Computers in Biology and Medicine 101 (2018) 61–69

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Computers in Biology and Medicine

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compbiomed

Computational fluid dynamics of impinging microjet for a needle-free skin T

scar treatment system
Abdul Mohizina, K.E.Reby Royb, Donghee Leec, Seung Ku Leed, Jung Kyung Kime,∗
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Graduate School, Kookmin University, Seoul, 02707, Republic of Korea
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, TKM College of Engineering, Kollam, 691005, Kerala, India
c
Department of Genetics, Cell Biology, and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
d
Union Medical Co., Uijeongbu-si, Gyeonggi-do, 11787, Republic of Korea
e
School of Mechanical Engineering and Department of Integrative Biomedical Science and Engineering, Graduate School, Kookmin University, Seoul, 02707, Republic of
Korea

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A needle-free injection system is a non-invasive drug delivery system, and its applications are currently being
Needle-free injection extended from the delivery of vaccines and insulin. At present, they are gaining considerable popularity in skin
Fluid-tissue interaction remodeling treatment techniques, particularly in skin rejuvenation procedures involving the injection of aes-
Microjet thetic materials. Although some clinical studies have been conducted to understand the mechanisms involved in
Skin scar treatment
these practices, an extensive study from an engineering point of view has not yet been conducted. Herein, we
Computational fluid dynamics simulation
aim to identify the key parameters in the needle-free injection process and study their effects on microjet
Stagnation pressure
characteristics. The total stagnation pressure of an impinging microjet determines the penetration capabilities of
the injection and is monitored with the aid of both experimental and computational tools employed on a typical
commercial injector. Our findings indicated that the filling ratio and driving pressure had significant impacts on
the peak and average stagnation pressures of the impinging microjet. Furthermore, the penetration character-
istics of a standard nozzle and injection fluid could be controlled by an effective combination of the filling level
and driving pressure, and thus, they can be considered as vital parameters when performing skin remodeling
procedures.

1. Introduction
Since Charles Gabriel Pravaz developed the first hypodermic syringe
in 1853, the technology has been practiced for decades with con-
siderably few alterations or modifications. The first alternate solution
was provided by Marshal Lockhart in his 1936 patent wherein he elu-
cidated the working of needle-free injection systems [1,2]. A needle-
free injector is a device that generates a high-speed microjet stream of a
drug, usually at a velocity greater than 100 m/s, which penetrates the
skin and tissue membrane to deliver the drug at a particular depth. A
typical needle-free device has three major components: an injection
chamber, a nozzle, and a pressure source.
The injection chamber, usually made of plastic, holds the required
amount of the drug to be injected and therefore must be sterile. Nozzle
is a part that replaces the needle in conventional injection devices. The
orifice diameter is usually in the range 0.15–0.3 mm [3] and can pro-
duce a microjet with a typical velocity of 100–200 m/s. The pressure
source is the heart of a needle-free injection system because it is
responsible for sufficiently energizing the liquid jet to reach the ne-
cessary pressure in order to penetrate the surface of the skin. Pressure
source options include the use of a spring, compressed gas, Lorentz-
force actuators or laser as an energy source to obtain the necessary
pressure and drive the plunger [4–7].
Needle-free injection systems have recently been employed on a
large scale in insulin delivery, vaccine delivery, gene therapy and cos-
metics industries [2,8–13]. While an injection only lasts for a fraction of
a second, occasional bruising and pain limits the widespread use of this
technology [14,15]. Ongoing studies on parametric effects of needle-
free injection systems are working toward developing a painless pro-
cedure. In some of the notable studies on needle-free liquid jet injectors
[16–21], the dispersion effects and mechanisms of high-speed jet pe-
netration in tissue phantom models and the effects of driving pressure
and jet shape have been studied.
However, despite the clinical trials [10,22,23] reported on the use
of needle-free liquid injection systems for skin remodeling procedures,
there is not yet a clear engineering model explaining the effects of

