Western Michigan University

ScholarWorks at WMU

Paper Engineering Senior Theses Chemical and Paper Engineering

6-1984

Eliminating Drainage at the Forming Board and Its Effects on

Formation and Retention
Michael F. Scholly
Western Michigan University

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Recommended Citation
Scholly, Michael F., "Eliminating Drainage at the Forming Board and Its Effects on Formation and
Retention" (1984). Paper Engineering Senior Theses. 486.
https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/engineer-senior-theses/486

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 ELIMINATING DRAINAGE

AT THE FORMING BOARD

AND ITS EFFECTS ON

FORMATION AND RETENTION

by
Michael F. Scholly

A thesis submitted in partial

fulfillment of the course requirements for
the Bachelor of Science Degree

Western Michigan University

Kalamazoo, Michigan
June 18, 1984
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ............................................. ii
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
FORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
RETENTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
THE FORMING BOARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Design and Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
, 8
Modification ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Paper Machine Trials ............................ 9
Anticipated Effects ............................. 13
DATA COLECTION AND ANALYSIS .......................... 13
Machine Wire Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lJ
Fiber and Filler Retention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Paper Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
APPENDIX A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
 ABSTRACT

The pilot paper machine at Western Michigan University

was modified to eliminate drainage at the forming board. This
was achieved by inserting a thin plate under the wire, from the
breast roll beyond the point of jet impingement. Two differ-
ent plates were used - one five inches and one ten inches.
Data wa� collected to determine the effects the modifications
had on the table's performance and web formation and retention.
The following can be concluded from this study: the modifications
increased the web's consistency leaving the couch, yielded
poorer formation, and had insignificant affects on solids re­
tention. Problems occurred when obtaining samples from the
table. This led to some uncertainty to the data.

ii
 INTRODUCTION

The objective of the fourdrinier table is to remove as

much free water as possible while promoting good formation.
The fourdrinier table is the most economical place to remove
water and consequently much research has studied this aspect.
The promotion of good formation on the table has not received
as much attention until recently. In th� past, formation was
improved through improving headboxes. Recently, more research
has been aimed at the deposition and initial dewatering of the
stock on the wire.
The forming board is the machine element designed to deal
with these aspects. This paper will discuss the design and oper­
ation of the forming board and my pilot machine study of how
eliminating drainage affects formation and retention.

FORMATION

Formation is defined as the distribution of the fibrous

mass of a sheet over its area. The degree of uniformity of fiber
dispersion and general appearance of the sheet are covered by
the term formation.1• 2
In general, there are three areas which affect formation.
The first are those things which are external to the paper
machine and include: stock quality, uniformity, etc. The
second category pertains to sound papermaking practice and
attention to mechanical details of the paper machine. These in­
clude table levelness, rigidity and wet end design. The third
category contains those variables that affect turbulence and
drainage. These can be controlled on a day-to-day basis and

1
include the controllable headbox variables and the water re­
moval devices. The primary controllable variables of the head­
box ares the consistency, the jet velocity to wire speed ratio,
the slice geometry, and the liquid level. Water removal devices
include the forming board, table rolls, hydrofoils, vacuum
augmented foils, suction boxes and the vacuum couch roll.
Formation will be influenced by these devices until a consis­
tency of 1.2 to 1.4 percent; where the sheet becomes set. Suc­
tion boxes and couch rolls remove water from the sheet at much
higher consistencies and therefore do not influence formation. 3
Turbulence is essential to good sheet formation on the
fourdrinier paper machine. It is developed to keep the fibers
in suspension and to disperse fiber floes as they form. The
main reason turbulence is necessary is that at commercially
used headbox consistencies (0.5% - 1.0%), fibers in suspension
do not exist individually. They are present in the form of
interwoven networks or floes of considerable mechanical strength.
In the absence of turbulence, fibers will flocculate within
milliseconds.4
To develop good formation, turbulence is needed until
sufficient amounts of water have been removed, and the sheet is
set. The forming board is the first place on the table where
turbulence can be developed. The forming board's design and
alignment with respect to the wire and headbox discharge af­
fect format1on. This will be discussed later.

