Motor and Drives

&
WINTER EDITION
Motors Drives
How to select a motor for an
industrial application
5 enduring developments in
electronic motion control
2017 Motor Drives Report:

5 high-level findings
Four risks to consider when

choosing a medium-voltage drive
Contents
3  How to select a motor for an industrial application
10  5 enduring developments in electronic motion control
18  2017 Motor Drives Report: 5 high-level findings
20  Four risks to consider when choosing a medium-voltage drive
Content archive
25  Eight factors to consider when implementing a linear motion
application
32  Machine design concepts improve automation and controls
simulation
37  Three steps to size motors
45  VFD: Swap it or upgrade?
50  How to select a motor for an industrial application
57  Why things break: Just the facts
72  How to manage multi-vendor motion control architecture
77  Low-priced medium-voltage drives can have long-term costs
2
Understanding the main types of loads, motors, and applications can help  How to select
simplify motor and accessory selection. a motor for
an industrial
application
T here are many aspects to consider when selecting a motor, such as application,
operational, mechanical, and environmental issues. Generally speaking, the choice
is either an ac motor, a dc motor, or a servo/stepper motor. Knowing which one to use
5 enduring
developments in
electronic motion
depends on the industrial application and if there are any special needs required. control
2017 Motor Drives

A constant or variable torque and horsepower will be required for the motor depend- Report: 5 high-level
findings
ing on the type of load the motor is driving. The size of the load, the required speed,
and acceleration/deceleration—particularly if it’s fast and/or frequent—will define the Four risks to consider
torque and horsepower that is required. Requirements for controlling motor speed and when choosing a
medium-voltage drive
position also need to be considered.
Content archive
Motor load types

There are four types of industrial automation motor loads:
• Variable horsepower and constant torque

• Variable torque and constant horsepower
• Variable horsepower and variable torque
• Positional control or torque control.
Variable horsepower and constant torque applications include conveyors, cranes,

and gear-type pumps. In these applications, the torque is constant because the load 3
How to select a motor for an industrial application
doesn’t change. The required

horsepower may vary depending
on the application, which makes  How to select
a motor for
constant speed ac and dc motors an industrial
a good choice. application
5 enduring
An example of a variable torque developments in
and constant horsepower appli- electronic motion
control
cation is a machine rewinding
paper. The material speed re- 2017 Motor Drives
Report: 5 high-level
mains constant, which means the findings
horsepower doesn’t change. The
Figure 1: DC motors work well in low cost,
load does change, however, as the roll diameter Four risks to consider
low speed or constant-torque applications
when choosing a
increases. In small systems, this is a good applica- such as on this belt-driven roller conveyor.
Image courtesy: AutomationDirect
tion for dc motors or a servo motor. Regenerative
Content archive
power also is a concern and should be considered when sizing the motor or choosing
the energy control method. AC motors with encoders, closed-loop control, and full
quadrant drives may be beneficial for larger systems.
Fans, centrifugal pumps, and agitators require variable horsepower and torque. As the
motor speed increases, the load output also increases along with the required horse-
power and torque. These types of loads are where much of the motor efficiency discus-
sion begins with inverter duty ac motors using variable speed drives (VSDs).
Applications such as linear actuators, which need to move to multiple positions accu-
rately, require tight positional or torque control and often require feedback to verify 4
correct motor position. Servo or stepper motors are the best option for these applica-
tions, but a dc motor with feedback or an inverter duty ac motor with an encoder often
is used for tight torque control in steel or paper lines as well as similar applications.  How to select
a motor for
an industrial
Different motor types application
While there are two main motor classifications—ac and dc—there are over three dozen
5 enduring
types of motors used in industrial applications. developments in
electronic motion
control
While there are many motor types, there is a great deal of overlap in industrial applica-
tions and the market has pushed to simplify motor selection. This has narrowed prac- 2017 Motor Drives
tical choices for motors in most application. The six most common motor types, which findings
fit the vast majority of applications, are brushless and brush dc motors, ac squirrel cage
Four risks to consider
and wound rotor motors, and servo and stepper motors. These motor types fit the vast when choosing a
majority of applications with the other types used only in specialty applications. medium-voltage drive
Content archive
Three main application types
The three main applications for motors are constant speed, variable speed, and po-
sition (or torque) control. Different industrial automation situations require different
applications and questions and their own set of questions.
For example, a gearbox may be required if the top speed is less than the motor’s base
speed. This also may allow a smaller motor running at a more efficient speed. While
there is a great deal of information online on how to size a motor, users must account
for many factors because there are many details to consider. Calculating load inertia,
torque, and speed requires the user to know about parameters such as total mass and
5
size (radius) of the load as well as friction, gear-

box losses, and the machine cycle. Changes in
load, speed of acceleration or deceleration, and  How to select
a motor for
the application’s duty cycle also must be consid- an industrial
ered or the motor may overheat. application
5 enduring
After the motor type is selected and sized, users developments in
also need to consider environmental factors and electronic motion
control
motor enclosure types such as open frame and
stainless housing for washdown applications. 2017 Motor Drives
Figure 2: AC induction Report: 5 high-level
motors are a popular choice findings
Motor selection: 3 questions for industrial rotary motion
applicatons. Image courtesy: Four risks to consider
Even after all those decisions have been made, the user when choosing a
AutomationDirect
needs to address these three questions before making a medium-voltage drive
final decision.
Content archive
1. Is it a constant speed application?

In a constant speed application, a motor often runs at an approximate speed with little
or no concern about acceleration and deceleration ramps. This type of application is
usually run using across-the-line on/off control. The control circuits often consist of a
branch circuit fusing with a contactor, an overload motor starter, and a manual motor
controller or soft starter.
Both ac and dc motors are suitable for constant speed applications. DC motors pro-
vide full torque at zero speed and have a large installed base. AC motors are also a
6
good choice because they have a high power factor and require little maintenance. A
servo or stepper motor’s high performance characteristics, by comparison, would be
considered overkill for a simple application.  How to select
a motor for
an industrial
2. Is it a variable speed application? application
Variable speed applications usually require tight velocity and speed changes as well
5 enduring
as defined acceleration and deceleration ramps. Reducing the motor speed in appli- developments in
cation, such as fans and centrifugal pumps often improves efficiency by matching the electronic motion
control
power consumed to the load instead of running at full speed and throttling or damp-
ening the output. These are very important considerations for conveying applications, 2017 Motor Drives
such as bottling lines. findings

Both ac and dc motors with the appropriate drives work well in variable speed applica- when choosing a
tions. A dc motor and drive configuration was the only variable speed motor option for medium-voltage drive
a long time and the components are developed and proven. Even now, dc motors are
Content archive
popular in variable speed, fractional horsepower applications and are useful in low-
speed applications because they can provide full torque at low speed and constant
torque across a wide range of motor speeds.
Maintenance can be a concern with dc motors, however, because many require brush-
es for commutation, and they wear out from being in contact with moving parts. Brush-
less dc motors eliminate this issue, but they are more expensive in upfront costs and
the range of available motors is smaller.
Brush wear is not an issue with ac induction motors and a variable frequency drive
7
(VFD) creates a useful choice for applica-

tions over 1 hp such as fan and pumping
applications, which lead to improved  How to select
a motor for
efficiency. The type of drive chosen to an industrial
run the motor can add some positional application
awareness. An encoder can be added to
5 enduring
the motor if the application requires it, developments in
and a drive can be specified to use the electronic motion
control
encoder feedback. This setup can provide Figure 3: An ac motor and VFD
servo-like speed as a result. combination are widely used for 2017 Motor Drives
improving efficiency and work Report: 5 high-level
well in a variety of variable speed findings
3. Is position control required for the applications. Image courtesy:
application? AutomationDirect
when choosing a
Tight position control is accomplished through continuous verification of the motor’s medium-voltage drive
position as it moves. Applications such as positioning a linear actuator can use a step- Content archive
per motor with or without feedback or a servo motor with inherent feedback.
A stepper is designed to accurately move to a position at a moderate speed and then

hold the position. An open-loop stepper system offers strong positional control if
properly sized. While there is no feedback, the stepper will move the exact number of
steps unless it encounters a load disruption beyond its capacity. As the application’s
speed and dynamics increase, open-loop stepper control may not be able to meet sys-
tem requirements, which requires an upgrade to a stepper with feedback or to a servo
motor system.
8
A closed-loop system provides accurate, high-speed motion profiles and precise po-
sition control. A servo system will provide higher torque at high speeds compared to
a stepper, and they also work better in high-dynamic load or complex-motion applica-  How to select
a motor for
tions. an industrial
application
For high-performance motion with low-position overshoot, the reflected load iner-
5 enduring
tia should be matched to the servo motor inertia as closely as possible. Up to a 10:1 developments in
mismatch will perform adequately in some applications, but a 1:1 match is optimal. electronic motion
control
Geared speed reduction is an excellent way to solve inertia mismatch problems as the
reflected load inertia falls by the square of the gear ratio, but gearbox inertia must be 2017 Motor Drives
included in the calculations. findings