∗
Corresponding author. School of Mechanical Engineering, Kookmin University, 77 Jeongneung-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02707, Republic of Korea.
E-mail address: jkkim@kookmin.ac.kr (J.K. Kim).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compbiomed.2018.08.005
Received 15 June 2018; Received in revised form 2 August 2018; Accepted 4 August 2018
0010-4825/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Mohizin et al.
various fluid properties and nozzle geometry on system performance.
Most studies have been experimental-only based and have focused on
drug delivery applications. In this study, we therefore investigate the
effect of various fluid parameters on the velocity and dispersion char-
acteristics in a needle-free liquid injection system for skin treatment
procedures. In skin treatment procedures, the injection system not only
delivers the drug to a particular depth (filler injection) but also needs to
break the pull fibers in the dermis (subcision effect). The subcision and
filler injection effect helps in skin regeneration. The air/gas powered
needle-free liquid injection system was selected for this study because
most commercially available needle-free injectors [24] are based on
this mechanism. Furthermore, a few studies that have made use of
numerical models [18,24–26] or computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
[27,28] made overly simplistic assumptions, with simple geometric
profiles and a single fluid approach in the injection chamber.
The aim of this study is to understand the physics involved in mi-
crojet production and propulsion in an air-powered needle-free injector
and identify the key parameters including filling ratio, driving pressure,
nozzle diameter and fluid type. To obtain this goal we have evaluated
transient data and visuals obtained by the aid of experimental and
computational tools. The stagnation pressure data on the skin surface,
which is divided into peak as well as time and space averaged pressure,
was used as a quantifier on the injection outcome. The computational
data could predict the experimental data with reasonable accuracy and
could be used as an effective tool in designing and optimizing an air-
powered needle-free injector.
2. Methodology
In pursuit of achieving our goals, we have used experimental and
CFD techniques to understand the underlying mechanisms of needle-
free injectors (Fig. 1a) and to obtain quantitative data sets. The pene-
tration characteristics of the microjet depends on the velocity and
diameter of the microjet impinging on the skin surface. Thus, a single
parameter that may reflect the effects of all the parameters in the mi-
crojet characteristics at the skin surface was to be sought out. Total
pressure or stagnation pressure can be used as a quantifier, specifically
when dealing with a turbulent microjet fluid stream propelled through
an air medium.
Based on the literature review conducted, it was evident that the
penetration characteristics and therapeutic efficiency of needle-free
injection systems depend on the microjet velocity profile, chemical
properties of the induced drug, and the mechanical properties of the
penetrating medium. In the present study, we focused on the
Fig. 1. (a) Operating principle and (b) schematic of the experimental setup for force measurement and visualization studies.
62
Computers in Biology and Medicine 101 (2018) 61–69
parameters that could affect the microjet characteristics, namely the
driving pressure, nozzle diameter, filling ratio, and fluid properties.
2.1. Experimental studies
A force transducer was used to obtain quantitative data on the force
of the microjet, whereas the visualization studies in air and poly-
acrylamide gel medium helped facilitate the understanding of the dis-
persion characteristics of the jet. Experimental analysis were performed
on a commercially available needle-free injector (Airjet, Union Medical
Corp., Uijeongbu-si, Gyeonggi-do, Korea). Stagnation pressure data was
computed using the force data and diameter of the jet obtained with
visualization studies in air. A schematic of the experimental setup is
shown in Fig. 1b.
2.1.1. Force measurement
The impact force of the high-velocity microjet at the skin surface
was measured with a force sensor (FSG15N1A, Honeywell, Golden
Valley, MN, USA) and a digital oscilloscope (DSO1014A, Agilent
Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) at an acquisition rate of 25 kHz.
Calibration of the force sensor was performed before testing began by
using known weights and plotting the corresponding voltage. The raw
data obtained from the oscilloscope was filtered using the
Savitzky–Golay filtering algorithm in MATLAB.
2.1.2. Visualization study
Visualization studies were performed using a high-speed camera
(Phantom Micro 110, Vision Research, Wayne, NJ, USA) at a frame rate
of 25,000 fps in air and polyacrylamide gel (PAAM gel) medium.
ImageJ (National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA), an open-
source Java image processing software, was used to analyze the visuals
obtained. Penetration studies were performed in a 15% polyacrylamide
gel (15% (w/V) acrylamide and 0.52% (w/V) bis-acrylamide in deio-
nized water). The gels were prepared by the addition of cross-linking
initiators (1% N,N,N′,N′-tetramethylethylenediamine and 10% ammo-
nium persulfate) to a 15% polyacrylamide prepolymer solution. Young's
modulus of the gel was measured to be 95.3 kPa. A detailed description
of the measurement procedure is given in Supplementary Appendix.
2.2. Numerical studies
A commercially available finite volume code named ANSYS Fluent
18.1 [29], with Eulerian VOF (Volume of Fluid) approach and SIMPLE
(Semi-Implicit Method for the Pressure Linked Equations) discretization
A. Mohizin et al. Computers in Biology and Medicine 101 (2018) 61–69

scheme, was used for solving the governing equations (1)–(4). 3. Results and discussion

