NUCLEAR PHYSICS

RUTHERFORD’S - SCATTERING EXPERIMENT

In 1911, Ernest Rutherford along with H. Geiger and E. Marsden conducted some experiments
to study the scattering of -particles by metal foils. In this experiment, a narrow-collimated
beam of -particles are allowed to fall on a gold foil. The -particles do not lose any
appreciable energy in passing through such thin foils. Arrangements are also provided to count
the number of -particles scattered in different directions. A schematic diagram of the
experimental arrangement for the study of a particles is shown in Fig. below

They found that majority of the were scattered through small angles but a significant number
of -particles were scattered through large angles. Some of them even turned back. This
suggested that somewhere within the atom there was a very small massive particle carrying a
positive charge so that the charge on the atom as a whole is zero. This small massive particle
was called nucleus.
Theory
Rutherford made the following assumptions to explain the large angle of scattering of -
particles by metal foils
1. The entire mass and positive charge of the atom are considered within a very small
central region. The positively charged core of the atom is called the atomic nucleus.
The positive charge is balanced by equal number of negatively charged electrons
2. The nucleus and -particles are considered as point charges.
3. The large angle scattering is caused by repulsive force between the nucleus and -
particles
4. The electrostatic repulsive force between the positive charge of the scattering atom and
the -particles is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Hence an -particle describes a hyperbola with the nucleus at the outer focus.
5. The deflection of -particles is due to a single encounter.
 6. Since nucleus is far heavier than -particles, its recoil during scattering is neglected.
Some Definitions
1. The impact parameter(b) is defined as the minimum distance to which the  - particle
would approach the nucleus if there were no force between them.
2. The angle between the initial direction and the final direction of the - particle is called
the angle of scattering ()
3. The smallest distance between the a-particle and the nucleus is called the distance of
closest approach (D)
Relation between Distance of closest approach (D) and impact parameter(b)
Consider an atomic nucleus of charge Ze situated at a point C as shown in Fig below Let an -
particle of mass m and charge 2e+ moving with an initial velocity v approach the nucleus placed
at C along the path PQR

As the -particle approaches the nucleus from a great distance, the electrostatic repulsion is
negligibly small when it is far away. In this case its potential energy is negligible and the entire
1
energy is kinetic and is given by E = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 The path of the -particles at a great distance is
thus a straight-line coinciding with the asymptote AOB of the hyperbola PQR.
The perpendicular distance CG from the nucleus to the incident direction is the impact
parameter b.
As the -particle approaches the nucleus, its trajectory bends more and more away from the
nucleus due to the increasing electrostatic repulsion. Finally, when it reaches the point Q at a
minimum distance from C, it begins to move away from the nucleus along QR. At a great
distance from the nucleus, its path is given by asymptote AOB of the hyperbola
The angle between the two asymptotes AOB and EOF is the angle of scattering  The two
asymptotes are equally inclined at an angle  to the axis of the parabola
The distance of closest approach of -particles to the nucleus is given by
 D =a+d ------------(1)
Hence
1 2𝑍𝑒 2
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝐷

From the figure∆ 𝑂𝐶𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆ 𝑂𝑄𝐻 are congruent hence OQ = OG =d

𝑂𝐺 𝑑
cos  = = hence
𝑂𝐶 𝑎

d = a cos  ------------(2)
𝐶𝐺 𝑏 𝑏
Similarly sin  = 𝑂𝐶 = or a = ------------(3)
𝑎 sinϕ

Since D = a+d = a + a cos  = a ( + cos  )

𝑏
D = sinϕ ( + cos  ) −−−−−−−−()

This expression gives the relation between distance of closest approach D and impact parameter
b
Relation between the Impact parameter (b) and Scattering angle ()
1
The velocity v of the particle at Q is minimum. Its kinetic energy is E = 2 𝑀𝑣0 2

The potential energy of the -particle at O is given by

1 2𝑍𝑒 2
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑎 + 𝑑)

1 1 2𝑍𝑒 2
Total energy, E = E +V = 2 𝑚𝑣0 2 + 4𝜋𝜀 ------------(5)
0 𝐷

Applying the law of conservation of energy, we have

1 1 1 2𝑍𝑒 2
mv 2 = 2 𝑚𝑣0 2 + 4𝜋𝜀
2 0 𝐷

1 𝑍𝑒 2
v 2 = 𝑣0 2 + 𝑚𝜋𝜀
0 𝐷

1 𝑍𝑒 2
𝑣0 2 = v 2 − 𝑚𝜋𝜀
0 𝐷

𝑣02 1 𝑍𝑒 2
= 1 − 𝑚𝜋𝜀
𝑣2 0 𝐷𝑣 2

𝑣02 𝑘
=1− ------------(6)
𝑣2 𝐷

1 𝑍𝑒 2
Where k=𝑚𝜋𝜀
0 𝑣2

Applying the law of conservation of angular momentum at G and Q we have

 (mv) b= (mv0) D or
𝑣0 𝑏
= 𝐷 ------------(6) Substituting for b from (4)
𝑣
𝑣0 𝑏 𝐷𝑠inϕ 𝑠inϕ
= 𝐷 = 𝐷 (1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) = Squaring we have
𝑣 (1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)

𝑣0 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜙 1− 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜙 (1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) (1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)

= = = = (1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
𝑣2 (1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)2 (1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)2 (1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)2

