5/17/2023

INTRODUCTION
TO ENZYMES
Dr. Tania Mannan

What are Enzymes?

◦ The catalysts of biological systems which are remarkable molecular devices that determine
the patterns of chemical transformations
◦ Utilize the chemical and physical properties of their component amino acids to facilitate
biochemical reactions that otherwise would be difficult to accomplish under physiological
conditions.
◦ Nearly all known enzymes are proteins with a few RNA exceptions
◦ Highly specific and highly catalytic to its substrates
◦ As catalysts change the rate of a chemical reaction but do not alter the equilibrium
◦ Due to the action of enzymes, chemical reactions in organisms can also be carried out
efficiently and specifically under mild conditions

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History
◦ Berzelius in 1836 coined the term catalysis (Gk: to dissolve).
◦ In 1878, Kuhne used the word enzyme (Gk: in yeast) to indicate the catalysis taking place
in the biological systems.
◦ Isolation of enzyme system from cell-free extract of yeast was achieved in 1883 by
Buchner. He named the active principle as zymase (later found to contain a mixture of
enzymes), which could convert sugar to alcohol.
◦ In 1926, James Sumner first achieved the isolation and crystallization of enzyme urease
from jack bean.

Importance of enzymes
◦ Enzymes are critical for every aspect of cellular life Enzyme
◦ Cell shape and motility
◦ Surface receptor
◦ Cell cycle
◦ Metabolism
◦ Transcription
◦ Hormone release
◦ Muscle contraction
◦ Protein synthesis

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Classification

◦ EC 1. Oxidoreductases – Transfer electrons (Redox reactions)

◦ EC 2. Transferases – Transfer functional groups between molecules
◦ EC 3. Hydrolases – Break bonds by adding H2O
◦ EC 4. Lyases – Elimination reactions to form double bonds
◦ EC 5. Isomerases – Intramolecular rearrangements
◦ EC 6. Ligases – Join molecules with new bonds
◦ EC 7. Translocases – Catalyze movement of ions and molecules

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EC 1. Oxidoreductases

Catalyze oxidation/reduction reactions

◦ Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in the oxidation state of an atom, an ion, or of
certain atoms in a molecule.
◦ Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in the oxidation state of an atom, an ion, or of
certain atoms in a molecule.
• E.g. Alcohol dehydrogenase EC 1.1.1.1.
• Cytochrome oxidase
• Amino acid oxidases

EC 2. Transferases

◦ Involved in transfer of functional groups between molecules

◦ E.g. ➢Hexokinase EC 2.7.1.1.
➢ Transaminases
➢Phosphorylase

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EC 3. Hydrolases

◦ Break bonds by adding H2O

◦ E.g.
◦ Lipase (triacylglycerol acyl hydrolase E.C. 3.1.1.3)
◦ Choline esterase
◦ Acid and alkaline phosphatase
◦ Pepsin
◦ Urease

EC 4. Lyases

◦ Elimination reactions to form double bonds

◦ E.g.
◦ Aldolase (E.C. 4.1.2.7)
◦ Fumarase
◦ Histidase

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EC 5. Isomerases

◦ Intramolecular rearrangements
◦ E.g.
◦ Triose phosphate isomerase EC 5.3.1.1.
◦ Phosphohexose isomerase

EC 6. Ligases

◦ Join molecules with new bonds

◦ E.g.
◦ Glutamine synthetase EC 6.3.1.2.
◦ Succinate thiokinase
◦ Acetyl CoA carboxylase

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EC 7. Translocases

◦ Catalyze the movement of ions or molecules across membranes or their

separation within membranes
◦ Translocases are the most common secretion system in gram positive bacteria
◦ Translocase of the outer membrane (TOM) can work in conjunction with
translocase of the inner membrane (TIM) to transport proteins into the
mitochondrion
◦ Example: ornithine translocase, ATPases

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Features of a good Enzyme Assay

◦ Simple and Specific

◦ Rapid (one does not need to wait for hrs or weeks for the results to appear)
◦ Sensitive (very little sample)
◦ Easy to use
◦ Economical

Measurement of enzyme activity by spectroscopy

The spectrophotometric assay is the most common method of detection in enzyme assays.
• The assay uses a spectrophotometer, a machine used to measure the amount of light a
substance's absorbs, to combine kinetic measurements and Beer's law by calculating the
appearance of product or disappearance of substrate concentrations.
• The spectrophotometric assay is simple, non-destructive, selective, and sensitive.
The following spectroscopic techniques are used:
◦ Fluorescence spectroscopy, UV/VIS Spectroscopy, Spectrophotometric Assays, and
Infrared spectroscopy.