Application, motor knowledge when choosing a
Manufacturers offer a wide selection of motors for industrial applications. Stepper, medium-voltage drive
servo, ac, and dc motors can meet most industrial automation requirements, but the
Content archive
ideal motor depends on the application. Whether it’s a constant speed, variable speed,
or position control application-users should work closely with the motor and drive the
supplier to select the right motor for the application.
Bryan Sisler, product manager, AutomationDirect.
9
5 enduring developments in
electronic motion control
Motor drives, power-switching transistors and microprocessors, sophisticated How to select a
motor for an industrial
control algorithms, software influences, and mechatronic integration are application
among the standout electronic motion control developments.
 5 enduring
P erhaps the pace of developments has slowed over the past six-plus decades, yet developments in
electronic motion
innovations continue in the maturing technologies of electronic motion control.
control
Five developments in electronic motion control are anticipated to continue to drive
advancements. 2017 Motor Drives
findings
1. Electric motor drives Four risks to consider
Electric drives power myriad manufacturing and process lines worldwide. Variable frequen- when choosing a
cy drives (VFDs), delivering reliable speed and torque control of the industrial workhorse medium-voltage drive
ac induction motor, represent one of the biggest developments over time. The ability of Content archive
newer-model VFDs to also control permanent-magnet ac synchronous motors adds to their
versatility. Servo and stepper drives have also made remarkable performance advances in
torque and position control of various types of servo and stepper motors. They comple-
ment the scene at their respective lower power ranges.
Hardware and software innovations were the enablers for these electric drives. Prime hard-
ware developments include power-switching transistors and microprocessors. The second
category comprises new software tools that allowed execution of sophisticated control al-
gorithms not possible in the past. With wider availability, software also made electric motor
drives more user friendly.
10
5 enduring developments in electronic motion control
Dramatic size and weight reductions have especially been realized in VFDs. Bulky cabinets
gave way to compact electronic housings that could be located near motors to suit specific
How to select a
manufacturing plant layouts — even mounted on the motor, depending on power needs motor for an industrial
of the application. In the 1990s, a class of so-called “microdrives” sprang up, which includ- application
ed a 0.19 kW model able to fit into a technician’s shirt pocket. This is an impractical appli-
cation, yes, but a vivid illustration of possibilities.
 5 enduring
developments in
electronic motion
Although smaller than VFDs, servo and stepper drives also have benefitted from ongoing control
electronic controls miniaturization. Newer features include growing intelligence built into all 2017 Motor Drives
types of drives, such as diagnostics and motor/drive tuning — and connectivity to various Report: 5 high-level
findings
bus networks for communicating with higher-level control systems or multiple motion axes.
2. Power-switching devices, microprocessors when choosing a
Power-switching transistors that shape input current/voltage waveforms for motor con-
trol are at the heart of electric drives. The silicon-controlled rectifier (a type of solid-state Content archive
switch) and the gate turn-off thyristor (a power semiconductor) served the power-switching
role in the early drives. They represent matured technology and see limited application,
mainly in some large-power drive applications.
With the proliferation of computers and digital technology, motor drives moved to dig-
ital microprocessor (MPU)-based designs that continue to dominate the scene. A newer
class of semiconductor, the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) came along, which
has become the prime power-switching device for present-day electric motor drives.
IGBTs combine best features of a metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor
(MOSFET) input and a bipolar transistor output. They provide fast switching and lower
11
losses due to the insu-

lated gate, among other
How to select a
features. IGBT advanc- motor for an industrial
es, for example, include application
faster switching speeds
and the ability to oper-
 5 enduring
developments in
ate at higher voltages. electronic motion
control
Microprocessors and 2017 Motor Drives
digital signal processors Report: 5 high-level
findings
(DSPs) also are continual-
ly increasing their capa- Four risks to consider
bilities. Higher computa- when choosing a
Figure 1: Computer simulations via medium-voltage drive
tion speeds allow faster response to load dynamics and
appropriate software can perform virtual
near real-time communication with other parts of the prototype tests to evaluate different Content archive
motion system. Memory is becoming virtually unlimited motion control system designs before
committing to build hardware. Image
as developers can squeeze more capacity into micro-
courtesy: Yaskawa Electric
chips. All this permits more sophisticated motion con-
trol algorithms to be implemented in software and hardware.
3. Control sophistication
Versatile ac variable-frequency drives offer three principal motor control methods. Open-
loop control (also called Volts per Hertz (V/hZ) or scalar) was the first and simplest meth-
od to come along. It provides reasonable speed regulation and runs without a feedback
device.
12
Flux-vector control (FVC) is at the highest level of VFD performance and has several
variations. Its most capable version is field-oriented FVC, which models characteristics of
How to select a
the dc motor to ac motors, via independent control of flux-producing (magnetizing) and motor for an industrial
torque-producing current components to derive optimal control of motor torque and application
power.
 5 enduring
developments in
FVC uses a feedback device (usually an encoder) to obtain motor shaft position and speed electronic motion
information. Control algorithms rely on sophisticated motor models and implement sepa- control
rate speed and torque loops. Full vector control can deliver high torque at low speeds — 2017 Motor Drives
even near zero rpm. Report: 5 high-level
findings
Between the above extremes lies sensorless vector control (SVC) — also called open-loop Four risks to consider
vector control — still another alternative to improve low-speed torque, speed regulation, when choosing a
and starting torque capability over V/Hz drives.
Content archive
While SVC drives work without a feedback device, they can estimate — using motor cur-
rent and voltage signals — torque current, magnetizing current, and the vector relationship
between them necessary for precise motor control. Hence, they also rely on an accurate
motor model. A limitation here is loss of good motor parameter estimation below, say, 90
rpm (for 1,800-rpm base-speed motors). Newer VFDs offer all control types noted above,
even V/Hz, because of its usefulness in certain applications.
Direct torque control (DTC), another advanced electric drive technology, controls motor
torque and speed directly without the need for separate voltage and frequency control.
DTC provides independent control of an induction motor’s magnetic field (flux) and torque
using motor current and voltage information — without motor shaft position or speed 13
feedback. In addition, DTC works with permanent magnet synchronous and synchronous
reluctance type ac motors.
How to select a
DTC eliminates the need for a modulator stage found in pulse-width modulated (PWM) application
drives described above. This can reduce an inherent delay between processing motor pa-
rameter measurements and executing control commands. It requires a very accurate motor
 5 enduring
developments in
model and a DSP able to compare instantaneous torque and flux with reference values, at electronic motion
intervals of 12.5 microseconds. control
2017 Motor Drives

For their part, electric servo systems offer the most accurate motion control method Report: 5 high-level
findings
available today, delivering extremely fast loop closure for dynamic positioning response.
Field-oriented control is extensively used in servo drives. Servo motion uses encoders, Four risks to consider
resolvers, and other feedback types for motor status information. However, extremely when choosing a
high-resolution feedback is required to obtain the ultimate point-to-point load positioning
and smooth, accurate trajectory control between movement points. Content archive
4. Software influences
The equations and motor models were available early on, but their implementation into
software for dynamic motion control programs and algorithms had to wait until computers
became commonplace. In parallel, continual performance improvement occurred in MPUs,
digital signal processors, and microchips for executing programs in motion controllers and
motor drives. Higher execution speeds and huge memory growth were made possible.
One result was the ability and the economic rationale to incorporate multiple motor-con-
trol topologies noted above in the same electronic drive. A simple software parameter
14
change could there-

by change control
How to select a
modes. motor for an industrial
application
Another aspect of
motion control soft-
 5 enduring
developments in
ware is assistance electronic motion
in the set-up of an control
electronic drive/mo- 2017 Motor Drives
tor combination — Report: 5 high-level
findings
especially for servo
drives. Tuning algo- Four risks to consider
rithms in adaptive controllers can continually adjust Figure 2: A prime example of mechatronic when choosing a
integration is the combining of motor medium-voltage drive
servo tuning gains. This kind of intelligence built and drive components into one package.
into a drive also can sense other parameters, such Exploded view of an integrated step motor Content archive
as motor temperature changes and control distur- shows the technique, which is applicable to
other electric motor types as well. Image
bances to enhance motion system performance. courtesy: Applied Motion
At the user level, PC-based motion control software packages are available on the mar-
ket. Features of these software tools include set-up and configuration of motion system
elements, preprogrammed motion functions, software wizards, dashboards and more.
Interactive point-and-click and graphical programming interfaces are provided. Common
programming languages and development environments are available.
Simulation is a further area of software innovation. It allows “virtual prototyping” of motion

