Applications and Concept

of Logic

A project report submitted to

Department of Mathematics Kathmandu
Model Secondary School Bagbazar,
Kathmandu

Submitted by
Siddhant Sah
Roll No: 42
Section: D6

Under Supervision:
Mr. Jay Ram Subedi (JRS)
Lecturer, KMC Bagbazar,
 Declaration

I Hereby declare that the report presented in this project report has been
done by myself under the supervision of Mr. Jay Ram Subedi (JRS), and
has not been submitted elsewhere for any examination.
All sources of the information have been specifically acknowledged by
references to authors or institutions.
 Teacher Recommendation

The project work report entitled "Applications and Concept of Logic"

submitted by Siddhant Sah of Kathmandu Model Secondary School
Bagbazar, Kathmandu, Nepal. This project is prepared under my supervision
as per the procedure and format requirements laid by the Department of Math
Secondary School, as the partial fulfillment of the requirements of the internal
evaluation of grade XI. I therefore, recommend the report for evaluation.

Signature:

Siddhant Sah
Section: D6
Roll No: 42
Science
 Endorsement

We hereby endorse the project work report entitled "

Application and Concept of Logic " submitted by
Siddhant Sah of Kathmandu Model Secondary School,
Kathmandu Nepal in partial fulfillment of the requirement of
the mathematics subject internal evaluation of grade XI.

Signature Signature:
(Name of HOD) (Name of principle)
Department of Math: Principal:
Mr. Chiranjivi Gyawali Dr. Nagendra Bahadur Aryal
Date: Date:
Table of Contents

Logic .......................................................................................................................... 1
Historical Background ............................................................................................. 1
Concept of Logic .................................................................................................. 2-4
Logical Connectives ...................................................................... ……………4-12
 Negation …………………………………………………………………6-7
 Conjunction ………………………………………………………………7-8
 Disjunction ……………………………………………………………….8-9
 Conditional………………………………………………………………9-10
 Biconditional …………………………………………………… ….10-11
 Tautology ………………………………………………………………..11
 Contradiction ……………………………………………………………11
Law of Logic …………………………………………………………………13-14
Summary of Logic .................................................................................................15
Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………16
Logic
Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It is derived from the Greek word logos
which means reason. It is one of the powerful tools of systematizing and precising
all our thoughts and refining our language of expression. Solid understanding of
logic is necessary in order to be able to understand mathematical proofs and, in
general, mathematics as it is today.

But many definitions of logic focus on formal logic because it is the paradigmatic
form of logic. In this narrower sense, logic is a formal science that studies how
conclusions follow from premises in a topic-neutral way.

The study of logic is essential for work in the foundations of mathematics, which is
largely concerned with the nature of mathematical truth and with justifying proofs
about mathematical objects, such as integers, complex numbers, and infinite sets.

Historical Background
Logic was developed independently in several cultures during antiquity. One major
early contributor was Aristotle, who developed term logic in his Organon and Prior
Analytics. In this approach, judgements are broken down into
propositions consisting of two terms that are related by one of
a fixed number of relation. Inferences are expressed by means
of syllogisms that consist of two propositions sharing a
common term as premise, and a conclusion that is a
proposition involving the two unrelated terms from the
premises.

Aristotle’s monumental insight was the notion that arguments

can be characterized in terms of their form. The later logician
Łukasiewicz described this insight as “one of Aristotle’s Aristotle, 384–322
greatest inventions”. Aristotle’s system of logic was also responsible for
the introduction of hypothetical syllogism, temporal modal logic, and inductive
logic, as well as influential vocabulary such as terms, predicables, syllogisms and
propositions. Aristotelian logic was highly regarded in classical and medieval
times, both in Europe and the Middle East. It remained in wide use in the West
until the early 19th century. It has now been superseded by later work, though many
of its key insights live on in modern systems of logic.
Concept of Logic
The dictionary meaning of logic is the science of reasoning. In mathematics, we
deal with various theorems and formulae. The different procedures used in giving
the proofs of various theorems and formulae are based on sound reasoning. The
study of such procedures based on sound reasoning is known as a logic. Logic tells
us the truth and the falsity of the particular statement. Logic is the process by
which we arrive at a conclusion from the given statement with a valid reason.

In logic, we use symbols for words, statements and their relations to get the
required result. Hence, logic is known as mathematical logic or symbolic logic.

Statements
An assertion expressed in words or symbols, which is either true or false but not
both at the same time, is known as a statement. Some examples of statements are
given below:

i) Water is essential for health.

ii) 2+4=6

iii) A quadrilateral has three sides.

(i), (ii) and (iii) are statements as (i) and (ii) are true but (iii) is false.

