model testing comes to our aid in this
situation. Constructing and testing small versions of the unit is called model testing.
Similarity of features enables the prediction of the performance of the full size unit from
the test results of the smaller unit. The application of dimensional analysis is helpful in
planning of the experiments as well as prediction of the performance of the larger unit
from the test results of the model.
1.8 Model and Prototype
In the engineering point of view model can be defined as the representation of
physical system that may be used to predict the behavior of the system in the desired
aspect. The system whose behavior is to be predicted by the model is called the prototype.
The discussion in this chapter is about physical models that resemble the prototype but are
generally smaller in size. These may also operate with different fluids, at different
pressures, velocities etc. As models are generally smaller than the prototype, these are
cheaper to build and test. Model testing is also used for evaluating proposed modifications
to existing systems. The effect of the changes on the performance of the system can be
predicted by model testing before attempting the modifications. Models should be
carefully designed for reliable prediction of the prototype performance.

17
1.9 Conditions for Similarity between Models and Prototype
Dimensional analysis provides a good basis for laying down the conditions for
similarity. The  theorem shows that the performance of any system (prototype) can be
described by a functional relationship of the form given in equation (1.4).
 1 p  f  2 p ,  3 p ,........................ np  (1.4)

The  terms include all the parameters influencing the system and are generally ratios of
forces, lengths, energy etc. If a model is to be similar to the prototype and also function
similarly as the prototype, then the  terms for the model should also have the same value
as that of the prototype or the same functional relationship as the prototype.
 1m  f  2m ,  3m ,........................ nm  (1.5)
For such a condition to be satisfied, the model should be constructed and operated such
that simultaneously
 1m   1 p ,  2m   2 p ,  nm   np (1.6)

Equation (5.10) provides the model design conditions. It is also called similarity
requirements or modeling laws.
1.9.1 Geometric Similarity
Some of the  terms involve the ratio of length parameters. All the similar linear
dimension of the model and prototype should have the same ratio. This is called geometric
similarity.
Geometric similarity requires that the ratio of any length in model to the
corresponding length in the prototype be the same everywhere. This ratio is usually known
as the scale factor   .
Abridge pier and its model are shown in Figs. (1.3a) and (1.3b), respectively. To
meet the condition of geometric similarity of model and prototype, the following equation
must be satisfied.
l1 p l2 p l3 p lp
    (1.7)
l1m l2 m l 3m lm

Where lip is the ith dimension of the prototype lim is the ith dimension of the model.
18
Prefect geometric similarity is not always possible. For example, in a model, not only the
physical dimensions of the prototype but also the height of the roughness projections must
be reduced by the scale factor.

Fig. (1.3): A bridge pier and its model showing geometric similarity

1.9.2 Kinematic Similarity

The term kinematic similarity means that at corresponding points in the prototype
and in the model, the velocities and the accelerations should have a constant ratio.
The pier model – prototype system discussed before is shown in figure (1.4) with water
flowing around it. Consider two points defined by r1 p ,1 and r2 p ,  2  in the prototype, and
let the corresponding points in the model be r1m , 1  and r2 m ,  2 . Then for kinematic
similarity between model and prototype, the velocities and accelerations at corresponding
points must have a constant ratio. Thus
V1 p V2 p Vip
   V (1.8)
V1m V2 m Vim
a1 p a2 p aip
And    a (1.9)
a1m a2 m aim

Where V and a are the velocity and acceleration scale factors, respectively. To ensure
kinematics similarity, it is a must that geometric similarity be present.

19
 Fig. (1.4): Abridge pier and its model showing kinematic similarity

1.9.3 Dynamic Similarity

Similitude requires that π terms like Reynolds number, Froude number, Weber
number etc. be equal for the model and prototype. These numbers are ratios of inertia,
viscous gravity and surface tension forces. This condition implies that the ratio of forces
on fluid elements at corresponding points (homologous) in the model and prototype should
be the same. This requirement is called dynamic similarity. This is a basic requirement in
model design. If model and prototype are dynamically similar then the performance of the
prototype can be predicted from the measurements on the model. In some cases it may be
difficult to hold simultaneously equality of two dimensionless numbers. In such situations,
the parameter having a larger influence on the performance may have to be chosen. This
happens for example in the case of model tasting of ships. Both Reynolds number and
Froude number should be simultaneously held equal between the model and prototype.
This is not possible as this would require either fluids with a very large difference in their
viscosities or the use of very large velocities with the model.
To achieve complete similarity between model and prototype all the three
similarities geometric, dynamic and kinematic should be maintained.

