UNIT 3

MEASUREMENT IN RESEARCH
 In our daily life we are said to measure when we use some yardstick to determine
weight, height, or some other feature of a physical object.

 We also measure when we judge how well we like a song, a painting or the
personalities of our friends. We, thus, measure physical objects as well as abstract
concepts.

 Measurement is a relatively complex and demanding task, especially so when it

concerns qualitative or abstract phenomena.

 By measurement we mean the process of assigning numbers to objects or

observations, the level of measurement being a function of the rules under which the
numbers are assigned.

Need of Measurement
 Standardization: Measurement scales provide a standardized framework for collecting
and analyzing data in research. They ensure that data is collected consistently and can
be compared across different samples or studies.

 Precision: Measurement scales allow researchers to quantify variables with precision.

By assigning numerical values or categories to variables, researchers can capture and
analyze data in a more precise and detailed manner.

 Data Organization: Measurement scales aid in organizing and categorizing data. They
provide a structure for classifying variables into different levels or categories, making
it easier to analyze and interpret the data.

 Statistical Analysis: Measurement scales enable researchers to use various statistical

techniques for data analysis. Different scales correspond to different statistical
methods, allowing researchers to apply the appropriate analysis techniques based on
the type of data collected.

 framework for interpreting data by assigning meaning to the numerical values or

categories associated with variables.
  Comparability: Measurement scales allow for meaningful comparisons between
variables or groups. Researchers can compare data across different individuals,
groups, or time periods to identify patterns, trends, and differences.

 Reliability and Validity: Measurement scales play a crucial role in ensuring the
reliability and validity of research findings. Reliable measurement scales produce
consistent results over time, while valid scales accurately measure the intended
constructs or variables.

 Communication and Reporting: Measurement scales help in effectively

communicating research findings to others. Researchers can present and report data in
a clear and concise manner, making it easier for others to understand and interpret the
results.

 Replication and Generalization: Measurement scales contribute to the replicability

and generalizability of research. By using standardized scales, researchers can
replicate studies, compare findings across different studies, and make generalizations
about broader populations.

Levels of Measurement
1.Nominal Scale:
 This type of scale allows a researcher to classify characteristics of the persons, places
or objects into categories.
 It is simply a system of assigning of number symbols to events in order to label them.

 Example: Assignment of numbers to basketball players to identify them and as such ,

the numbers have no quantitative value.
 Sometimes variables measured on nominal scales are called categorical or qualitative.

 Examples: Group membership (1 = Experimental, 2=Placebo )

A person’s gender (0 = Female, 1 = Male)

Blood type, marital status, religion

Characteristics of Nominal Scale

 The weakest or least powerful level of measurement

 Indicates no order or distance relationship and has no arithmetic origin

 Simply describes differences between things by assigning them into categories

 Counting of numbers in each group is the only possible arithmetic operation

 Mode as the measure of central tendency can only be used

  Chi-square test of statistical significance can be utilized

 Contingency coefficient for measures of correlation can be worked out.

2.Ordinal Scale
 In this case, the characteristics can be put into categories and the categories also can
be ordered in some meaningful way. The distance between the categories, however, is
unknown.
 A student’s rank in his class involves use of this scale.

 Permits the ranking of items from highest to lowest but the real difference between
adjacent ranks may not be equal.
 Implies a statement of ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’ without our being able to state how
much greater or less.
 Median can be used as the measure of central tendency.

 Percentile or quartile measure is used for measuring dispersion

 Correlations are restricted to various rank order methods

 Measures of statistical significance are restricted to non-parametric methods.

 Examples:

 Socioeconomic Status

1 = Low
2 = Middle
3 = High
 Health Status

1 = Poor
2 = Fair
3 = Good
4 = Excellent

3. Interval Scale:
 Numbers are assigned to objects or events which can be categorized, ordered and
assumed to have an equal distance between scale values.
 It has an arbitrary zero, but it lacks true zero or absolute zero.
  It does not have the capacity to measure the complete absence of a trait or
characteristic.
 Example: Fahrenheit or centigrade scale of temperature

 Addition and subtraction are permissible, but not multiplication and division

Characteristics:
 More powerful measurement than ordinal scale as it involves the concept of equality
of interval.
 Mean-appropriate measure of central tendency, std. deviation most widely used
measure of dispersion
 Product moment correlation technique

 ‘t’ test and ‘z’ test for statistical test of significance

Ratio Scale
 The most precise level of measurement consists of meaningfully ordered
characteristics with equal intervals between them and the presence of a zero point that
is not arbitrary but determined by nature.