∂ρ
+ ∇⋅(ρ→
v)=0 3.1. Injection mechanics
∂t (1)
One of the prime objectives of this study was to learn about the
∂ → ⎯
→ + ⎯→ transient characteristics of the microjet mechanics and could be studied
(ρ v ) + ∇⋅(ρ→→
v v ) = −∇p + ∇⋅(τ ) + ρg F
∂t (2) easily with the help of phase and velocity profiles obtained by the CFD
model. From the visualization studies, it was evident that piston dy-
namics is the key factor in microjet propulsion. The CFD and experi-
∂
(ρE ) + ∇⋅(→
v (ρE + p)) = ∇ . (keff ∇T ) mental results on microjet characteristics and CFD results on piston
∂t (3)
dynamics for 0.433 MPa driving pressure, 200 μm nozzle diameter, and
0.5 v/V filling are shown in Fig. 3. Fill ratio, v/V, is defined as the ratio
n
1 ⎡ ∂ (αq ρq ) of volume of fluid filled to the total volume of the injection chamber
+ ∇ . (αq ρq→
vq ) ⎤
⎥= ∑ (m˙ pq − m˙ qp)
ρq ⎢ ∂t (4) (192 μL in the present study). The piston is accelerated to a velocity of
⎣ ⎦ p=1
1.7 m/s in air before it reaches the water surface, as depicted in Fig. 3a.
where ρ is the density, →
v is the velocity of fluid, (τ ) is the stress tensor, The momentum is transferred to the fluid as it hits the surface and is
⎯→
⎯ → driven through the nozzle as a high-velocity microjet. Piston velocity
p is the static pressure, F symbolizes the external body forces, ρg
drastically drops as the momentum transfer takes place creating a high
denotes gravitational force, E is the energy, T is the temperature, keff is
pressure pulse inside the chamber (around 90 MPa; Fig. 3b) and thereby
the effective thermal conductivity, α is the volume fraction of the cell
creating the high-velocity microjet. Peak velocity of the microjet is
and ṁqp and ṁpq are the mass transfer from phase q to phase p and the
observed during this phase and the initial penetration capability of the
mass transfer from phase p to phase q, respectively.
microjet may depend on this phase. Subsequently, a recoil of the piston
All the CFD simulations were executed in a transient state with a
is observed and is again driven by the expanding gas. The resistance
time step of 10−6 s. The realizable k-ω model was used to replicate the
forces like frictional force offered by the piston provides the necessary
turbulence in the system. Air and water were considered as the fluids in
damping.
the model. Air was considered as an ideal gas to deal with the com-
The total pressure profile of the microjet reaching the skin can be
pressible flow field, whereas water was treated as a compressible liquid.
extracted from the CFD model and was compared to stagnant pressure
The density, compressibility Ψ , and bulk modulus of elasticity B were
obtained from experimental readings at the initial phase of the injection
specified as a function of pressure, as shown below in Eq. (5).
process (Fig. 3c). The plotted experimental results are the average va-
∂ρ ρ lues of seven sets of experimental data obtained. The error band in-
= =Ψ dicates the standard deviation of the experimental values. The velocity
∂p B (5)
characteristics of the microjet at the skin surface were also obtained and
An absolute convergence criteria of 10−6 was set for energy and are shown in Fig. 3d. Here the experimental velocity was found by
−3 converting the stagnation pressure data into velocity (Eq. (6)) and the
10 for all other quantities. The spatial discretization calculations for
pressure, momentum and turbulent viscosity were calculated under CFD data plots provided are taken as area weighted average value
1
second order schemes and a first order implicit scheme was used for the ( A ∫ pdA ) of the microjet at the skin surface.
transient formulation.
The key dimensions and operating characteristics of the model are 2p
v=
listed in Table 1. The axisymmetric geometric model was equivalent to ρ (6)
the fluid shape in the injector (Fig. 2a) and was confined by the moving
piston, injection chamber wall, nozzle wall, and protection cap before A qualitative visualization of the early phase of injection is shown in
reaching the surface of the skin. Results were computed at the skin Fig. 4a and b. A small bulb of fluid was formed outside of the nozzle
surface (5.9 mm from nozzle exit). The design modeler and meshing before the impact of the piston on the surface of the fluid. This may
software in ANSYS Fluent 18.1 were used for generating the structured have been due to the small pressure rise in the injection chamber during
mesh. A grid independence study was conducted with varying grid sizes the compression of air. When the piston strikes the fluid surface and
and a grid with 17,100 elements were selected. Table 2 shows the grid thereby drives the high-velocity jet through the nozzle, the jet interacts
independency study performed and the details of the selected mesh are with the bulb of fluid and causes a small divergence and spray. After
summarized in Table 3. this, however, there is minimal jet divergence and turbulence observed.
A non-slip wall boundary condition was given to all wall geometries Thus, it is possible to conclude that the overall divergence of the mi-
and the outlet was provided with a pressure outlet condition. Only a crojet is minimal and the diameter is in accordance with the nozzle
half of the control volume was considered in CFD model by using a diameter of the injection chamber.
symmetry plane. Piston wall was modelled as a moving boundary with Visualization studies were also performed in a 15% PAAM gel
dynamic layering method coupled with Six Degree of Freedom (SDOF) medium to understand the penetration characteristics of the microjet in
solver. The movement of the boundary is governed by the forces acting a soft medium. Three distinct phases were observed during the injection
on the piston (Fig. 2b) and is explained in Supplementary Appendix. process; they are described below and shown in Fig. 5.