The sentences of the following type are not the statements because they do not
declare the truth or falsity.

a) knock at the door.

b) What is your name?

c) How beautiful your country is !

In the context of logic, statements cannot be imperative, interrogative and

exclamatory.
A sentence whose truth or falsity can be decided only after filling the gap in the
sentence or substituting the value of the variable is known as an open sentence,
otherwise it is known as closed.

All the sentences considered above ((i), (ii) and (iii)) are closed and hence are
statements.

The examples of open sentences are

i)...... is the son of Dasharath.

ii) x+3=5

These are not the statements.

There are two types of statements: Simple and Compound.

Simple Statement

A statement which declares only one thing is known as a simple statement. That is,
sentence that cannot be divided into two or more sentences is known as a simple
statement.

i) Laxmi Prasad Devkota is a great poet.

ii) 2×3-6

(i) and (ii) are the examples of simple statements.

In mathematical logic, simple statements are denoted by the letters: p, q, r, etc.

Compound Statement

A combination of two or more simple statements is known as a compound

statement. Each simple statement is known as a component of the compound
statement. The examples of compound statements are as follows.

i) Nepal is in Asia and Mt. Everest is the highest peak in the world.
 ii) 3-2-1 and 5 > 6.

Compound statements are constructed from simple statements by means of logical

connectives given below in § 1.12.

Truth value and truth table

A truth or the falsity of a statement is known as its truth value. T or F is the truth
value of a statement according as it is true or false.

The truth value of a simple statement depends upon the truth or falsity of the given
statement. But in a compound statement, its truth value depends not only on the
truth or falsity of the component statements but also on the connectives (defined
below) with which the component statements are combined.

A table presenting the truth values of the component statements together with the
truth values of their compound statement, is known as the truth table. The truth
table consists of a number of rows and column. Some of the initial columns contain
the possible truth values of the component statements and then the truth values of
the compound statements formed from the given simple statements using suitable
connective.

Logical Connectives :
Logical connective In logic, a logical connective (also called a logical operator) is
a symbol or word used to connect two or more sentences (of either a formal or a
natural language) in a grammatically valid way, such that the sense of the compound
sentence produced depends only on the original sentences.

The most common logical connectives are binary connectives (also called dyadic
connectives) which join two sentences which can be thought of as the function's
operands. Also commonly, negation is considered to be a unary connective.

Logical connectives along with quantifiers are the two main types of logical
constants used in formal systems such as propositional logic and predicate logic.
Natural language

In the grammar of natural languages two sentences may be joined by a grammatical

conjunction to form a grammatically compound sentence. Some but not all such
grammatical conjunctions are truth functions. For example, consider the following
sentences:
A: Jack went up the hill.

B: Jill went up the hill.

C: Jack went up the hill and Jill went up the hill.

D: Jack went up the hill so Jill went up the hill.

The words and and so are grammatical conjunctions joining the sentences (A) and
(B) to form the compound sentences (C) and (D). The and in (C) is a logical
connective, since the truth of (C) is completely determined by (A) and (B): it would
make no sense to affirm (A) and (B) but deny (C). However so in (D) is not a logical
connective, since it would be quite reasonable to affirm (A) and (B) but deny (D):
perhaps, after all, Jill went up the hill to fetch a pail of water, not because Jack had
gone up the Hill at all.

Various English words and word pairs express logical connectives, and some of
them are synonymous. Examples (with the name of the relationship in parentheses)
are:
• "and" (conjunction)
• "or" (disjunction)
• "either...or" (exclusive disjunction)
• "implies" (implication)
• "if...then" (implication)
• "if and only if" (equivalence)
• "only if" (implication)
• "just in case" (equivalence)
• "but" (conjunction)
• "however" (conjunction)
• "not both" (NAND)
• "neither...nor" (NOR)
The word "not" (negation) and the phrases "it is false that" (negation) and "it is not
the case that" (negation) also express a logical connective – even though they are
applied to a single statement, and do not connect two statements.
Connective Words Connective Symbol Connective Name
Not ~ Negation
And ^ Conjunction
Or V Disjunction
If....then → Conditional or
Implication
If and only if ↔ Bi-conditional or
equivalence

1. Negation: A statement which denies the given statement is known as negation

of that given statement. If p is the given statement then its negation is denoted
as ~p.

The negation of a given statement is obtained by inserting “not” in the

statement or by adding phrases like “ It is not true that” or “ It is false that” or
“ It is not the case that” at the beginning of the statement.

