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Hydraulic Machines
 A hydraulic machine is a device in which mechanical energy is transferred from the
liquid flowing through the machine to its operating member (runner, piston and
others) or from the operating member of the machine to the liquid flowing through
it.
 Hydraulic machines in which, the operating member receives energy from the liquid
flowing through it and the inlet energy of the liquid is greater than the outlet
energy of the liquid are referred as hydraulic turbines.
 The function of a hydraulic machine is to effect an exchange of energy between a
mechanical and a fluid system. In civil engineering the only classes of hydraulic
machine with which we are directly concerned are:-
1. Pumps
2. Turbines

1.Turbines
 Is a prime mover ( a machine which uses the raw energy of a substance and
converts into mechanical energy) that uses the energy flowing water and converts
it into the mechanical energy in the form of the runner) this mechanical energy is
used in running an electric generator which is directly coupled to the shaft of the
hydraulic turbine ; from this electric generator ,we get electric power which can be
transmitted over long distances by means of transmission lines and transmission
towers . The hydraulic turbines are also known as “water turbines “ since the fluid
medium used in them is water.
 Turbine is a prime mover to subtract energy from fluid. Energy from water will be
changed to mechanical energy. Turbines are subdivided into impulse and reaction
machines.
 It is well known from Newton’s Law that to change momentum of fluid, a force is
required. Similarly, when momentum of fluid is changed, a force is generated. This
principle is made use in hydraulic turbine.
 In a turbine, blades or buckets are provided on a wheel and directed against water
to alter the momentum of water. As the momentum is changed with the water
passing through the wheel, the resulting force turns the shaft of the wheel
performing work and generating power.
 A hydraulic turbine uses potential energy and kinetic energy of water and converts
it into usable mechanical energy. The mechanical energy made available at the
turbine shaft is used to run an electric power generator which is directly coupled
to the turbine shaft.

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 The electric power which is obtained from the hydraulic energy is known as Hydro
electric energy. Hydraulic turbines belong to the category of roto- dynamic
machinery.

Classification of Hydraulic Turbines

 The hydraulic turbines are classified according to type of energy available at the
inlet of turbine, direction of flow through vanes, head at the inlet of the turbines
and specific speed of the turbines.
1.According to the type of energy at inlet:
1.1Impulse turbine: -
 In the impulse turbine, the total head of the incoming fluid is converted in to a
large velocity head at the exit of the supply nozzle. That is the entire available
energy of the water is converted in to kinetic energy. Although there are various
types of impulse turbine designs, perhaps the easiest to understand is the Pelton
wheel turbine. It is most efficient when operated with a large head and lower flow
rate.
 In impulse turbines, the total head available is first converted into the kinetic
energy. The fluid energy which is reduced on passing through the runner in entirely
kinetic, it follows that the absolute velocity at outlet is smaller than the absolute
velocity at inlet (jet velocity). The fluid pressure is atmospheric throughout and
the velocity is constant except for a slight reduction due to friction.
 Example : Pelton
Pelton wheel

Fig 1 pelton wheel

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 An impulse turbine is one in which the pressure energy of the water is converted to
velocity energy before it impinges on a rotational element over a limited portion
only of the periphery, their being no subsequent change in pressure.
 Impulse machines today are of the Pelton wheel turbines, also called tangential
flow turbines, and are suitable for high heads in excess of 300 m.

Figure 2: Pelton Wheel Turbine (From: Chandramouli, et al., 2012)

1.2 Reaction turbine:
 In the reaction turbines, the fluid passes first through a ring of stationary guide
vanes in which only part of the available total head is converted into kinetic energy.
The guide vanes discharge directly into the runner along the whole of its periphery,
so that the fluid entering the runner has pressure energy as well as kinetic energy.
The pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy in the runner. Therefore, the
relative velocity is not constant but increases through the runner. There is,
therefore, a pressure difference across the runner.
 Reaction turbines on the other hand, are best suited -for higher flow
rate and lower head situations. In this type of turbines, the rotation of runner rotor
(rotating part of the turbine) is partly due to impulse action and partly due to
change in pressure over the runner blades; therefore, it is called as reaction turbine. For,
a reaction turbine, the penstock pipe feeds water to a row of fixed blades through casing.
These fixed blades convert a part of the pressure energy into kinetic energy before water
enters the runner.