control systems in software before building hardware. This can show how well the design 15
might work, check out complex motion system details, and explore potential design trade-
offs and alternatives. Simulation software can reduce cost and time needed to develop the
How to select a
motion control system. For example, it can cut physical testing, but not eliminate it. Still, motor for an industrial
simulation is not a panacea; it has to be applied with care and practical engineering sense. application
5. Mechatronic integration
 5 enduring
developments in
Mechanical and electronic systems traditionally worked as physically separated units. The electronic motion
motion control arena experienced a huge change in this regard in the mid-1990s when elec- control
tric motor and control integration came on the scene in a big wa. A flurry of products was 2017 Motor Drives
introduced by many manufacturers — first as combinations of ac induction motors with VFDs Report: 5 high-level
findings
in one package, so-called integrated motors. Then similar combined units became available
for servo and stepper motors and their respective controllers. Four risks to consider
when choosing a
Various benefits can be attributed to having control electronics onboard motors — for ex-
ample, lower installation costs without long cabling between motors and drives and asso- Content archive
ciated conduit trays, fewer system components, easier diagnostics and maintenance, and
simpler control architecture. However, integrated motors have experienced less success
than expected, mainly in the induction motor and drive sector. Perhaps this is due to fewer
favorable applications or user ambivalence. Still, these induction motor/drive combinations
remain in the market for sizes up to 22 kW, serving appropriate applications and in hybrid
control architectures.
On the other hand, integrated servo and stepper motors have done better. More suppliers
are providing these units with more product sizes being introduced. A case in point is a
very recent example of integrated motors development. Smaller physical size and power
16
of these integrated motors also favors more applications.
How to select a
As electronic motion control matured, its application in manufacturing plants expanded motor for an industrial
to serve multiple motion axes. This has promoted decentralized or distributed control application
architectures, which connect to the overall plant control system via fast communication
networks. Such hybrid architectures favor integrated motors of all types. The extent of
 5 enduring
developments in
electronic integration can be tailored to the specific production line. All control electronics electronic motion
need not be inside a servomotor or atop an induction motor, just nearby, to derive some of control
the benefits. 2017 Motor Drives
findings
In the larger view, mechatronic integration goes beyond combining best practices of me-
chanical and electronic design to include control system and software developments. In Four risks to consider
fact, software has added to the success of mechatronics. The ability to simulate motion when choosing a
control systems without the need to build multiple hardware prototypes has been a key
advance, as noted earlier. The software element of mechatronic design — once limited to Content archive
only large engineering departments — has been able to filter down to wider applications
and more users as software tools became easier to use, more affordable, and deployable
on industrial PCs.
Today, the road ahead remains open to continued developments in these five areas of
electronic motion control.
Frank J Bartos, P.E, retired, is a former Control Engineering executive editor and con-
sulting editor. braunbart@sbcglobal.net.
17
2017 Motor Drives Report:
5 high-level findings
Key trends in variable-speed, servo and/or stepper, and medium-voltage drives How to select a
from buying and specifying respondents to the Control Engineering 2017 application
Motor Drives study
5 enduring
developments in
K ey trends in variable-speed, servo and/or stepper, and medium-voltage drives

follow below from buying and specifying respondents to the Control Engineering
2017 Motor Drives study.
electronic motion
control
 2017 Motor Drives

1. Usage: findings
87% of respondents use or expect to use variable-speed drives within the next 12
months; 46% use/plan to use servo and/or stepper drives; and 22% use or plan to when choosing a
use medium-voltage drives. medium-voltage drive
Content archive
2. Applications:
When specifying variable-speed drives, 90% of applications are new, 76% are ret-
rofit, and 73% are replacement. The breakdown for servo and/or stepper drives is
88% new, 63% retrofit, and 71% replacement. For medium-voltage drives: 92% new,
66% retrofit, and 61% replacement.
3. Purchasing:
36% of respondents prefer to buy motors and related variable-speed drives, ac/dc
controllers separately; 24% prefer matched units. Regarding servo/stepper drives,
only 13% prefer separate and 56% look for matched units. For medium-voltage drives
and Above NEMA motors: 29% prefer separate and 34% favor matched units.
18
2017 Motor Drives Report: 5 high-level findings
How to select a
application
5 enduring
developments in
electronic motion
control
 2017 Motor Drives

findings

when choosing a
4. Expenditures: When evaluating any type of motor drive, medium-voltage drive
automation professionals first at reliablity,
Over the past 12 months, respondents estimat- followed by price, communication interface Content archive
ed an average of $148,000 having been spent choices, customer service and support
offerings, and simplicity of setup/controls.
on variable-speed drives, ac/dc. For the same
Image courtesy: Control Engineering
time frame, respondents also estimated aver-
age values of $96,000 for servo/stepper drives and $509,000 for medium-voltage drives.
5. Important factors:
The most critical qualities respondents look for when choosing a motor drive are frequent
start/stop tolerance for variable-speed drives (78%), accurate positioning for servo/step-
per drives (93%), accurate speed and torque control for medium-voltage drives (88%).
Amanda Pelliccione, Research Director for CFE Media.

19
Four risks to consider when choosing
a medium-voltage drive
A rigorous specification can help minimize downtime, safety and financial How to select a
risks during a drive’s typical 20-year lifecycle. Examine the details. application
T oo often, drive specifications are recycled from previous projects without any real 5 enduring
developments in
thought given to an application’s unique needs. Drives also often are chosen based electronic motion
purely on price, without consideration for how different drives can meet different opera- control
tional needs. 2017 Motor Drives

findings
However, medium-voltage drives are big-ticket items and large-scale operations rely on
them. The right drive can help companies meet their application’s unique requirements  Four risks to
and reduce potential downtime and safety and financial risks. consider when
choosing a medium-
voltage drive
That’s why it’s crucial to consider these four key risk factors when buying or specifying drives.
Content archive
1. Project risks
A one-size-fits-all approach to drives can create long-term challenges for a company’s op-
erations.
Yes, all drives may provide similar functionality to control a motor’s speed, torque and direc-
tion, but they can vary in their topology, semiconductor design and principles of operation.
As a result, each drive will have its own unique structural, design and reliability benefits.
In other words, different drives are better suited for different industries and applications.
Those involved need to identify the drive that’s right for each individual use case.
20
Four risks to consider when choosing a medium-voltage drive
For example, a downhill conveyor

application will benefit from the use
How to select a
of a drive with regenerative braking. motor for an industrial
This capability offers a more efficient application
motor-stopping method and the abil- 5 enduring
ity to return power back to the utility. developments in
electronic motion
A platform-based electro-submersible
control
pump should specify a drive that sup-
ports long cable lengths. Some drives 2017 Motor Drives
can control motors as far as 15 km away, findings
Fans, pumps and compressors, new or
which can reduce the need for multiple electrical
houses and drives and lower project costs. However,
retrofit, are among applications for Allen-
Bradley PowerFlex 6000 medium-voltage  Four risks to
ac drives from Rockwell Automation. consider when
the needs of less stringent general-purpose applica-
These include variable torque and choosing a medium-
tions, like typical pumps, fans and compressors, can constant torque applications. Image voltage drive
be addressed by most drive topologies. courtesy: Intermountain Electronics
Content archive
Companies should bring in a vendor partner to help plan, specify and design a drive appli-
cation. They can help companies avoid common pitfalls during the specification process,
and help find the right drive based on specific application criteria such as harmonics, motor
compatibility, regeneration capability and dynamic performance.
This raises another important consideration for reducing project risk: choosing the right vendor.
Companies don’t want their operations to be a testing ground for an unproven vendor’s prod-
ucts. Stick with vendors that have at least 10 years of drive-application experience and hundreds,
if not thousands, of field-installed units. A large installed base often translates into a robust ser-
vice and support network, which is better equipped to support a company’s application. 21
2. Downtime risks
Downtime is always a concern in industrial operations, which is why it should be factored
How to select a
into process-critical equipment like medium-voltage drives. motor for an industrial
application
First, determine the mean time between failure (MTBF) needed from a drive. Considering 5 enduring
most heavy operations expect to rely on drives for decades, a good target is a minimum of developments in
electronic motion
100,000 hours. That pans out to more than 10 years before a predicted failure and can be control
extended by following the manufacturer’s recommended preventive maintenance program.
2017 Motor Drives
Next, determine the drive’s mean time to repair (MTTR). Given the high cost of downtime findings
heavy industries often face, MTTR should be a matter of minutes, not hours. Fifteen to 30
minutes is common, assuming spare parts available.
 Four risks to
consider when
choosing a medium-
There are two primary factors that influence a drive’s MTTR. voltage drive
Content archive
The first is the drive’s design. Maintenance workers should be able to access components
without needing to disassemble the drive. In some cases, drives may require a lifting cart
to handle larger assemblies. Finally, component failures shouldn’t cause collateral damage,
which can lead to costly cascade failures and longer repair time.
Some drive designs also can use redundancies to help shorten MTTR. For example, an au-
tomatic bypass capability allows a drive to continue running following a device failure. This
gives companies time to plan a shutdown instead of dealing with an immediate shutdown
after the failure occurs.
22
The second factor that affects MTTR is the company’s support structure. Companies need
technicians with the right expertise to monitor, maintain and repair the drives. It’s also a good
How to select a
idea to have a solid spare-parts inventory to repair or replace drives as fast as possible. motor for an industrial
application
A vendor can help companies that can’t manage these responsibilities. However, the com- 5 enduring
pany needs to specify support requirements that meet the stated MTTR goal. For example, developments in
electronic motion
the vendor’s trained service personnel should be located within a set distance of the facility
control
or be able to arrive within a set period of time. Some vendors also offer remote monitoring
and can notify the company of any detected faults, warnings or performance anomalies 2017 Motor Drives
with the drive. findings
3. Safety risks  Four risks to

consider when
A medium-voltage drive can help manage safety risks in a few key ways.
choosing a medium-
voltage drive
First, some drives offer arc-resistant enclosures as an option to enhance personnel protec-
Content archive
tion. These drives redirect the energy created from an arc-flash event away from personnel,
even when the low-voltage control cabinet door is opened for maintenance purposes. This
can help companies meet a range of global arc-resistant standards.
Some drives also offer optional functional safety features, where safety is designed into
the drive. Safe torque off (STO) is one example; it allows workers to remove power from
a motor without removing power to the drive. This can protect people and property from
preventable accidents and help restart a system after a safe state is reached.
Finally, drives with remote connectivity can deliver diagnostic data straight to workers at
their desks. This can minimize the need for them to enter electrical rooms to access the
data, thus reducing exposure to potential hazards. 23
4. Efficiency risks
The drive a company selects may be able to meet the application’s requirements, but how
How to select a
efficient is its performance? motor for an industrial
application
Different drives can have small variations in their operating efficiency. However, what seems 5 enduring
like a negligible difference today can add up to big expenditures over a drive’s lifecycle. developments in
electronic motion
control
Consider a drive that’s 1-2% less energy efficient than a competitor’s offering. The less-ef-
2017 Motor Drives
ficient drive may cost less up front, but it will generate more heat. This added heat could Report: 5 high-level
require the company to purchase a higher-rated air-conditioning system or air-to-air heat findings
exchanger. Companies also must pay for the energy to power those systems over the life
of the drive. This can translate to hundreds of thousands, or even millions, of dollars in
 Four risks to
consider when
added costs over a period of 20 years. choosing a medium-
voltage drive
When specifying a drive’s operating efficiency, a good rule of thumb is to target a mini-
Content archive
mum of 96.5% at full load and full speed.
Worry less, do more

On the surface, medium-voltage drives may seem like just another piece of a company’s
operations. However, they can play an important role in helping manage risks to a compa-
ny’s personnel, production and profitability. By considering these four risks in each drive
application and addressing them with rigorous specifications, companies can worry less
about unexpected downtime or costs and focus more on staying productive.
Pat Lemmon is director of technical support, Intermountain Electronics.