 For example, the zero point on a centimeter scale indicates complete absence of
length or height, but absolute zero of temperature is theoretically unobtainable.

 Represents the actual amount of variables

 Ratio is possible, e.g. it can be said that 40 kg. is four times more than 10 kg.

 Examples: weight, height, income, distance etc.

Reliability

 Measurement is said to be reliable when it give consistent results. i.e. when repeated
measurements of same things give constant results.

 Reliability is the extent to which the same finding will be obtained if the research is
repeated at another time by another researcher. If the same finding can be obtained
again, the instrument is consistent or reliable.
 Reliability refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same individuals when
re-examined with test on different occasions, or with different sets of equivalent
items, or under variable examining conditions.

Methods of estimating reliability coefficient

 Test-retest method:

 Single form of test is administered twice on the same sample with a reasonable time
gap.

 It yields two independent sets of scores and the correlation between them gives the
value of reliability coefficient which is also known as temporal stability coefficient.

 Split-half method:

 It indicates homogeneity of the test. Test is divided into two halves, say, one set
contains odd numbered items and another contains even numbered items.

 A single administration of the two sets of items to a sample of respondents yields two
sets of scores. A positive and significant correlation indicates that the test is reliable.

 The advantage is that data necessary for computation of the reliability coefficient are
obtained in a single administration of the test, and hence variability produced by two
administrations is automatically eliminated.

Validity of measurement

 Validity of the measuring instrument is the degree or the extent to which it measures
what it is supposed to measure.

 The term validity means truth or fidelity. It can be defined as the accuracy with which
it measures that which is intended to measure.
  Validity is epitomized by the question: ‘Are we measuring what we think we are
measuring?’ This is very difficult to assess. The following questions are typical of
those asked to assess validity issues:

 Has the researcher gained the full access to the knowledge and meanings of
informants?

 Would experienced researcher use the same questions or methods?

 A good measure must not only be reliable, but also valid.

 A valid measure measures what it is intended to measure.

 Validity is not a property of a measure, but an indication of the extent to which an

assessment measures a particular construct in a particular context—thus a measure
may be valid for one purpose but not another.

 A measure cannot be valid unless it is reliable, but a reliable measure may not be
valid

Content validity

 When the content of items individually and as a whole are relevant to the test, it
represents content validity.

 It requires both:

 Item validity: concerned with whether the test items represent measurement in the
contended area, and

 Sampling validity: concerned with the extent to which the test samples the total
content area.

Concurrent validity

 In this method, a test is correlated with a criterion which is available at present time.

 It means how well performance on a test estimates current performance on some

valued measure (criterion).

 e.g. test of dictionary skills can estimate students’ current skills in the actual use of
dictionary – observation.
  e.g. the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) is valid to the extent that it distinguishes
between students that do well in college versus those that do not.

Predictive validity

 It is the degree to which a measure predicts a second future measure.

 A test is correlated against the criterion to be made available sometimes in future.

 Predictive Criterion Validity = how well performance on a test predicts future

performance on some valued measure (criterion)?

 e.g. reading readiness test might be used to predict students’ achievement in reading.

 Predictive validity is needed for tests which include long range forecast of academic
achievement, industrial management etc.

Construct validity

 It is the extent to which the test may be said to measure a theoretical construct or
trait.

 A construct is a non-observable trait such as intelligence, motivation etc.

 Construct validation is a more complex and difficult process than content validation
and criterion validation..

 Construct validity is computed only when the scope for investigating criterion related
validity or content validity is bleak.

 Practicability

 From the operational point of view, the measuring instrument ought have:

 Economy,

 Convenience and

 Interpretability

Measurement and Scaling

Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects
according to certain pre-specified rules.

 One-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the characteristics being

measured.

 The rules for assigning numbers should be standardized and applied uniformly.

 Rules must not change over objects or time.

 Scale Characteristics

Description

 By description, we mean the unique labels or descriptors that are used to designate
each value of the scale. All scales possess description.

Order

 By order, we mean the relative sizes or positions of the descriptors. Order is denoted
by descriptors such as greater than, less than, and equal to.