RETENTION

Retention is the retainment of suspended solids on the

paper machine wire as the water is being removed. These solids
are fibers and generally, fillers. Solids' retention is af-
?
fected by variables which occur before the paper reaches the
dryer section. The furnish, chemical additives, headbox, and
drainage elements are all variables that can affect retention.S, 6
The term drainage element includes the wire and all drain­
age equipment (e.g. forming board, table rolls, hydrofoils,
vacuum boxes, etc.). These elements have a significant effect
on retention throughout the entire sheet forming process.

THE FORMING BOARD

Histocr
Forming boards were first applied to bridge the gap between
the breast roll and the first table roll. Another reason for
their use was to guide the initially drained whitewater into
the tray below the wire. For a long time, forming boards were
constructed of wood. Today the main structure is stainless
steel with the blade material being some form of polyethylene
or ceramic.7
The objectives of the forming board and its relationship
to the jet are: to avoid excessive pressure forming, minimize
breast roll pumping, maximize retention and formation and pro­
mote good formation.8
Design and Operation
There are three basic designs of forming boards: solid top,
perforated top, and the bar or cattle crossing type. The solid
. �
forming board is commonly used when it is desireable to del�y
drainage. Perforated type boards are used with drop legs to
remove water over their surfaces. The bar type forming boards
are. now the most commonly used. They consist of one or more
bars (or blades). The critical design considerations are: the
blade spacing, the blade size, and the blade-to-wire angle.
J
 The blade spacing is often referred to as the open area of
the board. The drainage that occurs early on the table is
induced by gravity. Therfore, greater open area will cause
more drainage on the forming board. The leading edge of each
blade must be designed like a hydrofoil to doctor off the water
that is draining through the wire.
Blade size has varied greatly. The trend is to have a
large first blade with a large nose. This endbles the forming
board to be m�ved very close to the breast roll if desired.
This first blade rarely exceeds nine inches. The remaining bars
are usually much smaller in an attempt to reduce drag. They are
rarely larger than four inches.
The blade-to-wire angle can have a significant effect on
the performance of the forming board. The board can be placed
flush with the wire or sloping up or down. If the forming
board slopes upward, then the leading edge of the first blade
is lower than the wire. This condition accomodates the pressure
pulse of the jet impinging on the wire, but reduces the doctor­
ing at the nose of the blade. This can be used to cevelop some
turbulence, however stock jump can occur on high speed machines.
Angling the blade in the other direction will increase doctor­
ing at the leading edge and cause increased drainage at the
trailing edge as the blade will operate as a foil. This is used
to increase water remo,.1al, but excessive wear at the nose of the
blade can occur.9
Position
The position of the forming board with respect to the point
where the jet impinges the wire is also critical. An under­
standing of the jet flow as it contacts the wire is necessary
when considering the position of the forming board. Figure 1
4
illustrates how the angle of impingement,,B, varies depending
on the geometry of the slice and the stock velocity. � can
be calculated.10
When the stock contacts the wire, a portion travels back­
wards or upstream. This is known as jet back-flow. The amount
that travels backwards is equal tos J,'2 (1 -Cos�) . The smaller
the angle, B , the smaller the back-flow.
The point where the stock contacts the wire is lmown as
the turbulent region. This region is identified in Figure 1.
Turbulence in this region is mainly caused by the angle of
impingement, the velocity difference between the jet and the wire,
and the jet disturbances developed in the headbox and at the slice.
Turbulence in this region is necessary to prevent the occur-
rence of flocculation, however if excessive, defects in the
sheet will appear.11
Another important characteristic of the jet flow is the
forming pressure developed. This, also, is dependent upon the
angle of impingement,�. The forming pressure = h(sine (3).
Where h is the total head developed in the headbox at the slice.
This pressure is the force with which the fiber is being driven
into the wire. Forming pressure will therefore affect the
drainage rate and solids' retention.
The position of the forming board influences the effect
of the angle of impingement, particularly the turbulence and
the forming pressure just discussed. The forming board can be
positioned so that the jet contacts the wire before the board,
at the leading edge, or on top of it.
Allowing the jet to contact the wire before the forming
board will "set" the sheet faster, removing a large amount of
water. The water is removed by the forming pressure, the force
5
of gravity, and possibly breast roll suction if the L/b ratio
is negative. This condition is known as breast roll pumping
and occurs wpen the stock leaving the slice is in contact
with the top dead center of the breast roll. The stock is
subjected to the suction developed by the rotating breast roll.
This suction (P) was shown to be related to the roll speed by
Burkhard and Wrist. 12 They found that the suction of a rotating
roll to be expressed by the equation: P - l/2pU 2 • Wheres
p is the density of the whitewater and U is the tangential
·velocity of the roll ( or simply the wire speed). Figure 2
is an illustration of the slice geometry with a negative L/b
ratio. Fibure 3 is a plot showing the suction developed from
the roll velocity. At high speeds, the breast roll suction
is much larger than the forming pressure.13
Landing the jet before the forming board will reduce
turbulence and settle out jet disturbances, The pressures
that are present, increase the drainage rate and will reduce
solids' retention. Under this condition, the forming board
will only act to guide the drained whitewater into the tray.
If the jet lands on the wire at the leading edge a portion
of the lower side of the jet will be doctored off. This is
generally do
· ne to remove the back-flow portion of the jet.
With this.relationship, the initial violent drainage is sig­
nificantly reduced, thus improving retention. Most of the jet
disturbances developed in the headbox and at the slice will not
settle out. These disturbances may result in poor formation
of the final sheet.14
Allowing the jet to land on top of the forming board
eliminates pressure forming and delays drainage. At high jet
velocities or large angles of contact, turbulence and jet dis-
6
 -·&1
, ..... _____ __ '
Wire Velocity ·11