𝑣0 2 (1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) 𝑘
= =1− by comparing with (6)
𝑣2 (1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) 𝐷

𝑏
But D = sinϕ ( + cos  ) Hence

𝑣0 2 (1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) 𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
= =1−
𝑣2 (1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) 𝑏(1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)

𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
=1−
𝑏(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) − (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
=
𝑏(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 or
𝑏

𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑘
𝑏= = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙
2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 2
From Fig we can see that 2ϕ+  = 
𝜋  𝜋  
Or ϕ = 2 − Hence t𝑎𝑛𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 2 − 2) = cot 2
2

𝑘  1 𝑍𝑒 2 
Thus b =2 cot 2 = 2𝑚𝜋𝜀 2 cot 2
0 𝑣

Rutherford Scattering Formula

If we consider a circle of radius b around the nucleus all -particles that are directed towards
it will large angle scattering. The area of this circle is called the scattering cross-section . It
is given by
 = 𝜋𝑏 2
Consider now  -particles being scattered by a thin film of thickness t. Let n be the number of
atoms per unit volume and A the area of cross-section of the film. Assuming that each atom
scatters  -particles independently of the others we can write the aggregate cross section for
the  -particle as
Average cross-section = Scattering cross-section x Number of atoms scattering  -particles
𝜋𝑏 2 × 𝑛𝑡𝐴 = 𝜋𝑏 2 𝑛𝑡𝐴
The fraction f of incident -particles that are scattered at an angle θ is given by
 𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑓 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝜋𝑏 2 𝑛𝑡𝐴
𝑓 = = 𝜋𝑝𝑏 2 𝑛𝑡
𝐴
𝑘 
Substituting for b as b =2 cot 2

𝑘  2 𝑘2 
𝑓 = 𝜋 (2 cot 2) 𝑛𝑡 = 𝜋𝑛𝑡 cot 2 2
4

The fraction df of incident -particles that are scattered between angles θ and θ + dθ is given
by
𝑘2 𝜃  1
df = - 𝜋𝑛𝑡 × 2𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( 2) cosec 2 (2) 𝑑𝜃 × 2or
4

𝑘2 𝜃 
df = - 𝜋𝑛𝑡 × 𝑐𝑜𝑡 (2 ) cosec 2 (2) 𝑑𝜃
4

The negative sign shows that df decreases with increasing θ

Consider a screen placed at a distance r from the metal foil. The -particles scattered bettween
θ and θ + dθ strike the screen inside an annular ring of radius rsin θ and thickness rdθ as shown
in Fig. above. The area dS of the screen struck by a-particles is given by
dS = (2𝜋𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)(𝑟𝑑𝜃) = 2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝜃 
Now 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2) cos (2)
𝜃 
Hence dS = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 2) cos (2) 𝑑𝜃

𝑘2 𝜃 
𝑑𝑓 𝜋𝑛𝑡 4 × 𝑐𝑜𝑡 (2) cosec 2 (2) 𝑑𝜃
=
𝑑𝑆 𝜃 
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2) cos (2) 𝑑𝜃
If N0 is the total number of -particles incident on the target, then the actual number of
panicles striking the target of unit area is given by Ni .Then we have
𝑑𝑓
Ni = N0𝑑𝑆 Hence
𝑘2 𝜃  𝑘2 𝜃 
𝜋𝑛𝑡 ×𝑐𝑜𝑡( ) cosec2 ( )𝑑𝜃 𝑛𝑡 ×𝑐𝑜𝑠( ) cosec2 ( )𝑑𝜃
4 2 2 4 2 2
Ni = N0 𝜃  = 𝜃 𝜃 
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛( ) cos( )𝑑𝜃 4𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛( ) cos( )𝑑𝜃
2 2 2 2 2

𝑛𝑡 k2 1 𝑍𝑒 2
Ni = N0 𝜃 Substituting for k = 𝑚𝜋𝜀
16𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 ( ) 0 𝑣2
2

2
1 1 𝑍𝑒 2 
Ni = N0 𝑛𝑡 (𝑚𝜋𝜀 ) cosec 4 (2)
16𝑟 2 0 𝑣2

This is Rutherford’s Scattering Formula

Assignment-1
1. State the assumptions made by Rutherford to explain -particle scattering
2. Define 1) Impact parameter 2) Distance of closest approach and 3) Angle of scattering
3. Derive the relation between Distance of closest approach and Impact parameter
4. Derive the relation between Scattering angle and Impact parameter
5. Derive the Rutherford’s Scattering Formula
ALPHA DECAY
Radioactive elements and isotopes have unstable nuclei. To become more stable, the nuclei
undergo radioactive decay. In radioactive decay, the nuclei spontaneously emit radiation in the
form of energy and often particles as well. There are several types of radioactive decay,
including alpha, beta, and gamma decay. Energy is emitted in all three types of decay, but only
alpha and beta decay also emit particles.
Alpha decay occurs most often in massive nuclei (Z>82) The process in which an α particle is
spontaneously ejected from disintegrating nucleus by losing two protons and two neutrons is
called α-decay These nuclei have a large proton to neutron ratio An alpha particle, with its two
protons and two neutrons reduces the ratio of protons to neutrons in the parent nucleus, bringing
it to a more stable configuration.
Alpha Decay is represented as