20
1.10 Models for Turbomachinery
Pumps, Fans, Compressors as well as turbines are included in the general term
turbomachines. Pumps are power absorbing machines which increase the head of the fluid
passing though them. Turbines are power generating machines which reduce the head of
the fluid passing through them.
The operating variables of the machines are the flow rate Q  , the power P  and
the speed N  . The fluid properties are the density and viscosity. The machine parameters
are the diameter and a characteristic length and the roughness of the flow surface. Power,
head and efficiency can be expressed as functions of π terms
P
(i) Power coefficient = C P 
 . N 3.D 5
gH
(ii) Head Coefficient =  
N 2D2
Q
(iii) Flow Coefficient = 
ND 3
ND 2 ND 2
(iv) Reynolds Number = Re  
 
Where P  Power
N  Rotational Speed rpm 
D  Diameter of Turbimachine
H  Head developed by Turbomachine
Q  Volume Flow rate through Turbomachine
If two similar machines are operated with the same flow coefficient, the power and head
coefficients will also be equal for the machines. This will then lead to the same efficiency.
The model can be run at a constant speed when the head is varied, the power and flow rate
can be measured. The performance of the prototype can be predicted from the results of
the tests on the geometrically similar model.

21
Example (1.1)
A pump running at 1450 rpm with impeller diameter of 20 cm is geometrically similar to a
pump with 30 cm impeller diameter running at 950 rpm. The discharge of the larger pump at
the maximum efficiency was 200 L s at a total head of 25 m. Determine the discharge and
head of the smaller pump at the maximum efficiency conditions. Also determine the ratio
of power required.
Solution
Considering flow coefficient, denoting the smaller machines as 1 and the larger as 2,
Prototype Model
H1  ? H 2  25 m
N 1  1450 rpm N 2  950 rpm
Q1  ? Q2  200 L s
D1  20 cm D2  30 cm

(a) Volume Flow Rate

For similarity condition the flow coefficient should be equal.
 1   2

 Q   Q 
 3
 3
 ND 1  ND  2
3
N D 
Q1  Q2  1   1 
N 2  D2 
3
1450  20 
Q1  200      90.45 L s
950  30 
(b) The Head rise
The head coefficient is used
 1   2

 gH   gH 
 2 2  2 2
 N D 1  N D  2

22
  H   H 
 2 2  2 2
 N D 1  N D  2
2 2
N   D1 
H 1  H 2  1   
 N2   D2 
2 2
 1450   20 
H 1  25       25.885 m
 950   30 
(c) The power ratio
The power coefficient is used to determine the power ratio.
C P 1  C P 2

 P   P 
   
3 5

3 5
  . N D 1   . N D 2

 P   P 
 3 5  3 5
 N D 1  N D  2
3 5
P1  N 1   D1 
   
P2  N 2  D
 2
3 5
P1  1450   20 
     0.468
P2  950   30 

Example (1.2)
A centrifugal pump delivers 26 L s against a total head of 16 m at 1450 rpm . The impeller
diameter is 0.5 m . A geometrically similar pump of 30 cm diameter is running at 2900 rpm .
Calculate head and discharge required.
Solution
Considering flow coefficient, denoting the smaller machines as 1 and the larger as 2,
Prototype Model
H 1  16 m H2  ?
N 1  1450 rpm N 2  2900 rpm
Q1  26 L s Q2  ?
D1  0.5 m D2  30 cm  0.3 m

23
(a) Volume Flow Rate
For similarity condition the flow coefficient should be equal.
 1   2

 Q   Q 
 3
 3
 ND 1  ND  2
3
N D 
Q2  Q1  2   2 
N 1  D1 
3
2900  0.3 
Q2  26    Q2  11.23 L s
1450  0.5 
(b) The Head rise
The head coefficient is used
 1   2

 gH   gH 
 2 2  2 2
 N D 1  N D  2

 H   H 
 2 2  2 2
 N D 1  N D  2
2 2
N   D2 
H 2  H 1  2   
 N1  D
 `
2 2
 2900   0.3 
H 2  16      H 2  23.04 m
 1450   0.5 

24
Example (1.3)
A model scaled for an axial flow pump to one-third the size of prototype has the following
characteristics
N m  900 rpm Qm  0.3 m 3 s
Dm  15 cm Pm  9 kW
Hm  3 m
If the full – size pump is run at 300 rpm what is the power, head, and discharge.
Solution
(a) Volume Flow Rate
For similarity condition the flow coefficient should be equal.
 m    p