Table 1 (1) Penetration

Key dimensions and operating characteristics.
When the total pressure of the microjet exceeds a critical value, the
Nozzle cylinder diameter 5.2 mm
Nozzle throat diameter 0.2 mm jet begins to puncture the PAAM gel and penetrates until a threshold
Nozzle angle 58.3° value. It was reported that a stagnation pressure of 15 MPa was re-
Nozzle throat length 0.9 mm quired for starting penetration in skin [17,24,30,31]. This phase occurs
Exit chamber diameter 12 mm during the peak pressure period during the injection and depends on
Piston stroke length 7.0 mm
Mass of driving piston 57.66 g
the mechanical properties of the penetrating medium. No dispersion of
Fluid Water the microjet is observed during this phase.

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A. Mohizin et al. Computers in Biology and Medicine 101 (2018) 61–69

Fig. 2. (a) Computational domain with the grid generated and (b) forces affecting piston dynamics.

Table 2 Table 3
Grid independency study on the geometries. Mesh details.
No. of elements Peak stagnation pressure on skin surface (MPa) 200 μm nozzle 150 μm nozzle 100 μm nozzle
geometry geometry geometry
200 μm nozzle geometry
Element size in injection 0.55 mm 0.55 mm 0.55 mm
12905 46.398 chamber
13852 43.744 Element size in nozzle 0.50 mm 0.375 mm 0.25 mm
14432 43.868 Element size in 0.50 mm 0.50 mm 0.50 mm
17100 43.750 refinement region
21149 49.443 Average orthogonal 0.869 0.870 0.845
quality of the grid
150 μm nozzle geometry

13650 32.474
mediums without porous characteristics. The stagnation pressure drops
17196 32.689
17985 32.891 about one-third or two-third of the peak value. This process continues
until the end of piston displacement.
100 μm nozzle geometry
(3) Residual stress release
13191 21.755
16875 19.179
17629 19.194 Residual stresses build up in the PAAM gel during the reservoir
formation. When the piston displacement is stopped, the incoming
stream of fluid gradually slows to a stop and the gel starts to release the
(2) Reservoir formation built up stresses. This may drive the fluid built inside the reservoir back
the path created by microjet during penetration.
After the initial penetration, the incoming jet no longer has the This mechanism was also observed in needle-free injections into a
necessary energy to initiate further penetration, the incoming stream of gelatin medium [19]. and the penetration and reservoir formation
fluid begins to develop a reservoir by shearing the surrounding phases were also reported in 40% PAAM gels [16]. These phases are
medium. This may initiate the formation of penny-shaped cracks in soft likely to be observed in all visualizations of microjet characteristics in