Where
A
ZX ------------------Parent Atom
A-4-----------------Daughter
Z-2Y Atom
4
2He ------------------Alpha Particle
Q------------------KE of Alpha Particle
Characteristics of α-particles
1 These particles are Helium nuclei 2He4of +2e and a mass almost equal to 4 amu)
2 They affect photographic plates
3 They are deflected towards the negative plate in electric field. They are also deflected by
magnetic field. (They are charged and hence Lorentz force is in action)
4 These particles can ionize gases. Alpha rays have maximum ionizing power.
5 They have a velocity of the order of 107ms−1.
6 They have very little penetrating power (Due to their heavy mass)
Disintegration of Alpha Particles
Consider an -particle to be emitted from a nucleus. The nucleus recoils to conserve
momentum
Let m and v be the mass and velocity of the  particle and let Md and Vd be the mass and
velocity of the daughter nucleus. According to the law of conservation of momentum
Initial momentum = Final momentum
0 = mv-MdVd
mαvα
Hence we have Vd= Md
If K is the kinetic energy of a-particles

Some -particle emitters

Range of Alpha Particles

If -particles pass through any material medium they have the ability to ionize matter present
in the medium during this process they lose energy and finally become neutral Helium atoms
Range (R) is defined as the distance moved by an  -particle in a given material before it comes
to rest.

The range R of the  -particle depends on

1. The initial energy of the particle
2. The nature of the radioactive source
3. The Density of the medium
4. Pressure of the gas
Greater the initial energy of a-particles, greater is the range and vice versa.
If v is the velocity of the  -particle then the Range of the  -particle is given as
R∝ 𝑣𝛼 3 or R = 𝑎𝑣 3 where a= where a = 9.6× 10-24
1
We know E = 2 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼 2

2𝐸 1/2
Or 𝑣𝛼 = (𝑚 )
𝛼

2𝐸 3/2
𝑣𝛼 3 = (𝑚 ) Hence R∝ 𝐸 3/2
𝛼

or R = 𝑏𝐸 3/2 Where b= 3.18 ×10−3

Geiger–Nuttal Law -(Connects Range and Energy with Disintegration Constant)

Geiger and Nuttall made experimental study between the decay constant (λ) and the range of
the α-particle (R) for different α-emitters. They found that for an α-emitting radioactive atom
the logarithm of the decay constant (λ) and the logarithm of the range of the α-particle (R) in
air are in linear relation to each other.
logλ = A + B logR
We have seen that
3
R∝ 𝐸 3/2 hence logR = 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐸 or logR = B loge Hence

logλ = C + D logE
The plot of logλvs logR is a straight line

Note
logλ = A + B logR

is of the form y = mx + C
where B= slope (Same for all seris)
and A = y intercept (different for all
series) This is true for Radium Actinium
and Thorium Series

Note
Three main decay chains (or families) are observed in nature, commonly called the thorium series,
the radium or uranium series, and the actinium series.
 1
We know that the decay constant λ ∝ 𝑇 where 𝑇1/2is the half -life period of the radioactive
1/2

nucleus also λ ∝ 𝑅 or λ ∝ 𝐸 Hence short lived radioactive elements have greater range R
and energy
Alpha Spectrum
For a long time, it was believed that the particles emitted from a radioactive nucleus have the
same velocity and energy. Thus a- particles emitted from a nucleus were considered to be mono
energetic that means they are emitted from one definite energy state of the parent nucleus to a
definite energy state of the daughter nucleus.
The accurate energy measurements done by S Rosenblum in 1930 showed that several radio
active nuclei emitted alpha particles of different energies within a small range. This is known
as  fine structure or alpha spectrum. This occurs because,
1. The alpha particles transitions take place from different exited states of the parent
nucleus to the ground state of the daughter nucleus. This is known as long range alpha
spectrum.
2. Alpha particle transitions take place from ground state of parent nucleus to the exited
and ground state of the daughter nucleus. This is short range alpha spectrum
Short Range -Spectrum
Alpha particle transitions take place from ground state of parent nucleus to the excited and
ground state of the daughter nucleus. This is short range alpha spectrum
E.g. 83 Bi
212 →81Ti 208 + 2He4

Ground state of Bismuth to excited states and ground state of Titanium

The main  decay group 0 is due to the transition between ground state of parent nucleus to
ground state of daughter nucleus and all other transitions 1 to 5 have energy values lesser
than the main group This type of transitions take place in nuclei of greater T ½ or lesser values
1
of λ since λ ∝ 𝑇
1/2

Long Range -Spectrum

Alpha particle transitions take place from excited state of parent nucleus to the ground state of
the daughter nucleus. This is long range alpha spectrum
 E.g. 83 Bi
212 →84 Po 212 +-1e0 + → 82 Pb 208 + 2He4

Ground state of Bismuth to Polonium by beta decay

Excited states of Polonium to ground state of Lead
The main  decay group 0 is due to the transition between ground state of parent nucleus to
ground state of daughter nucleus and all other transitions 1 to 5 have energy values greater
than the main group. These types of transitions take place in nuclei of lesser T ½ or greater
1
values of λ since λ ∝ 𝑇
1/2

BETA DECAY
Beta particles are negatively charged particles emitted from the nucleus during radioactive
decay. They have the same e/m ratio as electrons hence they are confirmed to be electrons
emitted from the nucleus this is called  decay
Schematic of the  decay is shown here
A A +-1e0 + Q
ZX Z+1Y