 Examples:

 P: Kathmandu is the capital of Nepal then negation of p is

Written as:

~p : Kathmandu is not the capital of Nepal

Rule to be noted while Determining Truth Table of Negation:

 If p is true then truth value of negation of p i.e. ~p is false.

 If p is false then truth value of negation of p i.e. ~p is true.

p: Krishna wears spectacle. then ~p is "Krishna does not wear spectacle."

 The truth table for the negation of a statement p is presented below:

p ~p
T F
F T

The negation of the words "all", "some", "some not" and "no" are "some
not", "no" "all" and some respectively.

Example: p: All students are laborious

~p: Some students are not laborious

2. Conjunction: The compound statement obtained by Combining two simple

statements by the word “and” is called conjunction. If p and q are two simple
statements.
Then conjunction of p and q is symbolically denoted by p ∧ q

 Examples:

 p : Kathmandu is the capital of Nepal.

q : Delhi is the capital of India.

Then the conjunction of p and q is:

P ∧ q Kathmandu is the capital of Nepal and Delhi is the capital of India.

 Rule to be noted while Determining Truth Table of conjunction:

 If both its component parts p and q are true then truth value of Conjunction
is true i.e.𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 is true.

 Otherwise truth value of 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 is false.

 The truth table of the conjunction of the statements p and q is presented below:

p Q 𝒑∧𝒒
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

3. Disjunction: The compound statement obtained by combining two simple

statements by the word “or” is called disjunction. If p and q are two simple
statements then disjunction of p and q is symbolically denoted by 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅
𝒂𝒔 𝒑 𝒐𝒓 𝒒 .

 Examples:

 P: Devkota is a doctor.

Q: Devkota is a poet.

Then the disjunction of p and q is:

𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 : Devkota is a doctor or Devkota is a poet.

 Rule to be noted while Determining Truth Table of Disjunction:

 If both of its component parts p and q are false then Truth value of
disjunction is false i.e.𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 is false.

 Otherwise truth value of 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 is true.

The truth table of the disjunction of p and q is presented below:

p Q 𝒑∨𝒒
T T T
 T F T
F T T
F F F

4. Conditional(Implication): If two simple statements p and q are connected by

the word „If……then‟, then the resulting compound statement “If p then q”
is called a conditional or implication. Symbolically, it is written as 𝒑 ⟹ 𝒒 𝒐𝒓
𝒑 ⟶ 𝒒 which is read as p implies q.

Here the statement „p‟ is called the hypothesis ( or antecedent)

And the statement „q‟ is called conclusion (or consequent).

Examples:

 P: ABCD is a quadrilateral.

Q: ∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D = 360°.

Then the conditional of p and q is:

p ⇒ q : If ABCD is a quadrilateral then ∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D = 360.

 Rule to be noted while Determining Truth Table of Conditional or

Implication:
 If p (i.e. hypothesis or antecedent) is true but q (i.e. conclusion Or
consequent) is false then truth value of conditional is false i.e. p⟹ q is
false.

 Otherwise truth value of p ⟹ q is true.

 The truth table of the conditional of the statements p ⟹ q is presented below:
p Q p⟹q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

5. Biconditional (Equivalence): If two simple statements p and q are connected

by the word „if and only if‟, then the resulting compound statement “if p and
only if q” is called a biconditional or equivalence statement. Symbolically, it
is written as 𝒑 ⟺ 𝒒 𝒐𝒓 𝒑 ⟷ 𝒒 which means 𝒑 ⟹ 𝒒 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒒 ⟹ 𝒑 𝒊. 𝒆. 𝒑 ⟹
𝒒 ∧ (𝒒 ⟹ 𝒑).

Examples:

 P: Two triangles are congruent.

Q: corresponding sides of two triangles are equal.

Then the biconditional of p and q is:

p ⇔ q : Two triangles are congruent if and only if their corresponding

sides are equal.

Here the biconditional statement contains two cases:

(i) If two triangles are congruent then their corresponding sides Equal i.e. p
⟹ q.

(ii) If corresponding sides of two triangle are equal then the two triangles are
congruent i.e. p ⟹ q
  Rule to be noted while Determining Truth Table of Biconditional or
Equivalence:

 If both its component parts have same truth value the Truth value of
biconditional is true i.e. p ⇔ q is true.

 Otherwise truth value of p ⇔ q is false.

The truth table of the biconditional of the statements p ⇔ q is presented below:

Following table gives the truth values of the compound statement formed with
different connectives when the different truth values of the component statements
are given;

p q 𝒑∧𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒 ~p 𝒑⟹𝒒 p⇔q

T T T T F T T
T F F T F F F
F T F T T T F
F F F F T T T

Before discussing the laws of logic we have the following definitions

 Tautology: A compound statement which is always true, whatever may be

the of its components, is known as a tautology.
The statement that "It is a rainy day or it is not a rainy day" is a tautology.