 The water entering the runner of a reaction turbine has both pressure energy and
kinetic energy. Water leaving the turbine is still left with some energy (pressure
energy and kinetic energy). Since, the flow from the inlet to tail race is under
pressure, casing is absolutely necessary to enclose the turbine. In general, Reaction
turbines are medium to low-head, and high-flow rate devices. The reaction turbines
in use are Francis and Kaplan.
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 In a reaction turbine, the initial pressure-velocity conversion is only partial, so that

water enters the rotating element throughout the entire periphery and all the flow
passages run full.
 Modern reaction turbines are of two types: Francis&Propeller (Kaplan), catering
for medium and low heads respectively.

1.2.1 Francis Turbine

 Francis turbines are like a centrifugal pump in reverse . The runner was shaped like
a centrifugal impeller, flow being predominantly radial with the radii at entry and
exit the same for all flow paths.
 Water is directed in to the runner by means of a spiral casing and a number of aero
oil-shaped blades, called guide blades, spaced evenly around the periphery. These
guide blades are adjustable, the amount of opening being controlled by the turbine
governor. The role of the guide blades is to guide the flow in to the runner with the
minimum amount of turbulence, as well as to regulate the discharge and hence
power output.
 The head range for Francis turbine is from 30 m to about 450 m. As this is the
most common head available, this type of turbine enjoys a great numerical
superiority over other types.
 The velocity head at discharge from the runner may amount to 20 %, or more, of
the available head and as with centrifugal pumps it is clearly important to convert
as much as possible of this otherwise wasted energy to useful pressure head. This
can be accomplished by means of an expanding passage, called a draft tube, which
finally discharges the water at a relatively low velocity to the tail water.

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Figure 3: A Fransis Turbine ( From: Chandramouli, et al., 2012)

1.2.2 Kaplan turbines
 Kaplan turbines are like axial flow pumps in reverse (see fig 1.8). They operate at
low heads, usually less than 60 m, and high discharges.They have blades on their
runners that can be twisted to different angles in order to work at high efficiency
over a wide range of operating conditions.

Figure 4 ( Kaplan turbines)

2. According to the direction of flow through runner:

2.1 Tangential flow turbines:
 In this type of turbines, the water strikes the runner in the direction of tangent to
the wheel. Example: Pelton wheel turbine.

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2.2 Radial flow turbines:

 In this type of turbines, the water strikes in the radial direction. accordingly, it is
further classified as,
a. Inward flow turbine:
 The flow is inward from periphery to the centre (centripetal type). Example: old
Francis turbine.
b. Outward flow turbine:
 The flow is outward from the centre to periphery(centrifugal type). Example:
Fourneyron turbine.
Axial flow turbine:
 The flow of water is in the direction parallel to the axis of the shaft. Example:
Kaplan turbine and propeller turbine.
Mixed flow turbine: The water enters the runner in the radial direction and leaves in
axial direction. Example: Modern Francis turbine.

3.According to the head at inlet of turbine:

3.1 High head turbine: In this type of turbines, the net head varies from 150m to
2000m
or even more, and these turbines require a small quantity of water. Example: Pelton
wheel turbine.
3.2 Medium head turbine: The net head varies from 30m to 150m, and also these turbines
equire moderate quantity of water. Example: Francis turbine.
 Low head turbine: The net head is less than 30m and also these turbines require large
quantity of water. Example: Kaplan turbine.

4.According to the specific speed of the turbine

 The specific speed of a turbine is defined as, the speed of a geometrically similar
turbine that would develop unit power when working under a unit head (1m head).

4.1Low specific speed turbine:

 The specific speed is less than 50. (varying from 10 to 35for single jet and up to 50
for double jet ) Example: Pelton wheel turbine.
4.2 Medium specific turbine:
 The specific speed is varies from 50 to 250. Example:Francis turbine.

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4.3 High specific turbine:

 the specific speed is more than 250. Example: Kaplan turbine.