We can see that the mass number remains the same (isobars) and only the atomic number
increases by one unit
There are 3 types of  decay
1. Betatron Emission (−)
This occurs in those nuclei which have more neutrons than protons .Here a neutron is converted
into a proton and an electron. The e-n is not present originally inside the nucleus but is formed
during the  decay
1 1 +-1e0 14 14 + -1e0 + Q
0n 1p for e.g. 6C 7N

[6p] [7p]
[8n] [7n]
Q value of − decay
Consider a − decay as shown
A A +-1e0 + Q −
ZX Z+1Y

Q − = Nuclear mass of X – (Nuclear mass of Y + mass of e-n)]c2

Q − = [Mn (A, Z) – ( Mn (A, Z+1) + me )] c2
The Nuclear mass of X = Atomic mass – mass of electron
Mn (A, Z) = (M (A, Z) - Zme )
Similarly
Mn (A, Z +1) = (M (A, Z +1) – (Z+1) me )
Hence
Q − = [ (M (A, Z) - Zme ) – [M (A, Z +1) - (Z+1) me ] - me]] c2
Q − = [(M (A, Z) - Zme - M (A, Z +1) + (Z+1) me ) - me] c2
Q − = [ M (A, Z) - Zme - M (A, Z +1) + Z me + me - me ] c2
Q − = [M (A, Z) - M (A, Z +1)] c2

Q −   if M (A, Z) > M (A, Z +1) This is the condition for spontaneous − emission

2.Positron Emission (+)

This occurs in those nuclei which have more protons than neutrons. Here a proton is converted
into a neutron by emitting a positron (+). The + is not present originally inside the nucleus
but is formed during the + decay
1 1 ++1e0 11 11 + +1e0 + Q+
1p 0n for e.g. 6C 5B

[6p] [5p]
[5n] [6n]
Q value of + decay
Consider a + decay as shown
A A + +1e0 + Q
ZX Z -1Y
Q + = Nuclear mass of X – (Nuclear mass of Y + mass of +1e0)] c2
Q + = [Mn (A, Z) – [( Mn (A, Z-1) + me )]] c2
The Nuclear mass of X = Atomic mass – mass of electron
Mn (A, Z) = (M (A, Z) - Zme )
Similarly
Mn (A, Z -1) = (M (A, Z -1) – (Z-1) me )
Hence
Q + = [(M (A, Z) - Zme ) – (M (A, Z -1) - (Z-1) me ) - me] c2
Q + = [M (A, Z) - Zme - M (A, Z -1) + (Z-1) me - me] c2
Q + = [(M (A, Z) - Zme - M (A, Z -1) + Z me - me - me] c2
Q + = [M (A, Z) - (M (A, Z -1) - 2 me)] c2

Q +   if M (A, Z) > [M (A, Z -1) +2 me] This is the condition for spontaneous emission
3.Orbital or K electron capture
This is a process during which a proton rich nucleus captures one of its atomic electrons
especially the electrons in the K Shell since the K Shell lies close to the nucleus Those nuclei
which have more protons than neutrons and which do not obey [(M (A, Z) > (M (A, Z +1) +2
me] undergo K electron capture
ZX
A + -1e0 → Z -1Y
A + Q C
1p
1 ++1e0 → 0n
1

Eg. 30Zn
63 + -1e0 → 29Cu
6

Q C = Nuclear mass of X + mass of +1e0 – (Nuclear mass of Y + BE)] c2

BE is the Binding energy with which the K -electron is held by the nucleus
Q value of K electron- capture
Q C = [ (Mn (A, Z) + me) – [(Mn (A, Z-1) + BE] ] c2
Converting atomic mass into nuclear mass
Q C = [ M (A, Z) - Zme + me - M (A, Z -1) + Z me - me – BE ] c2
Q C = [ M (A, Z) - M (A, Z -1) – BE ] c2

Q C   if M (A, Z) > [M (A, Z +1) +BE] This is the condition for K- electron capture
A vacancy is created in the K shell after the e-n is captured. An e-n from the outer shell replaces
this e-n and X-Rays are emitted. Thus K electron capture is accompanied by X Ray emission.
During  decay positron emission and K-e-n capture compete with each other as both of them
occur in proton rich nuclei
Eg.
30Zn
63 + -1e0 → 29Cu
63 (K- e-n Capture)

30Zn
63 → 29Cu
63 + +1e0 (Positron emission)

A Comparison of the three types of  decay

S. − + K-Electron Capture
No
1 Occurs in neutron rich nuclei Occurs in proton rich nuclei Occurs in proton rich nuclei
2 Atomic No (Z) increases by 1 Atomic No (Z) decreases by 1 Atomic No (Z) decreases by 1
unit unit unit
3 Neutron changes to a proton      Proton changes to a Neutron by
by emitting −    + capturing an e-n

4 Q −   if M (A, Z) > M (A, Q +     ( )   ( Q C   if M (A, Z) > [M (A,

Z +1)   −) +  Z +1) +BE]
BETA SPECTRA
The energies of the Beta particles from radioactive nuclides can be determined using a
magnetic spectrograph. If the number of  particles emitted per unit energy range is plotted as
a function of energy of the  particles we get the  spectrum as shown in Fig. below