 Contradiction: A compound statement which is always false, whatever may

be the truth values of its components is known as a contradiction.
The statement that "I like coffee and I don't like coffee" is a contradiction.

 Converse: If p and q are two simple statements, then the conditional q ⟹ p

is said to be the converse of the conditional p⟹ q.
 Given statement: If a > 0 then - a < 0.
Converse: If - a <0 then a > 0.

 Inverse: If p and q are two statements, then the conditional ~p ⟹ ~q is said

to be the inverse of the conditional p ⟹ q.

Given statement. If a >0 then - a < 0.

Inverse: If a is not greater than 0 then -a is not smaller than 0.

 Contrapositive: If p and q are two statements, then the conditional ~q ⟹ ~p

is said to the contrapositive of the conditional p ⟹ q

Given statement: If a > 0 then -a<0.

Contrapositive: If -a is not smaller than 0 then a is not greater than 0.

 Logically Equivalent: Two statements S1 and S2 are said to be logically

equivalent if both have same truth values in the columns of the truth table.
They are denoted by S1 equal S2.

Let us see the following example. Let p be a statement. t and c are the tautology
and the contraction.

From the above table, We can say

Law of Logic
The following are the laws of logic:

Let p, q and r be any three statements.

a) Law of excluded middle

Only one statement p or ∼p is true.

A statement cannot both be true and false at the same time.

b) Law of tautology

The statement p v ∼p is a tautology.

The disjunction of a statement and its negation is a tautology.

c) Law of contradiction

The statement p ∧∼p is a contradiction.

The conjunction of a statement and its negation is a contradiction.

d) Law of involution

∼(∼p)≡p ∼(∼p)≡p
The negation of negation of a statement is logically equivalent to a given
statement. The law is also known as the law of double negation.

e) Law of syllogism

If p⇒ q and q⇒ r then p⇒ r. That is

(p⇒q)∧(q⇒r)⇒(p⇒r) (p⇒q)∧(q⇒r)⇒(p⇒r)

This can be verified to be a tautology.

f) Law of contraposition

(p⇒q)≡((∼q)⇒(∼p)) (p⇒q)≡((∼q)⇒(∼p))
The conditional and its contrapositive are logically equivalent.

g) Inverse law

(∼p)⇒(∼q)≡q⇒p (∼p)⇒(∼q)≡q⇒p

The inverse and the converse of a conditional are logically equivalent.

Besides the above laws, we have the following laws as well

1. Idempotent law

a) p ˄ p ≡ p b) p ˅ p ≡ p

2. Commutative law

a) p ˄ q ≡ q ˄ p b) p ˅ q ≡ q ˅ p

3. Associative law

a) p ˄ (q ˄ r) ≡ (p ˄ q) ˄ r b) p ˅ (q ˅ r) ≡ (p ˅ q) ˅ r

4. Distributive law

a) p ˄ ( q ˅ r ) ⇔ ( p ˄ q ) ˅ ( p ˄ r ) b) p ˅ ( q ˄ r ) ⇔ ( p ˅ q ) ˄ ( p ˅ r )

5. De-Morgan’s law

a) ∼( p ˄ q ) ≡ ( ∼ p ˅ ∼q ) b) ∼( p ˅ q ) ≡ ( ∼ p ˄ ∼q )
Summary of Logic:
Logic is the study of reasoning. In the middle of the 19th century Boole
and others started to study logic with mathematical methods, e.g.
Boolean algebra, which gave rise to formal logic. The treatment of logic
as a mathematical subject is indispensible in computer science, and
opens the possibility for automatizing many intellectual tasks, even
mathematical reasoning itself.

This course is intended to be studied as first course in logic. It treats the

two most important logics: propositional logic and predicate logic in
depth and show how they can be used in modelling reasoning, especially
mathematical reasoning. In particular, the formal language of predicate
logic, substitution, semantics and natural deduction are studied. The
system's soundness and completeness with respect to the semantics are
proved, and is then applied to different problems.
Conclusion

In this project I have prepared a logical argument showing how logic is

interrelated along with their respective introduction and historical
backgrounds. I realized that the logic pis very interesting chapter while
doing my project work. I have tried my best to include as much
information, I could in this.

Thank you......
References by website:
 Logic – Wikipedia
 Slideplayer.com/Slideshare.com
 Logic – coursehero.com
 Golbal.oup.com
 Birtannica.com
References by books:
 Foundation of Mathematics
 Basic Mathematics
 Buddha Publication Mathematics.