64
A. Mohizin et al.
soft gels without porous characteristics. In these gels, injection occurs in
the form of crack propagation and usually results in the formation of
penny-shaped cracks, while a spherical dispersion is observed in skin
tissues [12,20,23,32].
3.2. Parametric studies
3.2.1. Effect of filling volume [v/V ratio]
When using air-powered needle-free injection systems, doctors
surveyed preferred to use a 50% filling volume, or 0.5 v/V ratio. While
chamber length was reported to have no significant effect on the
average pressure of the microjet [27], but the reported study had the
injection chamber completely filled with injection fluid, a v/V ratio of
1. To determine the effect of filling volume on the injection system, we
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Computers in Biology and Medicine 101 (2018) 61–69
Fig. 3. Transient data of (a) piston velocity, (b) vo-
lume fraction of water, and (c) stagnation pressure.
(d) Instantaneous velocity of the microjet at the skin
surface obtained from CFD computation (area-
weighted average value) and experimental measure-
ment for 200 μm nozzle at 0.433 MPa driving pres-
sure with 0.5 v/V ratio. The vertical dotted line
shows the time when momentum transfer initiates.
conducted a visualization study using polyacrylamide gel with 200 μm
nozzle at a driving pressure of 0.433 MPa. Initial penetration depth was
maximum for a fill ratio of 0.3 v/V and minimum for 1.0 v/V ratio. A
significant variation in the penetration characteristics was also ob-
served. The reservoir formation was furthest from the surface for a fill
ratio of 0.3 v/V. The distance between the reservoir formation and the
surface decreased as the fill ratio increased, resulting in the dispersion
profiles shown in Fig. 6.
A force measurement study was performed using the same condi-
tions to determine the stagnation pressure characteristics at the surface
of the skin. A summary of the study is given in Fig. 7a and b with peak
and average stagnation pressure data computed experimentally and
using the CFD code, where the average stagnation pressure is given as
the average of the instantaneous pressures obtained during positive
Fig. 4. (a) Experimental and (b) computational vi-
sualization of the initial stage of microjet injection in
a 200 μm nozzle having a ratio of 0.5 v/V and driven
by a load of 0.433 MPa. Colour map shows the vo-
lume fraction of water from CFD simulation. (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web ver-
sion of this article.)
A. Mohizin et al. Computers in Biology and Medicine 101 (2018) 61–69

Fig. 5. Various phases of microjet dispersion in polyacrylamide gel medium (E = 95.3 kPa). Visualization was performed in a 200 μm nozzle at 0.433 MPa driving
pressure with 0.5 v/V ratio.

displacement of the piston after the initial peak pulse. From the data,
we see that the peak stagnation pressure is reduced linearly with in-
creased fluid filling ratio, whereas the average stagnation pressure is
increased with an increase in filling ratio. A linear curve fit on ex-
perimental data gave an R2 value of 0.960 and 0.893. These phenomena
may be due to the difference in the transport of energy. The piston is
accelerated through air, which offers negligible resistance to its motion.
When the piston strikes the fluid surface, the energy transport phe-
nomena begin to occur and the piston loses its momentum by en-
ergizing the fluid, causing the fluid to be driven out of the nozzle
through high velocity. A lower filling volume results in a higher piston
momentum before it reaches the fluid surface, a higher energy transfer,
and a higher peak pressure. Further motion of the piston depends on the
damping characteristics, which is dependent on the filling ratio, the
higher the filling ratio higher would be the damping. Moreover, the
driving pressure is a function of the piston displacement and is de-
creased by the movement of the piston. At higher filling ratios, owing to
the truncated acceleration of the piston, the peak pressure would be low
but the average pressure would be high.