24
Eight factors to consider when
implementing a linear motion
application
When implementing and specifying a linear motion application, users should
consider many aspects including the required accuracy, speed, and the duty
cycle to ensure the best possible performance.
W hen manufacturing processes require high precision, high-speed repeatability

and flexibility for applications such as CNC, robotics, and material handling,
production engineers often specify linear motion technologies. A basic linear motion
system integrates a power component, such as a motor; a thrust mechanism, such as
an actuator; and a guidance infrastructure, such as a rail.
There are numerous subsystems within these categories, and understanding the op-
tions will help determine the ideal linear motion technology for your application.
Power components overview

The power components of the linear system include its motors, drives, and controls.
These convert electrical energy into mechanical energy and assist in positioning the
device.
The mechanical energy can be rotary-to-linear or direct-to-linear motion. Rotary-to-lin-

ear drives will convert the rotary torque of a motor into axial travel through a gear-
head/gearmotor or actuator connection. Electrical linear motors produce direct linear
motion without rotary components. The motor driving the system can be controlled
25
Eight factors to consider when implementing a linear motion application
to provide the desired velocity, acceleration, Applications ranging from CNC machines
to material handling require accurate and
torque, and position to yield optimal perfor-
durable linear motion systems. Image
mance. courtesy: Thomson Industries, Inc.
Drive options include servo motors, which enable the most accurate position control
in multiple poles and axes; stepper motors, which provide accurate position manage-
ment but for a limited range of positions; and variable speed drives, which can control
speed only. 26
Achieving positioning accuracy is done by integrating controls, switches, sensors, and

optical encoders. A servo motor, for example, has so many poles that determining
location at any point requires an encoder to generate pulses that indicate the exact
position of the rotating shaft. Controllers use such information to calculate discrepan-
cies between the actual system position and the desired location. Control systems such
as programmable logic controllers (PLCs) can then be programmed to drive corrective
actions based on reported anomalies, or to drive complex operational sequences such
as multi-axis movements. As power drive components become increasingly digitized,
encoding functionality that conventionally required external devices can be integrated,
reducing complexity and footprint.
Moving the load

Powered by motors and drives and under the control of PLCs or other controllers,
linear thrust mechanisms provide the physical contact that moves a load from one
position to another. Because they “actuate” the load, they often are generally called
actuators, but thrust mechanisms might also be ball screws, lifting jacks, cylinders, so-
lenoids, belt drives, or any other device that convert rotary motion (torque) into linear
thrust on one or more axes.
Guidance and support

The guidance portion of a linear system controls the direction of the thrust mecha-
nism’s movement while also supporting it. These guidance components can include
round rails—also called shafting—or square-like profile rails, either of which may ride
on lubricated bearings mounted in a metal block. Both round and profile rails and the
27
bearing blocks that ride on

them provide support for
the system as well as direc-
tional control.
The bearing blocks fasten

to a carriage and may often
be referred to as bearing
housings, bushings, or
trucks. The carriage itself
is also known as a saddle,
platen, or table. In a ma-
chining application, the
Applications ranging from CNC machines
carriage may be secured firmly to the part that is
to material handling require accurate and
being machined or moved, and may sometimes durable linear motion systems. Image
be moved by robotic arms. If a carriage is used, courtesy: Thomson Industries, Inc.
then multiple rail assemblies can be deployed for multiple axis movement. The rails
also provide additional support for the carriage and bearing blocks.
To deliver the required accuracy, rails must be perfectly straight and smooth. Steel rails
and shafting, which are used in guidance and support structures, are made to more
exacting standards and tighter tolerances than plain bearings that are used in power
transmission shafting.
Shaft supports hold up the rail or shaft and are fixed by fasteners to the bed. These are
necessary to minimize shaft deflection that can jeopardize system accuracy. There are 28
three main types of shaft supports: continuous supports, which have the greatest rigid-
ity and load-carrying capacity; intermittent supports, which are spaced along the rail;
and end supports, which hold up each end of the shaft.
Linear bearings support lateral rather than rotary movement. They travel back and forth
on the rails at a predetermined cycle rate. For round rails, they could be ball bushings
or plain self-lubricating bearings that are enclosed and supported in some type of
block/housing mounted to a bed.
Specifying linear motion components

The most important factors to consider when sizing, selecting, installing, and operating
a linear system are the loads and moments, speed, acceleration/deceleration, required
accuracy, duty cycle, parallelism, rigidity, and repeatability. Here are eight factors to
consider in relation to each:
• Load and moment: The loads are classified as radial, reverse-radial, lateral, re-
verse-lateral, axial and reverse-axial. Moment forces are classified as pitch, yaw,
and roll. Analogous to an airplane, pitch would be whether the nose is up or down,
yaw would be motion to the left or right, and roll would be when the wing tips are
up or down. The guidance portion of the system handles all of the loads and mo-
ments with the exception of the axial and reverse-axial load, which are taken care
of by the thrust mechanism.
• Speed: Speed is the rate at which a moving object is able to move or operate, and
normally is referred to as the top constant speed the object reaches. Increasing
29
speed comes with higher power requirements, so one should carefully consider
the entire motion profile for minimum power consumption
• Acceleration/deceleration: Acceleration/deceleration refers to the rate at which

objects change in velocity over time. Excessive acceleration/deceleration yields
unstable motion and excessive strain on guide components due to induced mo-
ment loads, all of which can lead to shorter service life of the system.
• Required accuracy: Accuracy is how closely the system moves compared to a

commanded position. It is a function of many variables, including the accuracy
grade of the components, installation practices, and mounting accuracy of the
machine base.
• Duty cycle: Duty cycle is the amount of “on time” versus “total time,” or it can
be defined as the number of reciprocating motions per minute. This is one of the
most critical factors impacting the life of the system.
• Running parallelism: Maintaining parallelism of the linear rails and shafts is critical
to consistent performance and design life. When the table moves, rail parallelism
will prevent binding in the bearings and overall inaccuracies in the system.
• Rigidity: Rigidity is important because the system must be stiff or rigid enough to
prevent deformation or unintentional movement. Undesirable deflections during
operation can result in production errors. Preloading ball screws, fastening compo-
nents properly, torquing fasteners correctly, and having firm end supports on thrust
mechanisms all contribute to improved rigidity. 30
• Repeatability: A linear system’s repeatability relies on its components consistently

moving from one point to another and back with minimal error. On servo systems,
for example, sensors, limit switches, and encoders provide feedback that can help
control errors and positioning.
With so many factors to consider, the chances of mismatching motion control technol-
ogies to one’s applications are high. Linear component manufacturers provide auto-
mated tools that help compare options and manage tradeoffs. There are online tools
available that help design engineers accurately size and select linear motion systems
and other components. The interactive series of questions, starting with a comprehen-
sive analysis of motion control requirements, quickly leads to an ideal solution for a
user’s application.
Whether you use an automated selection tool or your own calculation, adequate atten-
tion to selection of power components, thrust mechanisms, and guidance and support
systems can help you maximize the precision and repeatability you get from your pro-
duction operations. While proper selection provides the foundation for success, instal-
lation, operation, and maintenance are the building blocks.
Richard R. Knotek is a technical training specialist with the Motion Institute, a division
of Motion Industries.
Niklas Sjostrom is a product line manager, Systems, EMEA & Asia at Thomson Indus-
tries, Inc.
31
Machine design concepts improve
automation and controls simulation
Virtual design tools and automation software intersect to save time and
costs in machine commissioning so engineers can spot potential flaws before
implementation.
F ast-moving product development efforts demand rapid improvements in controls

engineering and manufacturing processes. Corporate initiatives often place re-
sponsibility on controls engineers to accelerate time to market, complicating this dy-
namic. Many design tools are available to help speed engineering efforts. These in-
clude a few technology milestones such as the introduction of computer-aided drafting
(CAD) on the mechanical side, and programmable logic controllers (PLCs) on the con-
trol side. While these increased the speed and performance of machine designs, indi-
vidual systems must integrate with other technologies to realize a new manufactured
product or a functioning machine.
Systems and tools used in engineering and design also need methods to test new
projects in a digital space. The next great improvement to engineering and design
is automation and controls simulation, which provides the ability to start testing and
commissioning machines very early in the process, such as before or during delivery, or
during fabrication of the initial mechanical components.
Modern control system development software should be part of the first step in simu-
lation. These engineering environments permit the simulation of scalable control code
on the engineering PC without the need for a hardware controller in the design phase.
This code also should run in real time, meaning if the PLC code has a 1-ms update
32
Machine design concepts improve automation and controls simulation
cycle, it should be simulated