Fig.1.
·Definition sketch for jet back-flou·.

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7
turbances are magnified and it is possible for the stock to jump
off of the wire. If the angle of contact and the jet disturb­
ances are small, the forming board can redisperse the fiber
and improve sheet formation.
Positioning of the forming board has taken the following
approach, If the jet disturbances and turbulence are excessive
and promote poor formation, the trend is to move the forming
board out or downstream. As hydraulic headboxes have become
more common with lower contact angles, formation has been
improved by landing the jet at or near the leading edge of the
board to increase turbulence.15
In general, the forming board has less theory and design
behind it than any other part of the fourdrinier. The deposition
and initial dewatering of the stock on the wire is one of the
most critical aspects of the sheet forming process. An author
recently reported that the forming board should prevent de­
watering from occurring and it should develop turbulence in the
stock for redispersion.16• 1 7 This coincides with the belief
that the sheet should be made on the fourdrinier table and not
in the headbox.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

The Western Michigan University pilot paper machine was

used to study the effects of modifying the forming board.
Figure 4 illustrates the fourdrinier section of this pape·r
machine. A hydraulic headbox is used to distribute the water
suspension onto the machine wire. The headbox is designed to
operate under pressure-forming conditions at the breast roll.
Draining into the first collection tray� is the whitewater
removed at the point of jet impingement to approximately half
8
of the third bank of foils. The whitewater removed by the
remaining foils and table rolls is collected in the second
tray. The combined whitewater from these two trays is used
for thick stock dilution and the remaining is sent to the
sewer. The whitewater from the four flat boxes and vacuum
couch are collected in the separator and sent to the sewer.
Significant amounts of water, fiber, and filler are re­
moved between the point of stock impingement on the wire and
the first large foil. This condition is illustrated in Figure 5.
This excessive drainage early on the machine table may impede
both formation and retention.
Modification
My Senior Thesis Project focused on modifying the forming
board section of the pilot paper machine to eliminate drainage
at the point of jet impingement on the wire. This was accom­
plished by inserting a plastic plate underneath the wire and
against the breast roll. Two different sizes were tested.
The plate sizes were five inches and ten inches. Figure 6
shows how the insertion of these plates modified the wet end.
Paper Machine Trials
Two machine trials were run to determine the effects of
modifying the forming board. The dates of these trials were
February 28 and March 15, 1984. The two trials differed only·
in the basis weight and the machine speed. The machine speed
was used to change basis weight. Both trials had three runs.
These runs were as follows:
Run # 1 - The control run; no modification
Run # 2 - Insertion of the small 5 inch plate
Run# J Insertion of the large 10 inch plate

9
 FIGURE 4

0
r-f

J-/cAJbot Brust Firlt Foil TAird F'oil TAble. Rolls 5w d,011 Borel S�t,'ol-,/ Bates
S t.c. o,.J Fo.-l Cou.c.h
Roll Sc,f,ot1 5,. cf,'011 Se.cl:.-o"
 V
V
V
u
FIGURE

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11
 A.