Radial flow turbines

 Radical flow turbines are those turbines in which the water flows in radial direction.
The water may flow radically from outwards to inwards or from inwards to
outwards.
 If the water flows from outwards to inwards through the runner, the turbine is
known as inward radial flow turbine. If the water flows from inwards to outwards,
the turbine is known as outward radial flow turbine.
 Reaction turbine means that the water at inlet of turbine possesses kinetic energy
as well as pressure energy.
 The main parts of a radial flow reaction turbine are:
1.Casing: - The water from penstocks enters the casing which is of spiral shape in which
area of cross section of casing goes on decreasing gradually. The casing completely
surrounds the runner of the turbine.
2.Guide mechanism: - It consists of stationary circular wheel all round the runner of the
turbine. The stationary guide vanes are fixed on guide mechanism. The guide vanes
allow the water to strike the vanes fixed on the runner without shock at inlet.
3.Runner: - It is a circular wheel on which a series of radial curved vanes are fixed. The
surfaces of the vanes are made very smooth. The radial curved are so shaped that the
water enters and leaves without shock.

4.Draft tube: - The pressure at the exit of the runner of reaction turbine is generally
less than atmospheric pressure. The water exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail
race. A tube or pipe of gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the
exit of turbine to the tailrace. This tube of increasing area is called draft tube.

Axial flow turbines

 If the water flows parallel to the axis of the rotation of the shaft, the turbine is
known as axial flow turbine. If the head at the inlet of the turbine is the sum of
pressure energy and kinetic energy and during the flow of water through runner a
part of pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy, the turbine is known as
reaction turbine.
 For the axial flow reaction turbines, the shaft of the turbine is vertical. The lower
end of the shaft is made larger which is known as hub. The vanes are fixed on the
hub and hence hub acts as runner for axial flow reaction turbine.

 The following are the important type of axial flow turbines:

1. Propeller turbine
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 When the vanes are fixed to the hub and they are not adjustable, the turbine is
known as
2. Kaplan turbine
 If vanes on hub are adjustable the turbine is known as a Kaplan turbine. This
turbine is suitable where a large quantity of water at low heads is available.

Pumps
 Hydraulic machines in which energy is transmitted from the working member
to the flowing liquid and the energy of the liquid at the outlet of the
hydraulic machine is less than the outlet energy are referred to as pumps.
 Pumps come in a variety of sizes for a wide range of applications. They can
be classified according to their basic operating principle as dynamic or
displacement pumps. Dynamic pumps can be sub-classified as centrifugal and
special effect pumps. Displacement pumps can be sub-classified as rotary or
reciprocating pumps. In principle, any liquid can be handled by any of the
pump designs. Where different pump designs could be used, the centrifugal
pump is generally the most economical followed by rotary and reciprocating
pumps. Although, positive displacement pumps are generally more efficient
than centrifugal pumps, the benefit of higher efficiency tends to be offset
by increased maintenance costs.

Pump Types
There are three main categories of pumps:
1. Archimedean screws
2.Positive displacement pumps
3 Roto-dynamic pumps

1. Archimedean Screws
In this pump the mechanical energy of the device is converted in to an increase of
the potential energy by the continuous lifting of the fluid. There is no pressure
added to the fluid. An Archimedean screw consists of an inclined shaft to which one
or more blades are helically attached. The unit is closely fitted in a semi circular
casing. With the rotation of the screw, the fluid, enclosed by two successive
blades, the shaft and casing, is lifted. The speed of this type of this type of pump
is relatively low (5-50 rpm). The most important features of the Archimedean
screw are:

2. Positive displacement pumps

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 Positive displacement pumps usually deliver only small discharges

irrespective of the head pumped against. Typical examples of this type of
pumps include:
1. Reciprocating pump
2 .Rotary pump
3. Reciprocating pump
 This type of pump is often used for domestic water supplies in developing
countries for lifting ground water. In its usual form it consists of a ram,
piston, and valve arrangement.
 The piston moves up & down in a cylinder. When the lever is pushed
downwards the piston rises, lifting water above it through the outlet. At the
same time it sucks water up the well through the non-return valve & fills the
cylinder. When the lever is raised the non-return valve close & the piston
descends allowing water to flow through another valve in to the upper part
of the cylinder. The process is then repeated.