at 1 ms. Running a different
update rate might prevent the
programmer from identifying
potential timing or “race”
conditions of multiple tasks.
Simulation capabilities extend
beyond the PLC to incorpo-
rate motion system design, as
well. While all programmers
can benefit from cleaner code For software-in-the-loop (SIL) simulation, the
earlier in the process, advance motion pro- intended machine or system processes are
grammers working on kinematics, gearing and first created and simulated in Matlab/Simulink
software by MathWorks with convenient
advanced cam tables can write, test and debug drag-and-drop functions for use in configuring
code before purchasing any motors or drives. and parameterizing links, before being run in
real-time with PC-based automation software.
Image courtesy: Beckhoff Automation
CAD considerations for effective
simulation
Once the PLC and motion control simulations are in place within the engineering and
programming environment, the next integration test is running them with plant/facility
models and CAD tools that allow 3-D machine and system simulation. Creating a dig-
ital link that connects the controls engineering environment, simulation software and
a 3-D CAD or emulation system does this. The aim of this connection is a software-in-
the-loop (SIL) simulation of the intended sequence on a machine or system to support
virtual commissioning.
33
The 3-D simulation of machine

and system components is a key
element when implementing
virtual commissioning. In the
simulation, the movements and
interactions of all individually
installed components are repre-
sented in combination in order
to predict collisions and critical
system states in advance. Simu-
When the processes are run on PC-based
lations also can be used before the machine automation software in real-time at real process
is completed to train operators and mainte- update rates, Simulink from MathWorks continues to
nance personnel for regular operation and monitor machine or system performance through the
digital link connecting it to the controls engineering
to learn troubleshooting instructions based environment and a 3-D CAD or emulation system.
on simulated critical machine states. Image courtesy: Beckhoff Automation
Modern simulation tools feature convenient drag-and-drop functions for use in config-
uring and parameterizing links. Complex relationships can be mapped between soft-
ware tools. SIL simulation of machines, systems, and installed components is easy and
convenient, even with future system expansions.
Factor in Fieldbuses and networking

The goal of any virtual commissioning simulation is to represent the machine or pro-
cess with an accurate model. However, many virtual commissioning systems do not
account for the Fieldbus or networking technology in the application. Testing and
34
commissioning
of a real system
would never be
complete with-
out checking for
a fully functional
Fieldbus. Simu-
lation or virtual
commissioning
should be includ-
ed, as well.
With EtherCAT industrial Ethernet technolo- MathWorks Matlab/Simulink environments enable

the design and simulation of new applications,
gy, complete virtual machine commissioning such as this hexapod, as well as advanced
becomes possible by connecting the machine algorithms that can be used in the machine
controller to control the physical hexapod. Image
controller to a computer running the simula-
courtesy: Beckhoff Automation
tion via an Ethernet cable without requiring
reconfiguration of the machine controller.
With EtherCAT simulation functions available in PC-based control software and a stan-
dard network adapter, the simulation computer can simulate connected EtherCAT
slaves.
For configuration purposes, the architecture of the EtherCAT slaves from the original
machine configuration is inverted. All EtherCAT features necessary for machine simu-
lation are modelled—including distributed clocks for highly precise device synchroni-
zation. Since CAN Application Protocol over EtherCAT (CoE) and Servo Drive Profile 35
over EtherCAT (SoE) are implemented, acyclic commands also can be processed in the
simulation environment.
During machine design, it also is possible to simulate the full Fieldbus network in real
time. This approach provides actual network update rates to accurately size the con-
troller CPU needed for the application. This ensures engineers will need to switch to
a bigger processor when physically commissioning the machine. This also maintains
the appropriate machine control performance level and keeps overall equipment costs
under control.
Real-time HIL, SIL simulations

Engineers can create advanced algorithms with simulation software environments and
run them in real-time with PC-based control software. Machine control projects simulat-
ed in PC-based control platforms also can be used for SIL real-time simulation. Using a
software connector to the simulation software, it is possible to read and write real-world
sensor and actuator data. This allows the simulation software model to operate on real
information and enables hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation of the software model.
Virtual commissioning, real engineering efficiency

Control system simulation and virtual commissioning can yield significant savings in all
machine and plant design stages. Using simulation software to identify and resolve flaws
in mechanics, controls and programming helps engineers work “smarter, not harder.”
Daymon Thompson, automation product manager, North America, Beckhoff Automation.
36
Three steps to size motors
Proper motor sizing precludes equipment failures, ensures efficiency and
reduces maintenance issues.
E lectric motors are a primary means for furnishing motion on modern industrial ma-
chinery and equipment, but designers cannot bolt on the cheapest version that fits.
Implemented properly, electric motors are a cost-effective and reliable method to cre-
ate rotational motion, and they also can couple with gearboxes and other mechanisms
to achieve varying levels and types of force. Motors that are not properly sized will be
inefficient and can cause operational and maintenance problems.
Designers are, at times, overwhelmed by the wide variety of motor manufacturers,

styles and sizes available. Typical motors may be ac or dc, for fixed or variable speed,
with steppers and servos as options for high-precision applications. Each style has cer-
tain strengths, but all applications must be sized to operate the load under all normal
conditions. The focus of this article is on basic ac motors (see Figure 1).
Knowing how to select the right size motor for a given application requires a methodi-
cal look at the requirements. For any machine builder or OEM, cost is always a key con-
sideration. Beyond that, an evaluation of the environmental conditions, operational re-
quirements and available power will lead users down the right path. This article reviews
the basic considerations and steps for properly selecting and sizing electric motors.
Benefits of getting the right motor

Getting the motor size right is critical for any application. Properly sized motors op-
erate the driven equipment most efficiently, which in turn causes the least wear and
tear. When equipment is running correctly, machine uptime is maximized, and so is the 37
return on investment in
the motor and the driven
equipment.
Energy efficiency is anoth-

er big factor. Beginning
in the 1990s, regulations
have progressively re-
quired more motor types
of 1.0 hp and above to
deliver better efficien-
cies. Refined designs and
construction methods
using more copper allow
Figure 1: Most industrial machinery or
these premium-efficiency motors to draw less
equipment incorporates multiple ac motors.
current in operation. Initial costs are usually Image courtesy: AutomationDirect
higher, typically more than offset by lower op-
erating costs over the life of the motor.
Heat and installation issues are two main reasons for motor failure, so both conditions
must be considered. Heat can originate from several sources and is most damaging to
motor insulation systems. It can arise from outdoor installations, or it can be transmit-
ted from associated process equipment.
Electric motors generate their own heat within the windings during operation, and
mechanical friction at motor bearings is another source. Installation issues such as mis- 38
alignment, improper cooling, incorrect motor type for the environment and vibration
must be corrected. Properly sized motors will not experience problematic heat due to
overloading, and excess heat can be mitigated by ensuring proper cooling with ade-
quate available airflow.
Improper installation resulting in misalignment and or excess vibration will mechanical-

ly damage the motor, bearings and associated equipment over time. Motors must be
correctly installed and sufficiently sized for the applied loading to minimize and to mit-
igate vibration issues and ensure long bearing life. Proper selection of motor mounting
brackets can simplify installation and assist in accomplishing correct alignment.
Steps for motor sizing

The process for sizing motors for an application breaks down into three major steps:
• Investigating the load operating characteristics

• Considering the operational environment
• Planning for the available power supply.
Motor sizing steps should generally be performed in this order, but each factor relates
to and affects the others. Properly accounting for these considerations and selecting a
motor based on them results in selecting a motor that can carry out the work needed
without having a shortened life due to premature winding, insulation or bearing dam-
age.
A motor’s primary job is to continue spinning at a commanded speed regardless of the

39
Figure 2: Material handling conveyors are a

torque load so it can deliver the necessary
common constant-torque application well-suited
amount of mechanical power. The motor must to ac motors. Image courtesy: AutomationDirect
overcome the load’s inertia, or resistance to
movement, to accelerate to the desired speed, and then maintain it. Not every motor
load is the same, however.
Constant torque loads are the most straightforward applications. These are loads
where the required torque does not vary much with the speed. This is common for
conveyors, compressors and cranes (see Figure 2). The horsepower requirement does
vary with speed or how much work is effectively being performed. For these constant 40
torque applications, it is necessary to determine the load experienced by the motor in

order to select the proper horsepower. This may be indicated on the nameplate of the
driven machine, or from torque testing to determine the amount of required force. The
minimum required horsepower is calculated using the formula:
Variable torque loads, where the required torque changes with speed, are more char-
acteristic of equipment like pumps and fans. These loads should be sized to the high-
est or peak loading.
For any motor load, one must account for the fixed operational speed or the variable
speed range at which the motor will run when connected to the equipment. Variable
frequency drives for adjusting motor speed are a good option, especially since many
loads will experience large decreases in energy usage if the motor can be run at a
slower speed. For variable speed applications, the turndown ratio of the motor and
equipment must be evaluated. This ratio is the maximum or nominal motor full speed
divided by the lowest operating speed. A motor may lose the capability to cool itself if
turned down too far. For motors that will use a variable frequency drive, ensure that the
motor selected is a 3-phase inverter-duty-rated motor. 41
Duty cycle of the load defines how much time the motor must run and stop. The mo-
tor’s rated duty cycle must be better than that required by the load. Frequent starts are
harder on a motor because they generate more heat. A motor with a duty cycle rating
of less than 100% or continuous will be smaller and less expensive, but it must be op-
erated with rest cycles to offload the heat buildup. In many applications, specifying a
100% duty cycle motor is prudent.
Consider the environment