B.
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r
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\)
�
n ·
n.
1J
�

0
V 0
FIGU

D D �
V D °'
D D
D D

12
 The furnish used was a 50% hardwood, 50% softwood blend
refined to 400 Canadian standard freeness in the Claflin re­
finer. 20% #2 KWW Englehard filler clay was added at the
beater along with 5% pH was adjusted to 5.0 with H2 so4•
alum.
The paper machine conditions are summarized in Table I.

Anticipated Effects
Eliminating drainage at the forming board of the pilot paper
machine should affect the papermaking process. Depending vn
what was originally occurring, I anticipated the modifications
to have the following effects:
1. increased drainage on the table because sheet sealing
was eliminated
2. increased fiber and filler retention due to a delayed,
less-rapid drainage
J. improved formation because of a more turbulent, dis­
persive jet landing on the wire.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Comparisons of the paper machine runs were made to deter-.

mine the effects of these modifications. Performance was evalu­
ated by comparing machine wire profiles, fiber and filler reten­
tion, and paper properties.

Machine Wire Profiles

Profiles of the paper machine are one of the best ways to
evaluate the machine's performance. This method has been suc­
cessfully used by the paper industry for some time.18 During
the first trial, I had problems with blowing the samples from
the wire. The first problem was that the air velocity was insuf-

13
ficient to blow the stock high enough off of the wire for collect­
ion. This meant the sample had to be pushed into the container
by hand. The second problem arose when samples were being blown
off of the wire after the dry line. The web was lifting off of
the wire back past the preceding foil.
Higher air velocity was developed for the second trial, but
it was also insufficient for raising the stock from the wire.
For this second trial, the samples were scooped up from the wire
into a special container. This method proved much better than
blowing the samples from the wire. Each sample was placed in an
air-tight jar and refrigerated until it's concentration could be
determined. Figure 7 illustrates the locations of the collected
samples.

Fiber and Filler Retention

Fiber and filler retention was calculated after the concen­

trations of the samples were determined. Retention values were
then obtained for each sample taken from the fourdrinier table.
Sample concentrations were determined by filtering the stock
through low porosity, ashless filter paper and then ashing them.
Table II summarizes the percent consistency and ash of the col­
lected samples.
Several samples were taken from the same location to deter­
mine the accuracy of these two methods of collection. Ten sam­
ples were blown off the wire while producing 40 lb. paper and ten
samples were scooped off the wire while producing 80 lb. paper.
The consistency data is presented in Table III.

14
 TABLE I

TRIAL MACHINE CONDITIONS

Trial# 1 Trial# 2

Production Rate (lb./hr.) 160 160

Basis Weight {lb./JOOOft2 ) 40 .• 0 80.0
Wire Speed (ft./min) 87.6 44.4
Reel Speed (ft ./min) 90.8 46.o
Suction Box Vacuum ("H20)
1st Box 0 ·O
2nd Box o. 0
Jrd Box 6.0 7.5
4th Box 2.0 4.0
Couch Vacuum ( "H 2 O) 15.0 15.0

15
 FIGURE 7

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r-i

X
1-/c..(Jbot BrCAst Firlt Foil S e.c. o..d Fo;l
'TAird Foi I TAble. Rolls 5w. d,011 Boru s�-t ,'o/.J Bo/c.S
CotU:.h
�oil Sccf,'oi1 Se.d,'011
Secf,'o/'I