The  spectrum is a (i) continuous spectrum having energies varying from zero to a maximum
value (End point energy) and it also has a sharp line spectrum having discrete energies
superimposed on the continuous spectrum
The line spectrum is due to a process called internal conversion where electrons from K L M
and N shells are ejected
The continuous spectrum is due to the  particles emitted. This continuous spectrum presents
some difficulties
1. The energies of the  particles is given by the Q value
Q− = [Mass of parent nucleus- [Mass of daughter nucleus +mass of  particle] ]c2
Q − = [Mn (A, Z) – ( Mn (A, Z+1) + me )] c2 = end point energy
Thus all  particles that are emitted from a given sample must have the same energy but we
see that the energies vary from zero to a maximum value. Only a few  particles are found to
have the end point energy. Law of conservation of energy appears to be violated.
2.  decay involves the following three processes
a) Betatron Emission (−) 0n
1
→ 1p
1
+-1e0
b) Positron Emission (+) 1p
1
→ 0n
1
++1e0
c) K- electron capture 1p
1
++1e0 → 0n
1

Protons neutrons and electrons obey Fermi Dirac statistic and have a half integral spin Thus
we can see that the spin angular momentum is not conserved in the conversion of a proton
 to neutron and vice versa for e.g. in Betatron emission neutron has a half integral spin but
the spins of the proton and electron add up to give an integral spin. Thus spin angular
momentum is not conserved.
3. Law of conservation of momentum appears not to be conserved
In  decay the daughter nucleus and the  particle must move along the same straight line
in the opposite directions with equal momenta to conserve linear momentum. But
experimental results show that the  particles and the daughter nucleus do not move in
opposite directions Hence Law of conservation of momentum appears not to be conserved.
PAULI’S NEUTRINO HYPOTHESIS
In 1930, Wolfgang Pauli postulated the existence of a new particle called the neutrino to
explain the continuous distribution of energy of the electrons emitted in beta decay. Only
with the emission of a third particle could momentum and energy be conserved. By 1934,
Enrico Fermi had developed a theory of beta decay to include the neutrino, presumed to be
massless as well as chargeless but it has a spin ½ Both the  particle and the neutrino are
emitted simultaneously during  decay Subsequently it was found that there are two types
of particles namely the neutrino and the antineutrino
̅ ) is emitted during - decay
The antineutrino (√
1
→ 1 ̅
+-1e0 + √
0n 1p

The neutrino (√) is emitted during + decay

1p
1
→ 0n
1
++1e0 +√
The presence of neutrino was able to explain the spectra
1. The end point energy is shared by the  particle and the neutrino. In the spectra only the
energies of the  particles are plotted hence it seems to be a continuous spectrum.
Energy of the  particle + Energy of neutrino = End point energy
Hence energy is conserved
2. Since the neutrino has a spin ½ The spin angular momentum is conserved
3. The total linear momenta must be calculated considering the neutrino’s momentum.
Total momentum = momentum of the daughter nucleus + momentum of the particle +
momentum of the neutrino Thus Linear momentum is conserved
4. The neutrino is chargeless and massless but it has a spin and momentum.

THE LINEAR ACCELERATOR

For high energies, acceleration of the particles is achieved in small successive steps. In such
machines, the PD, between different parts of the machine and between the machine and earth
is maintained low, compared with the P.D. corresponding to the ultimate energy acquired by
the particles. One machine employing this method is the linear accelerator. In this machine,
high energy particles are produced without employing high P.D.'s, by using the principle of
synchronous acceleration.

Fig. above shows the schematic diagram of a linear accelerator. It consists of a series of hollow
metal cylinders or drift tubes 1,2,3.4 They are arranged linearly in a glass vacuum chamber
The alternate cylinders are connected together the odd numbered cylinders being joined to the
first terminal and the even numbered ones to the second terminal of a H.F. oscillator. Thus in
one half cycle if tubes 1 and 3 are positive, 2 and 4 will be negative. After half a cycle the
polarities are reversed i.e., 1 and 3 will be negative and 2 and 4 will be positive. The ions are
accelerated only in the gap between the tubes where they are acted upon by the electric field
present in the gaps. The ions travel with constant velocity in the field free space inside the drift
tubes. Positive ions enter along the axis of the accelerator from an ion source through an
aperture A Suppose a positive ion leaves A and is accelerated during the half cycle, when the
drift tube1 is negative with respect to A. Let e be the charge and m the mass of the ion and V
potential of drift tube 1 with respect to A. Then velocity v of the ion on reaching the drift tube
is given by
𝟐
𝟏
𝑽𝒆 = 𝒎𝒗𝟏
𝟐
Or
𝟐𝑽𝒆
𝒗𝟏 = √
𝒎

The length of the tube 1 is so adjusted that as the positive ions come out of it, the tube has a
positive potential and the next tube (tube No. 2) has a negative potential, ie. The potentials
change signs. The positive ion is again accelerated in the space between the tubes 1 and 2. On
reaching tube 2, the velocity 𝒗𝟐 of the positive ion is given by