Environmental considerations include the maximum and minimum ambient tempera-
tures, normal and washdown moisture and contaminants such as dust and dirt. These
will drive selection of the motor construction type. There are many configurations to
meet various environments, and three popular styles for industrial applications are:
• Open drip-proof (ODP): Relatively open enclosure promotes cooling but requires
an indoor, relatively clean and dry location; protected against falling water.
• Totally enclosed fan-cooled (TEFC): Enclosed but not completely air-tight enclo-
sure, often with a ribbed frame to aid with cooling; provided with an external fan;
versatile motor for most locations.
• Totally enclosed blower-cooled (TEBC): Like TEFC, but is provided with a sepa-
rately driven external blower to keep the motor cool even when operating at low
speeds where an integrated fan would be ineffective.
Best practice is to choose the motor able to withstand the operating environment with
42
the best cooling performance. This will increase uptime, extend operational life and
reduce required maintenance.
Plan for available power supply

The available power supply and preferred motor controls also play a role in sizing the mo-
tors for an application. For ac motors, users will need to select a single-phase or a 3-phase
motor based on what is available at the facility. Generally speaking, 3-phase power is
better suited for machine and process applications. Also, the higher the operating voltage,
the lower the electrical current needed for the same load, and lower current uses thinner
conductors and generates less heat. Common electrical connections for industrial ac mo-
tors are 120 V c single-phase, 230 Vac single-phase and 240/480 Vac 3-phase.
Selecting the operating voltage often comes down to using what is commonly avail-
able at a given location. But where there is a choice, a higher operating voltage im-
proves motor longevity. This is particularly important in smaller motors where the mass,
fan construction and insulation systems may not adequately offload heat. A 3-phase
motor is more easily reversed than a single-phase motor and is thus preferred for ap-
plications requiring forward and reverse operation.
Typical applications
Following are typical applications and corresponding suitable motor sizing choices:
• Single-phase or 3-phase ODP motors:

• Typical uses include machine tools, conveyors, packaging machines, batching
machines, food and beverage equipment, pumps, fans and air compressors.
43
• 3-phase TEFC motors:

• Typical applications are the same as for ODB motors, but these should be used
where wet or dirty conditions are encountered.
• NEMA premium efficiency inverter duty TEBC motors:

• Typical uses include gear reducers, pumps, machine tools and other di-
rect-coupled equipment installed in damp, dusty or dirty environments where
long life and ultra-high efficiency is required.
• Jet pump motors (these motors have special seals, shaft material and designs):
• Typical uses include jet pumps, well pumps and other liquid pumping applica-
tions.
Successful motor sizing strikes a balance

Following the steps presented in this article will ensure a motor will be sized for all
load conditions, able to survive the environment and functionally match the available
power. There are often multiple sizing and other options for a motor application, and
a successful design will strike the best balance among these options while minimizing
initial and operational costs.
Bryan Sisler is the product manager for drives and motors at AutomationDirect. He
has been involved in the automation industry for the last 27 years, most of them spe-
cializing in drives, motors and communications technologies at a variety of large indus-
trial manufacturers and distributors.
44
VFD: Swap it or upgrade?
There’s a lot to know behind the process of replacing a drive.
W e live in a time where variable frequency drives (VFDs) are the standard for
motor control. As they’re being installed primarily in commercial and industrial
buildings, both new and old applications reap the benefits these intelligent devices
bring. But just like all electronics, VFDs do not last forever.
For example, a replacement may be needed due to a failure from a power surge, or
because a 20-year-old VFD isn’t compatible with the building management system and
remote monitoring is crucial for the application. In either of these two scenarios, re-
placing a VFD may not be as easy as merely swapping the unit, powering up and walk-
ing away.
On the other hand, the task actually can be quite simple when knowing what to look
for and how to properly go about it. There are two primary scenarios most people face
when replacing a VFD.
SCENARIO 1:
Replace a VFD with the same model
There are a few things worth examining when changing out a VFD with one of the
same model, as simple as it sounds. The first priority is matching the model number
and the voltage class and current/HP rating on both units. This also verifies the new
VFD will fit in the existing physical space. Next, all wiring must be landed on the same
terminal designation. This ensures the input/output functionality of the new VFD
equates to that of the old. Finally, parameter settings should match those that are key
for the application. 45
There are many forms

of backup, especially
if the old VFD can
still be powered up.
If accessed, param-
eter settings can be
written down, stored
in a software pro-
gram, or even saved
to the keypad’s mem-
ory and transferred to
the new VFD. Ideally
this should be done
before the replace-
ment process takes place. In cases when the VFD Figure 1: Bypass and configured packages
include a replaceable variable frequency
is incorporated in a bigger piece of equipment,
drive. Image courtesy: Yaskawa
the original equipment manufacturer may have its
own parameter listing. The worst case is the drive will have to be set up manually and
optimized for the application by the user.
It may prove beneficial to save a few parts from the old VFD. Depending on the inten-
sity of the failure, certain components such as the keypad, cooling fans and control/ter-
minal board may have been left unscathed and can be reused. The main circuitry parts
of the VFD, including capacitors, should not be kept as there may be internal damage
or extensive wear. 46
SCENARIO 2:
Upgrade a VFD with a different or newer model
It is slightly more complicated to upgrade or replace a variable frequency drive with
a different model. This time there are a few more factors involved. For starters, sizing
and obtaining the correct model should be approached as if the drive is for a new ap-
plication. Variables such as amperage, voltage, enclosure, de-ratings, and application
type need to be taken into account. It’s also worth considering if the original VFD had
been sized correctly in the first place.
Even before installation there are a few other considerations, physical sizing being of
the highest importance for obvious reasons. Generally, newer VFDs are smaller and
more compact than that of the previous generation but that’s not always the case. This
also holds true when switching to a different manufacturer. It is always recommended
to check a dimensional drawing to verify space requirements.
An existing package or setup also will need to be looked at closely. Most stand-alone
VFDs are rated simply for an indoor environment with little to no protection against
airborne debris. They are often put inside an enclosure, which offers greater resistance
against harmful elements such as dust and water. Replacing the unit as a whole (drive
and enclosure) can get pricy and only the drive itself may have failed. Swapping the
VFD may seem logical but components such as circuit breakers, filters, bypass configu-
rations and other electrical equipment need to be examined for compatibility.
Once the above checks are complete, wiring can then be done. Assuming the termi-
nal designations have no match from one VFD to the next, a simple breakdown of the
47
inputs/outputs (I/O) type can help

clarify where the wires should be
landed. Once the main circuitry
wiring is completed, the control
wires and terminal designations on
the new VFD can be categorized
into five types. These are digital
inputs, digital outputs, analog
inputs, analog outputs and other I/
Os. It’s best to reference a wiring
schematic to obtain the exact func-
tion of the terminals.
As one of the final steps, program-

ming is once again what makes the
application. If a parameter list with
non-default values can be ob-
tained from the old VFD, then set-
ting up the new model will be less
troublesome. On the other hand,
the VFD may just need to be con-
figured from the start. In this case,
breaking down the basics that a
Figure 2: The drive nameplate
drive needs, such as a frequency and run command,
provides useful information when
will make setup much easier. The advanced features
48
verifying compatibility with the motor.
can be programmed last. Typically, the VFD user man- Image courtesy: Yaskawa
ual will have detailed information on specific functions and a complete parameter list.
The keypad may even have a setup wizard with a step-by-step procedure.
Other considerations
Repairing the VFD is another option. A well-maintained, repaired unit may last another
decade. The ability to accomplish this depends on factors such as availability of parts,
model or sizing of the drive and the extent of damage. Spare parts usually are avail-
able even for older models and therefore may be an inexpensive option.
Determining the root cause of the VFD failure is an often-overlooked option. Most
drives are replaced without this ever being questioned and rarely are VFDs just plain
defective. Environmental issues such as humidity, dust, temperature and exposure to
corrosion should first be considered. Other failure means are generally external to the
VFD itself. These include, but are not limited to, motor problems and input voltage
fluctuations which put strain on internal components such as capacitors.
VFD protection and preventive maintenance are crucial and should never be undervalued.
Jonathan Kopczyk is a technical support engineer for Yaskawa.
49
Understanding the main types of loads, motors, and applications can help
simplify motor and accessory selection.
T here are many aspects to consider when selecting a motor, such as application,
operational, mechanical, and environmental issues. Generally speaking, the choice
is either an ac motor, a dc motor, or a servo/stepper motor. Knowing which one to use
depends on the industrial application and if there are any special needs required.
A constant or variable torque and horsepower will be required for the motor depending
on the type of load the motor is driving. The size of the load, the required speed, and
acceleration/deceleration—particularly if it’s fast and/or frequent—will define the torque
and horsepower that is required. Requirements for controlling motor speed and position
also need to be considered.
Motor load types

There are four types of industrial automation motor loads:
• Variable horsepower and constant torque