X - S11mp/c.. Loc11 /.'oN S

 TABLE II

TRIAL# 1 TRIAL# 2
Sample Taken Run# 1
After % Consis % Ash % Consis % Ash
Headbox .467 29.9 .6J6 29.6
1st Foil l.J0 21.0 1.11 2J.6
2nd Foil 1.98 20.6 2.27 21.4
Jrd Foil J.90 17.5 J.J7 21.J
Table Roll� 4.09 17.J 4.01 19.0
2n�1 Box 4.15 17.8 4.25 20.2
Jrd Box 9.41 lJ.0 lJ.2 14.6
4th Box 12.0 lJ.0
Couch Rol� 17.J 11.5 19.5 14.J

Run# 2
Headbox .467 29.9 .659 29.6
1st Foil 1.09 22.0 l.lJ 22.2
2nd Foil 1.72 20.J 2.JJ 20.6
'3rd Foil 4.2J 17.8 J.J7 20.5
Table RoJ.2-s 4.52 16.6 J.74 20.6
2nd Box J.8J J 9.2 4.19 21.2
Jrd Box 11.6 12.1 14.6 lJ.6
4th Box 18.1 11.4 2J.J 12.2
Couch Ro::.2. 18.4 11.2 26.1 12.6

Run# J
Headbox .467 29.9 .758 27.4
1st Foil .790 24.4 .961 23.7
2nd Foil l.6J 20.4 2.18 20.0
Jrd Foil 4.19 17.4 J.24 21.2
Table RoJls J.86 16.7 J.60 22.J
2nd Box 4.04 15.0 J.86 20.l
Jrd Box 11.J 11.9 12.6 15.J
4th Box 16.2 10.4 2J.5 1).0
Couch RoU 17.J 10.2 26.5 12.9

17
 TABLE III

Consistency Data for the Two Sampling Methods

at the Sarne Location

40 lb. sheet 80 lb. sheet

blown off scooped off
% consis. % consis.
J.76 J.14
J.88 J.28
J.82 2.90
4.21 J.04
4.06 3.55
J.81 J.74
J.93 J.4J
4.17 J.08
J.72 J.54
J.48 J.62
x = J.88 x = J�JJ
standard deviation = 0.21 standard deviation = 0.27

18
Paper Properties

The paper was conditioned and tested at TAPPI Standard con­

ditions-50% relative humidity and 7J ° F. The paper was tested for
machine and cross-machine direction tensile, tensile energy ab­
sorption and optical formation. This formation test consisted of
a helium laser, a photo cell and an x,y plotter to record the var­
iations in the sheet's opacity. When graph paper was used in the
plotter, a standard deviation was computed from determining the
average voltage output. Appendix A describes the operation of
this formation tester. Table IV summarizes the results of the
·tensile and formation testing. The tensile testing was also used
to indicate differences in formation. Better formation should
result in high tensile strength but also smaller differences be­
tween the machine and cross machine directions.

Trial #1 -40 lb. Basis Weight

As shown on Table II and Figures 8 and 9, it appears that

the modifications had small or insignificant effects on the per­
formance on the table. The tensile and formation testing indi­
cated that the best sheet formation was obtained during the control
run, when no modification was made to the forming board.

Trial #2 -80 lb. Basis Weight

Table II and Figures 10 and 11 indicate that the modification

had no significant effect on the table until reaching the flat
boxes. More water was removed at the flat boxes when either of
the plates were installed. The web leaving the couch had a con­
sistency of approximately 26% with the modified forming board, as

19
 opposed to 19.5% for the control run. Filler retention was lower
for the modified forming board however. As with the 40 lb. paper
trial, formation was found to be the best when no modification
was made to the forming board.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

The forming board plays a key role in forming the sheet.

It's design, alignment and location with respect to the wire and
headbox jet are critical. Eliminating drainage at the forming
board was studied on the Western Michigan University pilot paper
·machine.
The data previously discussed suggests the following:
1) since a higher couch consistency was achieved by modify­
ing the forming board, sheet sealing caused by initial rapid drain­
age presently occurs on the pilot paper machine while producing
heavier weight paper.
2) the modifications yielded poorer formation than the control
run. This may suggest that not enough turbulence was generated
by the modified forming board.
J) the modified forming board did not significantly change
solids retention.