Fig. 5 Reciprocating pump

Advantages and Disadvantages of the reciprocating pump

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Advantages

1. This pump gives constant discharge under variable head of water.

2. Its suitable for large pumping units.
3. Its durable and flexible.

Disadvantages

1. Its costly in initial cost and maintenance cost.

2. Needs more space and skilled supervision.
3. Its unsuitable for pumping water containing salt and silt.
4. Pump has more moving parts and hence more likely to wear out.

Rotary Pump
 Rotary pump contains two gears or rotors, which mesh together as they rotate in
opposite directions (see fig 1.2). Pressure is generated by the intermeshing gears,
which operate with minimum clearance. Water becomes trapped between the gears
and forced in to the delivery pipe.

Fig. 6 Rotary Pump

Advantages and disadvantages of the rotary pump.

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Advantages

1. It gives uniform rate of flow.

2. It can be operated at higher speeds and therefore, larger amounts of water
can be pumps with small size pumps.
3. There is no need to prime it.
4. There are no valves in it and its operation is simple.

Disadvantages

1. Its costly.
2. Frequent replacement of cams and gears is necessitated.
3. Water containing grit are especially injurious to them.

3.Roto-dynamic Pumps

 Roto-dynamic pumps rely on rotational movement for their pumping action. A

rotating element, known as impeller, imparts velocity to a liquid and generates
pressure. An outer fixed casing, shaft, & diving motor complete the pump unit.
 Roto-dynamic pumps are the most widely used types of pumps in civil Engineering.
Its field of employment ranges from public water supply, drainage, & irrigation to
the very special requirements of suction dredging & the transport of concrete or
sludge.
 There are three main categories of roto-dynamic pumps based on the way water
flows through them:

 Centrifugal (radial flow) pumps

 Axial flow pumps

 Mixed flow pumps

Centrifugal pumps

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 Centrifugal pumps are the most widely used of all the roto-dynamic pumps. They are
named because of the fact that the pressure head created is largely attributable
to centrifugal action. They may be designed to handle up to a head of 120m.
 Water is drawn in to the pump from a source of supply through a short length of
pipe called the suction (see fig. 1.3). Water enters at the center or eye of the
impeller, is picked up by the vanes, and forced outwards in a radial direction. The
water is collected by the pump casing & guided towards the outlet called the
delivery.
 In order that energy shall, not be wasted and efficiency there by lowered, it is
essential to convert as much as possible of the considerable velocity head at exit
from the impeller in to useful pressure head. Normally, this is achieved by shaping
the outer casing in spiral form so that the sectional area of flow around the
periphery of the impeller is gradually expanded.

Advantages and disadvantages of the centrifugal pump.

Advantages

1. Initial cost and maintenance cost of this pump is relatively less than other
types of pumps.
2. Its compact in design and does not require much on space for installation.
3. This pup can be run at high speed and at varying speeds also.
4. There is a constant and uniform flow from this pump, when run at some
specific speed,

Disadvantages

1. If water is to be lifted against high head, its efficiency drops to about 50%
to 80%.
2. Before starting, the pump has to be primed. To avoid the process of priming,
pump may be suited either submerged in the source of water or its suction pipe may
be fitted with a foot valve at its bottom.

Axial flow pumps

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 Axial flow pumps consist of a propeller housed inside a tube that acts as a
discharge pipe (see fig 1.4). The power unit turns the propeller by means of a long
shaft running down the middle of the pipe & this lifts the water up the pipe.

Fig. 7 Axial flow pump

 This type of pump is well suited to situations where a large discharge is required
to be delivered Water enters axially and the impeller imparts a rotational
component, the actual path followed by a particle being that of a helix on a cylinder.
Head is developed by the propelling action of the vanes, centrifugal effects playing
no part.

Mixed flow pumps

 Mixed flow pumps occupy an intermediate position between the centrifugal & axial
flow types and so combine the best features of both pump types. Flow is part radial
& part axial, the impeller being shaped accordingly. The path traced by a fluid
particle is that of a helix on a cone. The head range is up to about 25m.
 Mixed flow pumps are efficient at pumping larger quantities of water than
centrifugal pumps and are more efficient at pumping to higher pressures than axial
flow pumps
4.3.2 Head on turbines

 The net head on a turbine is the head available for doing work, that is to say, the
difference between the total head (elevation + pressure + velocity head) at inlet
and outlet.