• Variable torque and constant horsepower
• Variable horsepower and variable torque
• Positional control or torque control.
Variable horsepower and constant torque applications include conveyors, cranes, and
gear-type pumps. In these applications, the torque is constant because the load doesn’t
50
change. The required

horsepower may vary
depending on the ap-
plication, which makes
constant speed ac
and dc motors a good
choice.
An example of a vari-
able torque and con-
stant horsepower ap-
plication is a machine
rewinding paper. The
material speed remains
Figure 1: DC motors work well in low cost, low
constant, which means the horsepower doesn’t
speed or constant-torque applications such
change. The load does change, however, as the as on this belt-driven roller conveyor. Image
roll diameter increases. In small systems, this courtesy: AutomationDirect
is a good application for dc motors or a servo motor. Regenerative power also is a con-
cern and should be considered when sizing the motor or choosing the energy control
method. AC motors with encoders, closed-loop control, and full quadrant drives may be
beneficial for larger systems.
Fans, centrifugal pumps, and agitators require variable horsepower and torque. As the
motor speed increases, the load output also increases along with the required horse-
power and torque. These types of loads are where much of the motor efficiency discus-
sion begins with inverter duty ac motors using variable speed drives (VSDs). 51
Applications such as linear actuators, which need to move to multiple positions accurate-
ly, require tight positional or torque control and often require feedback to verify correct
motor position. Servo or stepper motors are the best option for these applications, but
a dc motor with feedback or an inverter duty ac motor with an encoder often is used for
tight torque control in steel or paper lines as well as similar applications.
Different motor types

While there are two main motor classifications—ac and dc—there are over three dozen
types of motors used in industrial applications.
While there are many motor types, there is a great deal of overlap in industrial applica-
tions and the market has pushed to simplify motor selection. This has narrowed practical
choices for motors in most application. The six most common motor types, which fit the
vast majority of applications, are brushless and brush dc motors, ac squirrel cage and
wound rotor motors, and servo and stepper motors. These motor types fit the vast ma-
jority of applications with the other types used only in specialty applications.
Three main application types

The three main applications for motors are constant speed, variable speed, and position
(or torque) control. Different industrial automation situations require different applica-
tions and questions and their own set of questions.
For example, a gearbox may be required if the top speed is less than the motor’s base
speed. This also may allow a smaller motor running at a more efficient speed. While
there is a great deal of information online on how to size a motor, users must account for
many factors because there are many details to consider. Calculating load inertia, torque, 52
and speed requires the user

to know about parameters
such as total mass and size
(radius) of the load as well as
friction, gearbox losses, and
the machine cycle. Changes in
load, speed of acceleration or
deceleration, and the applica-
tion’s duty cycle also must be
considered or the motor may
overheat.
After the motor type is select-

Figure 2: AC induction motors are a popular
ed and sized, users also need to consider en-
choice for industrial rotary motion applications.
vironmental factors and motor enclosure types Image courtesy: AutomationDirect
such as open frame and stainless housing for
washdown applications.
Motor selection: 3 questions

Even after all those decisions have been made, the user needs to address these three
questions before making a final decision.
1. Is it a constant speed application?

In a constant speed application, a motor often runs at an approximate speed with lit-
tle or no concern about acceleration and deceleration ramps. This type of application
is usually run using across-the-line on/off control. The control circuits often consist of a 53
branch circuit fusing with a contactor, an overload motor starter, and a manual motor
controller or soft starter.
Both ac and dc motors are suitable for constant speed applications. DC motors provide
full torque at zero speed and have a large installed base. AC motors are also a good
choice because they have a high power factor and require little maintenance. A servo or
stepper motor’s high performance characteristics, by comparison, would be considered
overkill for a simple application.
2. Is it a variable speed application?

Variable speed applications usually require tight velocity and speed changes as well as
defined acceleration and deceleration ramps. Reducing the motor speed in application,
such as fans and centrifugal pumps often improves efficiency by matching the power
consumed to the load instead of running at full speed and throttling or dampening the
output. These are very important considerations for conveying applications, such as bot-
tling lines.
Both ac and dc motors with the appropriate drives work well in variable speed appli-
cations. A dc motor and drive configuration was the only variable speed motor option
for a long time and the components are developed and proven. Even now, dc motors
are popular in variable speed, fractional horsepower applications and are useful in low-
speed applications because they can provide full torque at low speed and constant
torque across a wide range of motor speeds.
Maintenance can be a concern with dc motors, however, because many require brushes
for commutation, and they wear out from being in contact with moving parts. Brushless 54
dc motors eliminate this

issue, but they are more
expensive in upfront costs
and the range of available
motors is smaller.
Brush wear is not an issue

with ac induction motors
and a variable frequency
drive (VFD) creates a use-
ful choice for applications
over 1 hp such as fan and
pumping applications,
which lead to improved Figure 3: An ac motor and VFD combination
efficiency. The type of drive chosen to run the are widely used for improving efficiency
and work well in a variety of variable speed
motor can add some positional awareness. An
applications. Image courtesy: AutomationDirect
encoder can be added to the motor if the appli-
cation requires it, and a drive can be specified to use the encoder feedback. This setup
can provide servo-like speed as a result.
3. Is position control required for the application?

Tight position control is accomplished through continuous verification of the motor’s
position as it moves. Applications such as positioning a linear actuator can use a stepper
motor with or without feedback or a servo motor with inherent feedback.
A stepper is designed to accurately move to a position at a moderate speed and then 55

hold the position. An open-loop stepper system offers strong positional control if properly
sized. While there is no feedback, the stepper will move the exact number of steps unless
it encounters a load disruption beyond its capacity. As the application’s speed and dynam-
ics increase, open-loop stepper control may not be able to meet system requirements,
which requires an upgrade to a stepper with feedback or to a servo motor system.
A closed-loop system provides accurate, high-speed motion profiles and precise posi-
tion control. A servo system will provide higher torque at high speeds compared to a
stepper, and they also work better in high-dynamic load or complex-motion applications.
For high-performance motion with low-position overshoot, the reflected load inertia
should be matched to the servo motor inertia as closely as possible. Up to a 10:1 mis-
match will perform adequately in some applications, but a 1:1 match is optimal. Geared
speed reduction is an excellent way to solve inertia mismatch problems as the reflected
load inertia falls by the square of the gear ratio, but gearbox inertia must be included in
the calculations.
Application, motor knowledge

Manufacturers offer a wide selection of motors for industrial applications. Stepper, servo,
ac, and dc motors can meet most industrial automation requirements, but the ideal mo-
tor depends on the application. Whether it’s a constant speed, variable speed, or posi-
tion control application-users should work closely with the motor and drive the supplier
to select the right motor for the application.
Bryan Sisler, product manager, AutomationDirect. Edited by Chris Vavra, production

editor, Control Engineering, CFE Media, cvavra@cfemedia.com. 56
Why things break: Just the facts
A root cause failure analysis takes the guesswork out of downtime
R oot cause failure analysis interprets the features of a system or a component to

determine why it doesn’t perform as intended. This could be a part, machine, oper-
ating area or entire plant. Using detective skills and a team of involved people, the key is
to understand the physical, human and latent root causes of the inability to meet those
goals.
Two influential authorities in root cause failure analysis are Charles Latino, one of the pio-
neers of industrial reliability engineering movement, and Dr. James Reason, a recognized
expert in the area of human reliability. Different practitioners of root cause failure analysis
in industry might use different terms, but the approaches are generally similar.
The most important aspect of root cause failure analysis is that there can be no guess-
work or opinions as to causes. Concrete facts have to support every decision that leads
to the roots.
Multiple causes
There are three main types of root causes that build upon each other:
• Physical roots. The actual physical mechanism of the failure.

• Human roots. The human practices that allowed the physical roots to exist.
• Latent roots. The way the site is managed and/or designed that creates the human
roots.
57
Physical causes are the easiest to determine,

while the human and latent roots are not recog-
nized as easily. Finding and eliminating those
human and latent causes has a far greater finan-
cial return.
In one example, a machine caught fire, caused

a lengthy production shutdown and damaged
the surrounding building. A simple failure
analysis that solves the physical cause of the
machine fire might prevent future fires and
improve the reliability of that one machine. But
a true root cause failure analysis that goes into
the human and latent roots can eliminate whole
categories of failures. It also hits the bottom
line: putting the findings from a root cause fail-
ure analysis into practice often results in more
than a thousandfold return on the cost of the
analysis, according to Neville Sachs, presenter
of the Root Cause Failure Analysis Webinar.
Latent roots
Latent root causes arise from the way a site is man- Figure 1: Charles Latino often spoke
of error chains and how they lead
aged or designed and permit the human root causes. For to a failure or an accident. Image
example, a story about a crane whose cable broke shows how courtesy: Society of Tribologists and
latent management practices contributed to the failure. Lubrication Engineers (STLE)
58
Sachs and a manager were investigating the failure of a broken cable that dropped a 30-
ton vat of molten metal. While they were on the floor, where another crane operator and
his spotter saw them, a second event happened. The crane operator picked up another
30-ton vat of molten metal while the crane was moving, contradicting one of the cardinal
rules of crane operation: a crane should never be moving when initially picking up the
load because the inertial forces combine to be substantially greater than just the weight
of the load. That this happened in front of Sachs and management showed that unsafe
procedures were used routinely and that management tolerated them.
Common latent failure roots include:
• Having designers work outside their expertise such as mechanical engineers doing
electrical design, chemical engineers doing mechanical design, not having a knowl-
edgeable lubrication engineer in a largely mechanical plant, etc.
• Not performing inspections when receiving maintenance items.
• Not having regular workforce training.
• Failing to recognize the importance of skilled employees.
• Making the new (or lowest-rated) maintenance employee responsible for equipment
lubrication.
Error chains
Untrained people rarely recognize there is always a chain of events with multiple contrib-
utors that leads to a failure or accident. There is a common tendency to solve the physi-
cal root of the problem and then wonder why the failure recurs.
Errors can be thought of as the result of a chain of events or a series of linked holes. Lati- 59
no created chains of er-

rors that lead to a failure
or accident (see Figure 1).
Reason uses the example
of rotating slices of Swiss
cheese—the pieces rep-
resent errors and when
the holes line up, there is
an incident.
Errors eventually will link