 Q   Q 
 3
 3
 ND  m  ND  p
3
Np
 Dp 
Q p  Qm    
N m  Dm 
3
300  3 
Q p  0.3      2.7 m 3 s
900  1 
(b) The Head rise
The head coefficient is used
 1   2

 gH   gH 
 2 2  2 2
 N D m  N D  p

 H   H 
 2 2  2 2
 N D m  N D  p
2 2
N   Dm 
H p  Hm  m   
N  D 
 p  p 
2 2
 900   1 
H p  3     3m
 300   3 

25
(c) The power ratio
The power coefficient is used to determine the power ratio.
C P m  C P  p

 P   P 
   
3 5

3 5
  .N D  m   .N D  p

 P   P 
 3 5  3 5
 N D m  N D  p
3 5
Pp  Np   Dp 
    
Pm  N m   Dm 
3 5
Pp  300   3 
   
Pm  900   1 

Pp
9 Pp  81 kW
9
Example (1.4)
A centrifugal pump is discharging 0.025 m 3 s of water against a total head of 18 m. The
diameter of the impeller is 0.4 m and it is rotating at 1400 rpm. Calculate the head,
discharge and ratio of powers of a geometrically similar pump of diameter 0.25 m when it
is running at 2800 rpm.
Solution
Centrifugal pump Geometrical Similar Pump
Q1  0.025 m 3 s Q2  ?
H 1  18 m H2  ?
D1  0.4 m D2  0.25 m
N 1  1400 rpm N 2  2800 rpm
1. Flow coefficient  
m  p

 Q   Q 
 3
 3
 ND 1  ND  2

26
 Q1 Q2

N1 D1 N 2 D23
3

0.025 Q2
3
 3
Q2  0.0122 m 3 s
1400  0.4  2800  0.25

2. Head Coefficient  
m   p

 g .H m   g. H m 
 2 2  2 2
 N D 1  N D  2
H1 H
2 2
 222
N 1 D1 N 2 D2

18 H2
 H 2  28.15 m
1400 0.4 28002 0.252
2 2

3. Power Coefficient C P 
C P m  CP  p
 P   P 
 
3 5
 
  . N 3 D 5 
  . N D 1  2
P1 P2

 . N 1 D1  . N 23 D25
3 5

P1 P
3 5
 32 5
N 1 D1 N 2 D2

P1 P2 P1
  1.31
14003 0.4 5 28003 0.255 P2

27
Example (1.5)
In order to predict the performance of a large centrifugal pump, a scale model of one –
sixth size was made with the following specifications: Power Pm  25 kW ; head H m  7 m ;
speed N m  1000 rpm. If the prototype pump has to work against a head of 22 m, calculate
its working speed, the power required to drive it and the ratio of the flow rates handled by
the two pumps.
Solution
Model Prototype
Dm 1 Qm
 ?
Dp 6 Qp
Pm  25 kW Pp  ?
Hm  7 m H p  22 m
N m  1000 rpm Np  ?
1. Head Coefficient  
m   p

 g.H m   g. H 
 2 2    2 m2 
 N D m  N D  p

H m m H m p

N m2 Dm2 N p2 D 2p

H m m H m  p Dm2

N m2 N p2 D 2p

H m m H m  p Dm2
 N p  295.97 rpm
N m2 N p2 D 2p

2. Flow coefficient  
m  p

 Q   Q 
 3
 3
 ND  m  ND  p

Qm Qp

N m Dm3 N p D 3p

28
 3
Qm N m  Dm 

Q p N p  D p 
3
Qm 1000  1  Qm
    0.01564
Q p 295.97  6  Qp

3. Power Coefficient C P 
C P m  CP  p
 P   P 
   
3 5

3 5
  .N D  m   .N D  p

Pm Pp

 . N m Dm  . N 3p D 5p
3 5

5
Pm Pp  Dm 
  
N m3 N 3p  D p 
5
25 Pp 1
   Pp  5040 kW
10003 295.97 3  6 
Example (1.6)
A model of a centrifugal pump runs at 600 rpm against a head of 8 m , the power required
being 5 kW and the discharge is 30 L s . If the prototype 5 times the model size is to
develop a head of 40 m determine its speed, discharge and power.
Solution
Model Prototype
Qm  30 L s Dp
5
Dm
Pm  5 kW H p  40 m
Hm  8 m Pp  ?
N m  600 rpm Np  ?
Qp  ?