 Scale Characteristics

Distance

 The characteristic of distance means that absolute differences between the scale
descriptors are known and may be expressed in units
Types of comparative scales are:

1. Paired comparison:
 This technique is a widely used comparative scaling technique.
 In this technique, the respondent is asked to pick one object among the two objects with
the help of some criterion.
 The respondent makes a series of judgements between objects.
 The data obtained is ordinal in nature.
 With n brands, [n(n-1)/2] paired comparisons are required.
For example: A survey was conducted to find out consumer’s preference for dark
chocolate or white chocolate. The outcome was as follows:
Dark chocolate= 30%

White chocolate= 70%

Thus, it is visible that consumers prefer white chocolate over dark chocolate.

2. Rank order:
 In this technique, the respondent judges one item against others.
 Respondent are present with several objects and are asked to rank or order them
according to some criterion.
 Rank order scaling is also ordinal in nature.
 Only (n-1) scaling decisions need to be made in this technique.
For example: A respondent is asked to rate the following soft drinks:

Drinks Rank

Pepsi 2

Thumbs Up 1

Mountain dew 3

Mirinda 4

3. Constant sum scaling:

 In this technique, the respondent is assigned with the constant sum of units, such as 100
points to attributes of a product to reflect their importance.
 If the attribute is not important, the respondent assigns it 0 or no points.
 If an attribute is twice as important as another attribute, it receives twice as many
points.
 The sum of all points is 100, that is, constant. Hence, the name of the scale.
For example: A respondent is asked to spend 500 rupees on product A, product B and
product C of foods?

Products Money

Product A 250

Product B 150

Product C 100

Total 500

4. Q sort:
 It is a sophisticated form of rank order.
 In this technique, a set of objects is given to an individual to sort into piles to specified
rating categories.
For example: A respondent is given 10 brands of shampoos and asked to place them in 2
piles, ranging from “most preferred” to “least preferred“.
pile 1

                                               Most preferred

Clinic
Head n shoulder dove L’Oreal paris pantene
plus

pile 2

                                               Least preferred

Sunsil
TRESemme Biotique Himalya Patanjali
k

Note: Generally the most preferred shampoo is placed on the top while the least preferred
at the bottom.

Non-comparative scales:
 In non-comparative scales, each object of the stimulus set is scaled independently of the
others. The resulting data are generally assumed to be ratio scaled.
Types of Non-comparative scales are:

1. Continuous rating scales: 

 It is a graphic continuum typically coordinated by two extremes.
 The extreme values are not predefined.
 It can be constructed easily and is simple to use.
 The respondent rates by placing the mark on a continuous line.
For example: A respondent is asked to rate the service of Domino’s:
Type 1

Following are the two categories under scaling techniques:

Type 2

2.  Itemised rating scales: 

 It is a graphic continuum typically coordinated by two extremes.
 It is simple to use and can be constructed easily.
 The respondent is provided with a scale that has a number or brief description
associated with each category.
 The categories are ordered in terms of scale position, and therefore the respondents are
required to pick the required category that best describes the object being rated.
The different forms of Itemised rating scales are – a. Itemised graphic scale, b. Itemised
verbal scale, c. Itemised numeric scale
Types of Itemised rating scaling are:

a. Likert scale: 
 This scale requires the respondent to indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement
with the statements mentions on the left side of the object.
 The analysis is often conducted on an item-by-item basis, or a total score can be
calculated.
 When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the negative statements by the
respondent is scored by reversing the scale.
For example: A well-known shampoo brand carried out Likert scaling technique to find
the agreement or disagreement for ayurvedic shampoo.

Strongly Neither agree Strongly

Statement  Disagree Agree
disagree nor disagree agree

Ayurvedic shampoo 1 2 3 4 5
 helps in maintaining
hair

Ayurvedic shampoo
5 4 3 2 1
damage hair

Ayurvedic shampoo
5 4 3 2 1
cleans your hair 

b.  Semantic differential scale:

 The semantic differential is a 7 point rating scale with endpoints related to bipolar
labels.
 The negative words or phrase sometimes appears on the left side or sometimes right
side.
 This controls the tendency of the respondents, particularly those with very positive and
very negative attitudes, to mark the right or left sides without reading the labels.
 Individual items on a semantic differential scale could also be scored on either a -3 to
+3 or 1 to 7 scale.
For example:  A well-known shoe brand carried out semantic differential scaling technique
to find out customer’s opinion towards their product.
  

c. Staple scale:
 It is a unipolar rating scale with 10 categories scaled from -5 to +5.
 It does not have a neutral point, that is, zero.
 It is represented vertically.
For example: A well-known shoe brand carried out a staple scaling technique to find out
costumer’s opinion towards their product.