3.2.2. Effect of driving pressure

Fig. 6. Effect of filling ratio on the penetration characteristics of the microjet in
polyacrylamide gel under 0.433 MPa driving pressure for 200 μm nozzle.
The dependence of microjet characteristics on the driving power has
been studied extensively [24,27,31] and a linear dependency of driving
pressure on stagnation pressure characteristics has been proposed.
However, these studies were focused on fully-filled injection chambers.
Five different driving pressures of 0.319, 0.376, 0.433, 0.489, and
0.563 MPa were selected for parametric studies at a fill ratio of 0.5 v/V
in 200 μm nozzle system. These pressures were selected because they
are in range for most clinical applications of needle-free injection sys-
tems in skin remodeling. The dependence of average and peak total
pressures at the skin surface on the driving pressure is shown in Fig. 7c
and d. The peak and average data showed a linear increase with in-
crease in driving pressure. A linear curve fits the experimental data with
a reasonable R2 value of 0.977 for peak pressure and 0.932 for average
pressure. The experimental peak pressure and average pressure read-
ings agreed with the values predicted by the CFD model. Furthermore,
the linear increase in stagnation pressure data could be due to the
higher momentum gain and energy transfer resulting from the higher
driving pressure.

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A. Mohizin et al. Computers in Biology and Medicine 101 (2018) 61–69

Fig. 7. Summary of the experimental and computational data. (a,b) Peak and average stagnation pressures as a function of filling ratio, (c,d) peak and average
stagnation pressures as a function of driving pressure, (e,f) peak and average stagnation pressures as a function of nozzle diameter, and (g,h) peak and average
stagnation pressures for different injection fluids.

3.2.3. Effect of nozzle diameter
Nozzle diameter is one of the important parameters in needle-free
injection system. Ideally, the use of a more narrow jet would lower the
occurrence and severity of any pain and bruising associated with in-
jection procedure. Nozzle diameters varying from 76 to 360 μm have
been used in commercial jet injectors for drug delivery. However, the
majority of these devices has a nozzle diameter of around 150 μm [3].
In a study on the dependence of fluid penetration on nozzle diameter
conducted in ex vivo porcine tissue and human skin with a nozzle
diameter range of 31–559 μm [31], it was observed that above 152 μm,
the injection characteristics were almost uniform because of maximum
expansive porosity of the skin caused by the injected fluid. In a similar