1. Head Coefficient  
m   p
29
  g.H m   g. H 
 2 2    2 m2 
 N D m  N D  p

H m m H m p

N m2 Dm2 N p2 D 2p

H m m H m  p Dm2

N m2 N p2 D 2p
2
8 40  1 
2
 2  N p  268.3 rpm
600 N p  5 
2. Flow coefficient  
m  p

 Q   Q 
 3
 3
 ND  m  ND  p

Qm Qp

N m Dm3 N p D 3p
3
Qp N p  Dp 
  
Qm N m  Dm 

Qp 268.3 3
 5 Q p  1676 L s
30 600
3. Power Coefficient C P 
C P m  CP  p
 P   P 
   
3 5

3 5
  .N D  m   .N D  p

Pm Pp

 . N m3 Dm5  . N 3p D 5p
3 5
 Np   Dp 
Pp  Pm    
N
 m D
 m
3
 268.3  5
Pp  5  5 Pp  1397 kW
 600 
30
Example (1.7)
A turbine develops 144 kW running at 100 rpm under a head of 7.7 m . What power would
be developed under a head of 11 m ? At what speed should the turbine run?
Solution
Prototype Model
P1  144 kW H 2  11 m
N 1  100 rpm N2  ?
H 1  7.7 m P2  ?
D2  D1
(b) The Turbine speed
The head coefficient is used
 1   2

 gH   gH 
 2 2  2 2
 N D 1  N D  2

 H   H 
 2 2  2 2
 N D 1  N D  2
H1 H
2 3
 223
N 1 D1 N 2 D2
2
2H2 2  D1 
N N2 1  
H1  D2 
2 11 2
N 22  100   1 N 2  119.5 rpm
7.7
(b) The turbine power
The power coefficient is used to determine the power ratio.
C P 1  C P 2

 P   P 
   
3 5

3 5
  . N D 1   . N D  2

 P   P 
 3 5  3 5
 N D 1  N D  2

31
 3 5
P2  N 2   D2 
   
P1  N 1   D1 
3
P2  119.5  5
  1 P2  245.7 kW
144  100 
Example (1.8)
A hydraulic turbine develops 45000 kW under a head of 200 m . The turbine runner has a
speed of 200 rpm and discharge 0.8 m 3 s of water. If the head on the same turbine falls
during summer to 184.3 m . Find the new discharge, power and speed of the turbine
Solution
Prototype Model
P1  45000 kW P2  ?
N 1  200 rpm N2  ?
H 1  200 m H 2  184.3 m
Q1  0.8 m 3 s Q2  ?
(a) The speed of the turbine
The head coefficient is used
 1   2

 gH   gH 
 2 2  2 2
 N D 1  N D  2

 H   H 
 2 2  2 2
 N D 1  N D  2
H1 H
2 3
 223
N 1 D1 N 2 D2
2
2H2 2  D1 
N N2 1  
H1 D
 2
2 184.3 2
N 22  200   1 N 2  192 rpm
200
(b) The Discharge of turbine
For similarity condition the flow coefficient should be equal.
 1   2
32
  Q   Q 
 3
 3
 ND 1  ND  2
3
N D 
Q2  Q1  2   2 
N 1  D1 

192 3
Q2  0.8   1 Q2  0.768 m 3 s
200
(c) The power of turbine
The power coefficient is used to determine the power ratio.
C P m  C P  p

 P   P 
   
3 5

3 5
  . N D 1   . N D 2

 P   P 
 3 5  3 5
 N D 1  N D  2
3 5
N   D2 
P2  P1  2   
 N1  D
 1
3
 192  5
P2  45000  1 P2  39813 kW
 200 
Example (1.9)
A hydraulic turbine running at 160 rpm , discharges 11 m 3 s and develops 2400 kW at a net
head of 25 m . Determine the speed, flow rate, and power output of this turbine when
running under a net head of 40 m .
Solution
Prototype Model
P1  2400 kW P2  ?
N 1  160 rpm N2  ?
Q1  11 m 3 s Q2  ?
H 1  25 m H 2  40 m
(a) The speed of the turbine
The head coefficient is used
 1   2
33
  gH   gH 
 2 2  2 2
 N D 1  N D  2

 H   H 
 2 2  2 2
 N D 1  N D  2
H1 H
2 3
 223
N 1 D1 N 2 D2
2
2 H2 2  D1 
N N
2 1  
H1 D
 2
2 40 2
N 22  160   1 N 2  202.4 rpm
25
(b) The Discharge of turbine
The flow coefficient should be equal.
 1   2

 Q   Q 
 3
 3
 ND 1  ND  2
3
N D 
Q2  Q1  2   2 
N 1  D1 

202.4 3
Q2  11   1 Q2  13.9 m 3 s
160
(c) The power of turbine
The power coefficient is used to determine the power ratio.
C P m  C P  p