20
 TABLE IV

Tensile Testing (Tensile Strength, Kg/Tensile Energy Absorbtion,Kg/cm)

40 lb. Basis Weight

Control 5" Plate 10" Plate
Machine Direction 6 .5/.022.. 5.5/. 015. 5.0/.016
Cross Machine Dir­ 2;9/.024 ·2; 5/. 021 2;5/�020
ection

80 lb. Basis Weight

Control 5" Plate 10" Plate
Machine Direction 12.2/.030 11 • 8/ • 028 10.6/.026
Cross Machine Dir­ 5.1/.033 4.8/.031 5.0/.033
ection

Formation Testing (Standard Deviations)

40 lb. Basis Weight

Control 5" Plate 10" Plate
4.11 4.44 4.84

80 lb. Basis Weight

;
Control 5" Plate 10" Plate
4�40 4.83 6.75

21
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 REFERENCES

1. Joint Textbook Cornmitte of the Paper Industry, "Pulp and

Paper Manufacture - Papermaking and Paperboard Making",
19?0,Vol. 3, pp. 278-28?.

2. C. Miller and O. Kallmes, Pulp And Paper Canada 79(4): ?9-82

(1978).

3. I. I. Locke, Paper Trade Journal 149(12): 42-48 (April 18, 1966).

4. O. Kallmes and M. Perez, TAPPI Journal 65(11): 67-70 (1982).

5. I. I. Locke., Paper Trade Journal 149(12): 42-48 (April 18, 1966).

6. Ibrahim, Ahmed, PIMA 43(9): 2?-32 (1981).

7. Hansen, v. E., Conference Note§, Submitted to Western Michigan
University (1984).

8. Jones, Graham, Pulp And Paper, pp. 78-82 (April 1981).

9. Abbott, E. C., Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada 68(4): 100-102.

10. Mardon, J., Paper Technology 2(6): 585-586 (1961).

11. Beloit Corporation, Conference Literature, Submitim to West­

ern._ Michigan University (1983).

12. Burkhard and Wrist, Pulp and· Paper Magazine of Canada 57(4),
(�arch 1956).

13. Hansen, V. E., Conference Notes, Submitted to Western Mich­

igan University (1984).

14. Beloit Corporation, Conference Literature, Submitted to West­

ern Michigan University (1983).

15. Kallmes and Thorp, TAPPI Journal 66(12): (1983).

16. Kallmes and Thorp, TAPPI Journal 66(12): (1983).

26
References (cond.)

17. Kallmes, O., Paper Trade Journal 162(14): 35-36 {June 15, 1979).

18. Jones, Graham, Pulp And Paper, pp. 78-82 (April 1981).

27
 APPENDIX A

Use and Operation of an Optical Formation

Tester

To quantitatively measure formation of paper produced for

my thesis project, I used a formation tester that has been used
in other senior thesis projects. This tester operates on the
principle that as the amount of light emitted through a sheet of
paper change� the voltage drop across the photocell will change
in the same proportion. The amount of light passing through the
sheet is a function of its mass. This formation tester is, there­
fore, designed to pull a piece of paper over the photocell that
has a beam of light shining on it and to continuously record the
voltage across the photocell.
Figure 12 illustrates the set up of this formation tester.
A laser supported on a ring stand shines a beam of light directly
onto a photocell that is connected to a 1.5 volt source, some re-
. sisters, and a Honeywell XY. Recorder. This recorder holds a
piece of graph paper on its face while the pen travels at a pre­
set rate in the x direction. The voltage is recorded on-the y
axis. A piece of paper is placed over the photocell and con­
nected to the recorder pen so that it moves at the same speed
as the pen. As the paper travels over the photocell, the amount
of light transmitted through the paper changes due to variations in
sheet formation and is recorded on the graph paper. Figure lJ
is an example of the voltage recorded when a piece of paper was
passed over the photocell at 0.05 inches per minute. The peak
voltages, highs and lows, are then averaged and the standard

28
deviation is computed. The standard deviation is a measure of
the formation. A high standard deviation suggests poor formation.

29
 FIGURE 12

�eliwn - !Veor, LAS€. r

Photo - c e//

~/IAJC - - - -= /,S"V
5ource

30
FIGURE 13

31