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Principle of UV spectroscopy
◦ UV spectroscopy obeys the Beer-Lambert law, which states that: when a beam of monochromatic
light is passed through a solution of an absorbing substance, the rate of decrease of intensity of
radiation with thickness of the absorbing solution is proportional to the incident radiation as well
as the concentration of the solution.
◦ The expression of Beer-Lambert law is- A = log (I0/I) = ECL
Where, A = absorbance
I0 = intensity of light incident upon sample cell
I = intensity of light leaving sample cell
C = molar concentration of solute
L = length of light path
E = molar absorptivity
◦ From the Beer-Lambert law it is clear that greater the number of molecules capable of absorbing
light of a given wavelength, the greater the extent of light absorption. This is the basic principle
of UV spectroscopy.

Enzyme assay
◦ Different enzymes require different estimation methods depending on the type of reaction catalyzed, the nature of S and
P or coenzyme.
◦ Types of Enzyme Assay:
◦ Continuous Enzyme Assay
◦ In continuous assays, the course of the reaction is continually followed until completion.
◦ Sometimes referred to as ‘endpoint assays’, enzyme activity is measured via the quantity of substrate consumed, or the
amount of product formed during the reaction over a fixed period of time. Both values are directly proportional to the
concentration of enzymes present in the sample.
◦ Examples: spectrophotometry, calorimetry, chemiluminescence and fluorimetry. In these methods, the progress of
reactions are measured by light or heat.
◦ Discontinuous Enzyme Assay
◦ In contrast to continuous enzyme assays, discontinuous assays are performed when samples are taken at set intervals.
This form of enzyme assay directly or indirectly measures changes in substrate or products over time, to understand how
the reaction rate changes.
◦ Examples of instrumentation used during discontinuous enzyme assays include radiometric assays as well as
chromatographic assays such as HPLC or TLC.
◦ Comparing the two methods, the continuous enzyme assay method is typically the easiest to perform and can give whilst
discontinuous enzyme assays are used in cases where higher precision or complex sample matrices are present.

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Alanine transaminase
◦ An enzyme that catalyzes a type of reaction between an amino acid and α-keto acid. Specifically, this reaction
(transamination) involves removing the amino group from the amino acid, leaving behind an α-keto acid, and transferring it
to the reactant α-keto acid and converting it into an amino acid.
◦ The enzymes are important in the production of various amino acids, and measuring the concentration of various
transaminases in the blood is important in the diagnosing and tracking many diseases. Alanine transaminase or ALT is a
transaminase enzyme. It is also called: Serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) or Alanine aminotransferase (ALAT).
ALT is found in serum (at low level) but is most commonly associated with the liver.
◦ ALT found mainly in liver cells: thus , an elevated level ALT is a sensitive index of acute hepatocellular injury. Elevated
serum ALT(SGPT) level are found in hepatitis, cirrhosis , and obstructive jaundice. Levels of ALT (SGPT) are only slightly
elevated in patient following a myocardial infraction.
◦ It catalyzes the transfer of an amino group from alanine to α-ketoglutarate, to form pyruvate and glutamate under
controlled condition (37°C) and pH 7.4 ± 0.05

◦ Alanine + α- ketoglutarate → Pyruvate + glutamate

◦ The pyruvate formed in the reaction is reduced to L-Lactate by Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) with the Oxidation NADH.
◦ Measure the absorbance of NADH/NAD+ at 340nm

◦ Pyruvate + NADH+H+ → L-Lactate+ NAD+ +H2O

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◦ Enzyme activity levels are reported in terms of enzyme International Units (IU),
which defines enzyme activity as the amount of enzyme that will convert a
specified amount of substrate to a product within a certain time.
◦ One standard IU is the quantity of enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of 1
micromole (µmol) of substrate per minute under specified conditions.
◦ Unlike the turnover number, IUs measure how much enzyme is present.

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