 P   P 
   
3 5

3 5
  . N D 1   . N D  2

 P   P 
 3 5  3 5
 N D 1  N D  2
3 5
N   D2 
P2  P1  2   
 N1   D1 

34
 3
 202.4  5
P2  2400  1 P2  4858.2 kW
 160 
Example (1.10)
A radial flow hydraulic turbine is required to be designed to produce 30 MW under a head
of 14 m at a speed of 95 rpm . A geometrically similar model with output power of
40 kW and a head of 5 m is to be tested under similar conditions. At what speed must the
model run, what is the required rotor diameter ratio between the model and prototype?
Solution
Prototype Model
P1  30000 kW P2  40 kW
N 1  95 rpm N2  ?
H 1  14 m H2  5 m
D2
?
D1

(a) The speed of the model

The head coefficient is used
 1   2

 gH   gH 
 2 2  2 2
 N D 1  N D  2

 H   H 
 2 2  2 2
 N D 1  N D  2
H1 H
2 2
 222
N 1 D1 N 2 D2
2 2
 D2  H N 
   2  1 
 D1  H1  N 2 

D2 N 1 H2
 (1)
D1 N 2 H1

(b) The power of turbine

35
The power coefficient is used to determine the power ratio.
C P m  C P  p

 P   P 
   
3 5

3 5
  . N D 1   . N D  2

 P   P 
 3 5  3 5
 N D 1  N D  2
5 3
 D2  P  N1 
   2  
 D1  P1  N2 
5 3
 N1 H2  P N 
   2  1 
N H1  P1  N 2 
 2 
5
5 3
 N1   H 2  2 P2  N 1 
      
N
 2 H
 1 P1  N 2 

5
2
 N1   H 2  2 P2
    
N
 2 H
 1 P1
5
2
 N1  P  H 2
   2  1 
 N2  P1  H 2 

2 5
 N1  40  14  2
    
 N2  30000  5 
2
 N1 
   0.0175
 N2 
95
 0.1323 N 2  718 rpm
N2

D2 N 1 H2

D1 N 2 H1

D2 95 5 D2
  0.08
D1 718 14 D1

36
 Problems
1.1 A turbine model of 1 5 scale uses 2 m 3 s of water. The prototype turbine has to work
with a flow rate of 15 m 3 s . Determine the speed ratio and the power ratio.
1.2 Determine the model to prototype diameter ratio for a water turbine which will
produce 30,000 hp rotating at 100 rpm with a head of 50 m , while the model produces
55 hp under a head of 15 m . What is the speed of the model?
1.3 A hydraulic turbine model tested with a head of 40 m , delivers 4700 kW with a flow
rate of 15 m 3 s while rotating at 600 rpm . If the prototype is double of the model size,
what are the corresponding rotating speed, flow rate and output power with the same
head?
1.4 A centrifugal pump discharged 65 L s against a head of 17 m when the speed was
1500 rpm . The diameter of the impeller was 30 cm and the brake horsepower was

12 kW . A geometrically similar pump 40 cm in diameter is run at 1800 rpm . what head

will be developed? How much water will be pumped and what power will be
required?
1.5 A centrifugal pump is built to work against a head of 20 m . A model of this pump built
to one–fourth its size is found to generate a head of 7 m when running at its best speed of
450 rpm and requires 13.5 hp to run it. Find the speed of the prototype.
1.6 A centrifugal pump model, with the size one tenth of the prototype, running at
1500 rpm , delivers a head of 2 m at a flow rate of 0.2 m 3 s requires input shaft power of

5.8 kW . Determine the expected flow rate, head and shaft power for the prototype
running at the same speed.
1.7 The impeller diameter of a pump is 127 mm and the pump delivers 2.83 L s at a speed
of 2000 rpm . If a 102 mm diameter impeller is fitted and the pump runs at a speed of
2200 rpm , what is the volume flow rate and head for the new pump?

1.8 A model centrifugal pump is tested at a rotational speed of 3000 rpm and delivers
0.12 m 3 s of water against a head of 30 m and electrical power of 40 kW . Determine the
37
 rotational speed, volume flow rate, and power requirement of a geometrically similar
prototype at eight times the scale of the model and working against a head of 50 m .
1.9 Specifications for an axial flow coolant pump for one loop of a pressurized water
nuclear reactor are: Head of 85 m , Flow rate of 20000 m 3 hr , Speed of 1490 rpm ,

Impeller diameter of 1200 mm , Water density of 714 kg m 3 and electrical power of

4 MW . The manufacturer plans to build a model. Test conditions limit the available
electrical power to 500 kW and flow rate to 0.5 m 3 s of fresh water with density
1000 kg m 3 . Find the head, speed and scale ratio of the model.

38