𝟏
𝒎𝒗𝟐 𝟐 = 𝟐𝑽𝒆 or
𝟐

𝟐𝑽𝒆
𝒗𝟐 = √𝟐√ = √𝟐𝒗𝟏
𝒎
This shows that 𝒗𝟐 is √𝟐 times𝒗𝟏 . In order that this ion coming out of tube 2, may find tube 3
just negative and the tube 2 positive, it must take the same time to travel through the tube 2.
Since 𝒗𝟐 is √𝟐 times 𝒗𝟏 . the length of tube 2 must be√𝟐 times the length of tube 1. For
successive acceleration in successive gaps the tubes 1, 2, 3, etc., must have lengths proportional
to √𝟏, √𝟐. √𝟑 etc.
L1:L2:L3: etc. = √𝟏: √𝟐: √𝟑 etc.
Energy of the ion.
If n = the number of gaps that the ion travels in the accelerator and 𝒗𝒏 the final velocity
acquired by the ion, then
𝟐𝑽𝒆
Velocity of the ion, as it emerges out of the nth tube = 𝒗𝒏 = √𝒏√ 𝒎

𝟏
K.E. acquired by the ion is 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝒏 𝟐 = 𝒏𝑽𝒆

Thus, the final energy of the ions depends upon (i) the total number of gaps and (ii) the
energy gained in each gap.
The limitations of this accelerator are:
1. The length of the accelerator becomes inconveniently large and it is difficult to
maintain vacuum in a large chamber.
2. The ion current is available in the form of short interval impulses because the ions are
injected at an appropriate moment.

CYCLOTRON
The cyclotron (Fig.1) consists of two hollow semi-circular metal structures in the shape of D
called the DEES. A source of ion is located at the center of the gap between the dees. The dees
are insulated from each other and are enclosed in another vacuum chamber The Dees are
connected to a powerful radio frequency oscillator The whole apparatus is placed between the
poles of a powerful electromagnet The magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of the
Dees.
Theory
Suppose a positive ion leaves the source when the Dee D1 is at the maximum negative AC
potential The positive ion will be accelerated towards the negative dee D1 The velocity of the
ion is given by
𝟏
𝑽𝒆 = 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐 Where

V- Applied potential (Radio Frequency Oscillator)

e- electronic charge
m – mass of the ion
v- velocity of the ion
When the ion is inside the Dee it is not accelerated since this space is field free But inside the
Dee, under the action of the applied magnetic field, the ions travel in a circular path.
[Note: Lorentz force for a charge moving in a magnetic field is given by the formula F = ev x
B in which e is the charge, v is the velocity, and B is the magnetic field density. Lorentz force
is perpendicular to both velocity and magnetic field. The right hand rule is applied when
determining Lorentz force. If v and B are perpendicular to each other F = BeVSin90 = Bev ]
The force experienced by the ion is F = Bev
𝒎𝒗𝟐
Since the ion is travelling in a circular path 𝑭 = 𝒓

Where
r-radius of the circle
Hence
𝒎𝒗𝟐
Bev = --------------(1) or
𝒓
𝒎𝐯
r= --------------(2)
𝑩𝒆
𝑣 𝐵𝑒
The angular velocity ω = 𝑟 = from (2)
𝑚
𝜋 𝜋𝑚
Time taken to travel the semicircular path t = 𝜔 = ------------------(3)
𝐵𝑒

The frequency of the RF oscillator is adjusted so that as the ion enters the center after travelling
through D1 the polarities will change. Now D2 is negative and the ion is further accelerated
and enters D2. Once again it travels in a circular path of increasing radius under the action of
the magnetic field and reaches the center. Thus the ion travels in circles of increasing radius as
shown in Fig.1 Every time it reaches the center it is accelerated. This process continues till the
ion reaches the periphery of the Dee and acquires high energy. The ion will finally come out
through the window and strike the target as shown in the Fig.1. It has to be noted that every
time the velocity increases, the radius of the circular path also increases, hence the time taken
by the Ion to describe the semicircle will be the same. This can also be observed in Eqn. (3). It
is important that when the ion reaches the center of the Dees the polarity of the RF voltage
𝐓
changes i.e. t = 𝟐 this is the condition for resonance

Energy of the Ion

Let rm be the radius of the outermost orbit and vm the corresponding velocity of the Ion. Then,
Eqn. (1) can be written as
𝑚𝑣𝑚 2
Bevm = 𝑟
or
𝐵𝑒𝑟𝑚
vm = 𝑚
-----------------(4)

The energy of the Ion is

1 1 𝐵𝑒𝑟𝑚 2 1 𝐵2 𝑒 2 𝑟𝑚 2
E = 2 𝑚𝑣𝑚 2 = 𝑚( ) =2 -----------(5)
2 𝑚 𝑚

The condition for acceleration is

Time taken to complete the semi circle = Half the time period of the RF oscillator
Or
T
t=2
𝜋𝑚 T 2𝜋𝑚
t= = 2 or 𝑇= ------------------(6)
𝐵𝑒 𝐵𝑒
1 𝐵𝑒
Since f= 𝑇 𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑚 ------------------(7)

From (5) after multiplying and dividing by 2π2

𝐸 = 2𝜋 2 𝑟𝑚 2 𝑓 2 𝑚

Limitations of the Cyclotron.