67
A. Mohizin et al.
study conducted on 10% PAAM gel [26], with nozzle diameters of 170,
200, 300, 400 and 500 μm, the optimum nozzle diameter for best dis-
persion was found to be at 300 μm.
Further studies were also reported [24,27] on the dependence of
stagnation pressure at the exit nozzle on nozzle diameter. In these
studies, a nozzle diameter of 129–259 μm was used. Additionally, these
studies reported that there was no significant variation in stagnation
pressure on nozzle exit with nozzle diameter. For the purposes of this
study, nozzle diameters of 100, 150 and 200 μm were selected as they
are the most commonly used in commercial needle-free injection de-
vices in skin treatment field. Comparison was done at 0.433 MPa
driving pressure and 0.5 v/V filling ratio, and the results are summar-
ized in Fig. 7e and f. A linear curve was fit to the experimental data with
an R2 value of 0.996 and 0.914 for peak and average stagnation pres-
sure readings, respectively. From the computational and experimental
studies, a slight linear reduction is seen in the stagnation pressure va-
lues with decrease in nozzle diameter. This may be due to the energy
losses associated with the change in nozzle diameter (wall friction and
turbulent energy dissipation) and may have an impact on the energy
transfer procedure during the microjet formation in the selected nozzle
diameter range.
3.2.4. Effect of fluid properties
All of the discussed results were performed with water (998.23 kg/
m3 density and 1.003 mPa s dynamic viscosity) as the injection fluid.
Therefore, a parametric study was performed with a 10% glucose so-
lution (1540 kg/m3 density and 1.07 mPa s dynamic viscosity), hya-
luronic acid dermal fillers (1800 kg/m3 density; 1.5 mPa s and 10 mPa s
dynamic viscosity) and water at 0.433 MPa driving pressure in 200 μm
nozzle with a fill ratio of 0.5 v/V. The outcome of the study is sy-
nopsized in Fig. 7g and h. There was little variation in peak and average
stagnation pressure profiles for the considered fluids. The results could
justify the common practice of using water as the sole test fluid does not
have a significant effect on pressure profiles. But theoretically, a denser
fluid would have a higher pressure rise in the injection chamber and
thereby higher stagnation pressure of the propelled microjet. However,
the increase in energy could be counteracted by the energy dissipation
associated with the increase in viscosity, thereby neutralizing the effect
of increased density.
3.3. Limitations of the present study
In the present study, the shift in CFD and experimental results may
be due to the limitation in modelling O-ring friction, owing to its non-
rigid nature and variability with pressure. Additionally, the entire
piston geometry was assumed to be rigid while computing piston dy-
namics, whereas, in reality, the clearance gap between the fittings in
the piston assembly can assist in damping the piston motion. A more
accurate CFD model would have been obtained if the instantaneous
velocity profiles of the piston had been measured through visualization
studies and provided as the velocity profile for the moving boundary.
Furthermore, the axisymmetric analysis may suppress any angular
variation that may lead to any three-dimensional variations in the so-
lution. Moreover, the experimental stagnation pressure was obtained by
measuring the impact force of the microjet on a force transducer. This
was done because a transient measurement of velocity could not be
obtained from the visualization studies. The water droplets were ac-
cumulated on the transducer platform during force measurement and
could cause a slight deviation from the actual stagnation pressure
profile. Furthermore, this study was focused on the factors that may
affect the dynamics of impinging microjet on skin surface. Research
should be conducted to understand the exact penetration mechanism
and the effect of properties of the penetrating medium on the dispersion
characteristics.
68
Computers in Biology and Medicine 101 (2018) 61–69
4. Conclusions
Experimental investigation and subsequent CFD analysis of an air-
powered needle-free injection system for skin treatment purposes was
carried out in order to comprehend the basic physics behind the mi-
crojet formation and dispersion during injection procedure. Based on
the obtained data, the following conclusions can be drawn:
• The penetration depth and dispersion characteristics depend on the
filling ratio of the fluid in the injection fluid. This dependency could
be effectively exploited in skin treatment procedures, especially
during treatment of various forms of scars.
• There is a linear increase in peak and average stagnation pressure
with an increase in driving pressure. Thus, for a fixed nozzle geo-
metry and fluid, the penetration depth and dispersion could be
controlled by an effective combination of driving pressure and
filling ratio. This is crucial because in the case of scar treatment, the
treatment procedure varies by person and location on the body.
• The pressure readings at the skin surface exhibit an increasing trend
with an increase in the selected nozzle diameter range.
• Minimal variation in the pressure profile was found from the usage
of fluids with varying densities and viscosities.
• A reliable CFD model has been developed that can accurately pre-
dict experimental results for different boundary conditions.
Furthermore, the CFD results were used to hypothesize the under-
lying critical mechanisms responsible for the development of air-
powered needle-free injection system for skin treatment applications
and could be used in future developmental work on needle-free
injection systems.
Conflicts of interest
Authors have no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by grants from the Technology Innovation
Program (10065332) of the Korea Evaluation Institute of Industrial
Technology (KEIT) funded by the Ministry of Trade, Industry and
Energy, South Korea and also from the National Research Foundation of
Korea (NRF) (NRF-2016R1D1A1A09917195) funded by the Ministry of
Education, South Korea. The authors thank Suk-Jong Lee in INTEC
SYSTEMS for his assistance in microjet visualization. Abdul Mohizin
was funded by the Global Scholarship Program for Foreign Graduate
Students at Kookmin University in Seoul, Republic of Korea.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.compbiomed.2018.08.005.
References
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Abdul Mohizin received the B.Tech and M.Tech degree in Mechanical Engineering from
Kerala University, Kerala, India, in 2013 and 2016 respectively. He joined the Biomedical
Device Lab in 2017 as a doctoral student at Kookmin University, Seoul, South Korea. His
current research interests include computational fluid dynamics, two phase flows, tissue
fluid interactions, needle-free injection systems and biomedical devices.
Jung Kyung Kim received his B.Sc. degree in Mechanical Engineering in 1996 and then
his M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees both in Biomedical Engineering at Seoul National University
in 1998 and 2003, respectively. From July 2004 to August 2006, he was a postdoctoral
fellow in the Departments of Medicine and Physiology, University of California, San
Francisco, USA. After joining Kookmin University based in Seoul, South Korea in
September 2006 as an assistant professor, he has been directing Biomedical Device Lab
and currently serves as a tenured professor in School of Mechanical Engineering.