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Referring to fig 8, the net head on a reaction turbine situated at some distance from the
intake is given by:

H = H G−H L−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− (. 2 )

Where, HG is the gross head (intake surface level to tail water level) and HL is the energy
head loss in the supply pipeline.

HL

Fig. 8Head on a reaction turbine

The same expression is applicable to impulse turbines. However, as these machines operate
under atmospheric pressure, HG is measured to an appropriate jet level.

4.3 Specific Speed

 It is useful to have a common basis on which different types of pump or turbine

design can be compared in respective of size. The parameter known as specific
speed has been introduced for this purpose, and the respective definitions could be
as follows:

 The specific speed of a pump is the speed in rev/min of a geometrically similar

pump of such a size that it delivers 1 m3/s against 1 m head. It is expressed by:

nQ1/ 2
ns = −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 3 )
H 3/ 4

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Where, ns is specific speed (rev/min), n is speed of rotation (rev/min), and Q&H are
discharge (m3/s) and head (m) respectively.

 The specific speed of a turbine is the speed in rev/min of a geometrically similar

turbine of such a size that it produces 1 kW under 1 m head. It is expressed by:

nP1/ 2
ns = −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 4 )
H 5/ 4

Where, P is the power output in kW.

 The above definitions of the specific speed have recognized the significant
performance parameters. In the case of pumps it is the discharge that is
important, while for turbines it is the power output.
 The values of n, Q, H, &P in the expressions for the specific speed are those for
normal operating condition (the design point), which would generally coincide with
the optimum efficiency.
 It can be noted that the specific speed is independent of the dimensions and
therefore relates to shape rather than size. Thus, all pumps or turbines of the
same shape have the same specific speed.
 The valve of specific speed is mainly used for selection of a suitable type of pump
or turbine for a particular site. The following table gives guidelines on this purpose.

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Table: Specific speeds for different types of pumps and turbines.

Machine type ns (rpm) Comments

10 – 80 High head – small discharge

Centrifugal
70 – 180 Medium head - medium
Mixed flow
discharge
150 –
Axial flow
320 Low head – large discharge
Pumps

10 – 40 High head – small discharge

Pelton
35 – 400 Medium head - medium
Francis
discharge
Turbines

300 –
Kaplan
1000 Low head – large discharge

Performance of pumps and turbines

Losses & efficiencies

 The overall efficiency η of a pump or turbine is the ratio of the useful power
output to the power input or available. Thus,
 For pumps;

γ QH
η = −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 5 )
Pi

 For turbines;
P
η = −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 6 )
γ QH
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Where, Pi is the power input to a pump and P the corresponding output from a turbine.

 Pump efficiencies are usually of the order of 80 %, whereas turbine efficiencies

are rarely less than 90 %, the difference being largely accounted for by the
generally greater size of turbines and the more efficient flow passages.The energy
losses that occur within a pump or turbine are attributable to volumetric,
mechanical, and hydraulic losses.

The volumetric loss arises from the slight leakage QL (from the high pressure side
to the low pressure side) in the small clearances that must be provided between the
rotating element and the casing. Thus, the impeller passages of a pump are handling more
water than is actually delivered, while the runner passages of a turbine are handling less
than is available. The volumetric efficiency ηv is given by:

 For pumps;

Q
ηv = −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(7 )
Q+QL

 For reaction turbines;

Q−Q L
ηv = −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(8 )
Q

The mechanical loss is a result of power loss due to mechanical friction at bearings
and fluid shear in the clearances. Thus, the mechanical efficiency η m is given by:

 For pumps;

γ ( Q +Q L ) H o
ηm = −−−−−−−−−−−−−( 9 )
Pi

 For turbines;

P
ηm = −−−−−−−−−−−−−( 10 )
γ ( Q−Q L ) H o

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The hydraulic loss arises from head loss in the flow passages due to friction and
eddies. Thus, the hydraulic efficiency may be given by:

 For pumps;

H H
ηh = = −−−−−−−−−−−−−(11)
H+ loss Ho

 For turbines;

H −loss H
ηh = = o −−−−−−−−−−−−−( 12)
H H

overall efficiency expressed by equations (4.5 & 4.6) is the result of the product of
the volumetric, mechanical, & hydraulic efficiencies. That is,


η = ηv ×ηm×ηh −−−−−−−−−−−−−( 13 )

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