The energies to which particles can be accelerated in a cyclotron is limited by the relativistic
increase of mass with velocity.If a particle is moving with a velocity v (Relativistic velocity)
𝒎𝟎
then its mass is given by 𝒎 = 𝟐
where mo is the rest mass. If v increases the mass m of
√𝟏− 𝒗𝟐
𝒄

the particle also increases. The equation for time taken by the particle to complete the
𝜋𝑚
semicircle is t = 𝐵𝑒 Thus as the mass increases the time t also increases and it will not be in
resonance with the time period T of the RF oscillator. In other words when the ion reaches the
T
center between the Dees the RF signal will not change its polarity since t ≠ 2
Hence the
acceleration of the particle cannot take place. Hence the cyclotron cannot be used to
accelerate an electron as the e-n easily approaches the relativistic velocity. The cyclotron

cannot be used to accelerate a neutron as it is electrically neutral

BETATRON
Betatron is a device used to accelerate electrons (beta particles) to very high energies. It was
constructed by D.W.Kerst. The action of this device depends on the principle of a transformer.
CONSTRUCTION

Fig.(1)

It consists of a doughnut shaped vacuum chamber placed between the poles of an

electromagnet. The electromagnet is energized by an alternating current and hence produces a
varying magnetic field. This varying magnetic field acting along the axis of the vacuum tube,
produces two effects on the electrons
1. The changing flux due to the electromagnet produces the induced magnetism which is
responsible for the acceleration of the electrons.
2. The field of the magnet at the same time bends the electrons in a circular path in the
chamber and confines them to an orbit having a constant radius
THEORY.
Consider the electron moving in an orbit of radius r (Fig. 1). Let ɸ be the flux linked with the
orbit the flux produces an induced emf
𝑑∅
Ԑ=−
𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅
The work done on an electron of charge e in one revolution Ԑ𝑒 = −𝑒 𝑑𝑡 ----------(1)

But we know work done = Force x Distance or F x 2 𝜋𝑟-----(2)

Where 2𝜋𝑟 is the distance traveled by the e-n in one revolution
From (1) and (2)
 𝑑∅
F x 2𝜋𝑟 = −𝑒 𝑑𝑡 Hence
𝑒 𝑑∅
𝐹 = − 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑡 --------------(3)

When the velocity of the electron increases due to the above force, it will try to move in an
orbit of larger radius. Because of the presence of the magnetic flux perpendicular to the
electron orbit, the electron will experience a radial force inward given by the Lorentz Force
𝒎𝒗𝟐
Bev = or
𝒓

𝒎𝒗 = 𝑩𝒆𝒓------------(4) But
𝒎𝒗 = 𝒑 the momentum of the e-n
From Newton’s 2nd law
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝐵
𝐹= = 𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑡 ---------------(5) from (4) ( Note here r is constant and only b is varying)
𝑑𝑡

Equating (3) and (5)

𝑒 𝑑∅ 𝑑𝐵
− 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑡 or 𝑑∅ = 2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑𝐵

Integrating ∅ = 2𝜋𝑟 2 𝐵
This relation is known as Betatron condition
It shows that to ensure that the electron moves in circular path of constant radius, the magnetic
flux within the orbit of radius R is always twice what it would have been if magnetic field were
uniform throughout the orbit.

Fig. above shows the variation of of magnetic field B with time. Electrons are injected into the
chamber when magnetic field just begins to rise. The electrons are accelerated by the increasing
maggnetic flux During the time the magnetic field reaches its peak value, the electrons make
several thousand revolutions and get accelerated. If they are allowed to revolve any more, the
decreasing magnetic field would retard the electrons. Hence, the electrons are ejected at this
stage
NUCLEAR DETECTORS
Most of the nuclear reactions are accompanied by the emission of charged particles like  and
-rays these radiations carry information of the nuclei hence it is very important to detect them.
The detection process employs any one of the special properties of the radiation like

1. Affecting photographic plates

2. Ionisation of matter etc

Nuclear detectors have two main parts (i) Detector and (ii) Measuring system Gas detectors are
built on the principle that when an ionizing radiation passes through a gas filled chamber it
ionizes the gas and an electric pulse is produced eg (i) Proportional counter (ii) GM counter
etc.

Variation of Ionisation Current With Applied Voltage

Fig. Above shows the variation of the ionization current with the applied voltage It has 6
main regions
1.Recombination region (Region A)
When radiation enters the gas filled tube ionization occurs ie we get electron –ion pairs but
the applied voltage is not sufficient to accelerate the electron –ion pairs to the respective
electrodes and hence recombination occurs Thus a low ionization current is produced. The
device is not operated in this region.
2.Ionisation Chamber region (Region B) (100V - 400V)
As the applied voltage is increased the electrons from the electron –ion pairs gain sufficient
energy and they are able to reach the anode and produce a small pulse This is known as
ionization chamber region Here the current remains constant even if the voltage is increased
This is used to detect heavy particles like alpha particles
3.Proportional Counter region (Region C) (> 400V)
When the voltage is increased further, the electrons released through primary ionization
reactions obtain the energy to collide with other gas particles inside the detector chamber hence
producing secondary ions. The number of collected electrons rises exponentially with voltage
this is called gas amplification. (because each electron released by incoming radiation creates
a cascading effect of ionization among other electrons). Here the number of ion pairs produced
is proportional to the initial ionization. Ie a linear relationship exists between the initial
ionization and the secondary ion pairs produced This is called Proportional counter region
4. Limited proportionality region (Region D) 400V - 500V)
As the voltage is further increased more electrons move towards the anode and positive ions
move towards the cathode. Since they are slow moving there is a high concentration of
positive ions in the chamber and the ionization current is not proportional to the initial
ionization. This is known as region of limited proportionality and is not of much use
5. Geiger Muller Counter Region (Region E) (>500V)
Increasing the voltage further, there is a point where a single electron is enough to initiate an
avalanche of electrons. This region is called Geiger-Mueller region. Here the ionization current
reaches a plateau. This type of detector is effective for counting lightly ionizing radiation, such
as beta particles and gamma rays
6. Continuous Discharge Region (Region F)
If the voltage is increased beyond GM region continuous discharge takes place and the
detector should not be operated in this region

PROPORTIONAL COUNTER

Cathode
The proportional counter consists of a hollow metal cylinder filled with gas The walls of the
cylinder act as the cathode and the metallic wire at the center acts as the anode the cylinder and
the wire are insulated from each other There is a window through which the radiation enters
the cylinder. These radiations ionize the gas in the cylinder and produce electron –ion pairs
When the voltage is high enough the electrons released through primary ionization reactions
obtain the energy to collide with other gas particles inside the detector chamber hence
producing secondary ions and hence produces pulses that can be detected
In a cylindrical geometry with the anode at the center, the electric field at radius r from the
anode is given by

Where V = the applied voltage, a = anode wire radius, b = cathode tube inner radius. Large
values of E are obtained when r is small i.e. near the anode. [In a cylindrical proportional
counter with a = 80 m, b = 1 cm, to obtain a field E = 5.18 x 106 V/m at anode wire surface,
i.e. r = 80 m, V should be 2,000 V, which is conveniently attainable.]

GM COUNTER
Geiger and Muller developed a ‘Particle detector’ for measuring ‘ionizing radiation’ in 1928.
They named it as ‘Geiger Muller Counter’. Ever since then it has been one of the most widely
used nuclear detectors in the developmental days of Nuclear physics. The particle detector
developed by Geiger and Muller is a gas filled counter. The main difference between
‘proportional counter’ and ‘Geiger-Muller Counter’ is in the formation of the avalanche. In the
proportional counter, the avalanche is formed only at a point whereas in Geiger-Muller Counter
it is formed in the central wire. Therefore, in GM Counter amplification is independent of initial
ionization produced by the ionizing particle.
 Construction
• It consists of a hollow metal case enclosed in a thin glass tube. This hollow metal case acts as
a cathode.
• A fine tungsten wire is stretched along the axis of the tube and is insulated by ebonite plugs.
This fine tungsten wire acts as anode.
• The tube is evacuated and then partially filled with a mixture of 90% argon and 10% ethyl
alcohol vapours
• The fine tungsten wire is connected to positive terminal of a high tension battery through a
resistance R and the negative terminal is connected to the metal tube.
• The direct current voltage is kept slightly less than that which will cause a discharge between
the electrodes.
• At one end of the tube a thin window of mica is arranged to allow the entry of radiation into
the tube.
Principle
The tube is filled with Argon gas, and around voltage of 400 Volts is applied to the thin wire
in the middle. When a particle arrives into the tube, it ionizes the Argon atom and forms an e-n
-ion pair. The electron is attracted to the central wire (anode) and as it rushes towards the wire,
the electron will knock other electrons from Argon atoms, causing an "avalanche". Thus one
single incoming particle will cause many electrons to arrive at the wire, creating a pulse which
can be amplified and counted. This gives us a very sensitive detector.
Characteristics of GM counter
There is a threshold below which the tube doesn’t work. This can be several hundred volts.
After this, the number of pulses is proportional to the voltage. This region is known as
proportional region.
If the applied voltage is increased further, then a point will be reached after which the count
rate remains constant over a certain region. This region is known as plateau region or Geiger
region. This region is used for Geiger Muller operation.
Beyond the plateau region the applied electric field is so high that a continuous discharge takes
place in the tube and the count rate increases very rapidly. It does not require any ionization
event to happen so that the tube must not be used in this region.
Dead time
The Geiger Muller counter can account for about 500 particles per second. The GM counter
will not register those particles that pass through it in the dead time. Dead time refers to
the time taken by the tube to recover between counts. (During avalanche effect many
electrons and positive ions are produced .The positive ions move towards the surface of the
cathode i.e. cylinder and the e-ns move towards the anode and after reaching the anode they
travel through the resistor and once again reaches the surface of the cathode where they
recombine with the positive argon ions thus forming neutral argon molecules the time taken
for this process is called dead time) It requires about 200 μs for the tube to recover. If lot
of particles enters the GM tube at a rapid rate, the tube will not have time to recover and
some particles may not be counted.
Recovery time
After dead time the counter operates with a reduced current level as fresh ions are produced
the counter once again operates in the GM region Thus the time taken to restore the original
current or pulse levels is called recovery time
The efficiency of the counter is defined as the ration of the observed counts per second to the
number of ionizing particles entering the counter per second. Counting efficiency is defined as
the ability of counting of the GM counter.

𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑/𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Counting efficiency, η = 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Quenching
A covering of positive ions is formed over the anode during ionization. The process of
removing all these ions from the detector and making it ready for a fresh event is called
quenching. This is achieved by using halogen gases or alcohol. These agents remove the ions
in the chamber.
It is important to note that Geiger-Muller counter does not detect the following,
➢ Neutron radiation
➢ Microwave radiation
➢ Laser energy
Applications
➢ To check for safe levels of radioactivity in any area (near Nuclear power Plants labs
etc)
➢ Or in any material like food rocks etc.
➢ To check the levels of iodine 131 in cancer patients undergoing radiation therapy.
➢ Cosmic ray intensities and their interaction