and cause failures, but
we don’t know exactly when or how often. Figure 2: The crane that dropped the 30-ton vat
revealed two very obvious latent causes and two
Sometimes there is no incident if either luck human causes that led to the physical cause of a
or an observant person breaks the chain. deteriorating cable. Image courtesy: Society of
Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE)
Root cause failure analysis of the crane that dropped the 30-ton vat revealed two very
obvious latent causes and two human causes that led to the physical cause of a deterio-
rating cable (see Figure 2).
Sometimes those errors don’t link up, and there is no failure or accident. At this site, a
second bay was using the same process and not had a failure yet, probably due to luck.
Physical roots
The most important part of root cause failure analysis is accurately pinpointing the phys-
ical root causes. Because the physical roots lead to the human and latent roots, people 60
must truly understand the physical roots of a failure if they ever hope to find the larger
causes.
There are always multiple root causes—physical, human and latent. Detailed studies of
some critical disasters, such as those listed below, reveal multiple causes in each case—
physical, human and latent:
• RMS Titanic
• The Halifax explosion
• Bhopal disaster
• Exxon Valdez oil spill
• Chernobyl disaster
• Deepwater Horizon (Gulf of Mexico) oil spill.
If the people doing the analyses don’t recognize there are always multiple causes, they
will never reach an accurate conclusion. One example of this occurred at an international
conference where two organizations analyzed the same data looking for the causes of
some component failures. Their bar charts of the failure causes were informative but very
different because each analyzed the failures as each having only a single cause.
Multiple root causes

Experience shows that in all failures and accidents, there may be only one physical root,
but there are always multiple human and latent roots. The number of roots typically
depends on the complexity of the problem. For example, a simple industrial plant failure
of something such as a pump or a fan usually has between four and seven roots. On the
other hand, a complex system such as an aircraft crash generally has 12-14 roots, accord- 61
ing to the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB).
The number of root causes found also might depend on the

depth of the analysis. Given its widespread importance to human
safety, the NTSB has much more funding and time to analyze
accidents. Unlike the airline industry, the goal of many root cause
failure analyses in industrial plants is to get the plant up and
running again. The problem with such cursory industrial analyses
is the remaining unrecognized and uncorrected roots will come
back to cause another breakdown.
Within the cost limits of any particular analysis, the goal of your
root cause failure analysis program should be to break that er-
ror chain and eliminate as many roots as possible (see Figure 3).
Often, with some close attention, some of the root causes can be
eliminated at no to very low cost.
Physical and human roots

A study of over 120 detailed failures, looking at just the major
human and physical failure causes, found the following averages.
The most common type of human
error is in design: Figure 3: (a) Break the error
chain or (b) get lucky. Either luck
or an observant person breaks
• Physical roots—1.4 errors/fail-
the chain. Image courtesy:
ure, with many of them involving
62
Society of Tribologists and
fatigue and corrosion Lubrication Engineers (STLE)
• Human roots—multiple roots of these types:

 design errors (59%)
 maintenance (38%)
 operating (24%)
 installation (16%)
 manufacturing (12%).
In this example (see Figure 4), a variable speed turbine is driving a reciprocating com-
pressor through a reducer. This setup resulted in multiple failures due to two types of
vibration: torsional and translational. A major design error was that the specifying en-
gineer did not consider what resonant frequencies the bearings in the gearbox were
sensitive to. After repeated failures, they decided to only operate the turbine at specific
speeds.
Human errors
We all make mistakes. But how often do you think the average person makes a signifi-
cant error? A significant error is one that could lead to the need for medical treatment or
results in a substantial financial loss. The probability of an accident goes up when a per-
son talks on a cellphone while driving a car or truck. The chance of falling goes up when
you don’t use a handrail when walking down stairs.
Latino often quoted reason as saying the average person makes six significant errors per
week, requiring medical treatment or financial loss. But plant surveys that Sachs has con-
ducted since 1993 show the typical person thinks they make a significant error only once
every five months.
63
Sachs’s surveys of over

3,000 personnel, typi-
cally from maintenance,
engineering and plant
supervision, found the
average person rated
themselves as above
average and their
co-workers below, even
though the average
person is by definition
at a 50% skill level:
• Own skill level:

72%.
Figure 4: An example of a design error.
• Co-workers made twice as many errors.
Image courtesy: Society of Tribologists and
• Less than 1.7% of the 3,000—50 people—said Lubrication Engineers (STLE)
their skill level was below average.
• Only one ever, since 1993, said they were below average in safety awareness.
A good root cause failure analysis program can reduce errors and improve savings. Sachs
says two typical examples include a plant where, over an eight year period, managers
cut the number of motors they had to replace per year from 500 to 250. The reduction in
replacement costs amounted to 50 times the investment and didn’t include the effect on
lost production that the maintenance staff can be smaller or that product quality im-
proves because of more consistent runs. 64
The second example was a pharmaceutical plant that cut maintenance costs from $115/
hp to $60/hp for motors used over a four-year period. They also cut pharmaceutical
product loss due to equipment failures by 60%.
How to do analysis
The first thing that is absolutely required is management support that is committed and
lasting. Results will need to be carried through, and without management behind that
activity, the analysis is a waste of time and possibly money.
Second, select the topic to be analyzed, which can be very easy if something’s broken but
more complicated for a division or department within a company. In the division or depart-
ment cases, start at the highest level you can. But for a broken machine, you can start by just
listing all the visible physical damage—in other words, the observed items or conditions.
Third, create a diverse, unbiased team with a leader or coordinator who can guide the
team toward perceptive questions.
Fourth, use a logic system to understand the interaction of causes. Finally, guard against
opinions or prejudices governing the outcome, especially one dominant person taking
over the analysis.
Choose analytical method

Logic trees are simple and good for getting in-depth analysis. They are an easy-to-follow
technique for the participants as well as present results to others such as management.
65
Figure 5: Root cause logic tree. Image

According to Sachs, he has found that other
courtesy: Society of Tribologists and
methods such as 5 Whys, Fishbone diagrams and Lubrication Engineers (STLE)
Kepner-Trego are not as effective or efficient in find-
ing the true root causes and generally not as easy for others to understand.
Figure 5 shows a logic tree for the analysis of a catastrophic failure in a paper mill where
a 3,000-hp wood chipper that eats logs at a foot per second failed dramatically. This will
serve as an example to go through the process. Initially the woodchipper displayed a
dozen broken or failed parts or conditions, noted in the yellow level in the logic tree.
66
The coordinator and team

The coordinator is a critical job. The coordinator chairs the meetings and acts as the
moderator. Although the coordinator doesn’t have to understand the problem area, a
general idea of how things work will make the job easier.
The coordinator’s key job is that of a detective driving an investigation. He or she helps
the team ask questions about how an event or a feature could happen and ensures the
answers are based on fact or a true expert opinion.
The coordinator is responsible for team communications, including developing, organiz-

ing and presenting the latest charts, data and assignments.
The five- to 10-member analytical team should be drawn from a wide range of the dis-
ciplines and departments involved. Although the coordinator leads the team, all team
members should be viewed as equals.
Logic trees
Commercial software is available to develop and present logic trees, such as the Reliabil-
ity Center’s PROACT.
The coordinator inserts the failure or selected starting point into the top box on the logic
tree chart. The next level shows all the detectable features.
With system problems, it is more difficult to pick out a starting point. For example, with a
plant that isn’t producing well, you might start with an analysis of the optimum production
67
capacity. Then look at each item or event that restricts Figure 6: The chipper before the failure.
that capacity. Next, draw a Pareto chart outlining the
Lubrication Engineers (STLE)
effect of those causes, which provides a good visu-
al to start with. Begin root cause analysis on the most expensive, from either time or cost
restriction. When that is solved, the team will move on to solve the cause of the next most
expensive, and so on.
The chipper
Figures 6 and 7 show the chipper being analyzed for this logic tree example before
68
the failure and after. Logs are fed in at the spout at bottom right. Two motors drive the
gearbox, which turns a shaft, which spins the chipper disk. The chipper disk is a 130-inch
flywheel with knife blades on it.
In the massive failure, the chipper disk crushed the chute, which was made from two-inch
thick steel.
The chipper analysis team

• Two maintenance craftsmen
• Maintenance supervisor
• Operator
• Operations supervisor
• Operations superintendent
• Plant reliability engineer
• Plant reliability engineering supervisor
• Outside consultant.
Conducting the analysis

First, protect the parts from contamination. Then spread them out over an area—be it a table
or warehouse—so the team can inspect them. The coordinator starts by asking the group,
“How can this event (or symptom) happen?” Add every suggestion to the tree, even if it
looks ridiculous. Then look for answers—answers supported by facts, not opinions. Keep ev-
eryone involved. Assign duties for needed information that comes up during the discussion.
Creating the logic tree

Sticky notes are an easy way to begin to build the logic tree. Different colored sticky 69
Figure 7: The chipper after the failure.

notes or pen colors can help build levels in the tree.
Institute a numbering system on the sticky notes Lubrication Engineers (STLE)
or boxes to keep track of the connections between
levels. The coordinator then organizes the tree and presents it at the next meeting. Con-
tinue to meet until the logic tree is complete, makes sense and provides satisfactory root
causes all the way back to human and latent roots.
In the case of the chipper (see Figure 5), the team determined the physical cause was
fatigue on bolts, a very common root cause. One of the latent root causes was in de-
sign, where the bolts couldn’t be tightened adequately. Another involved trying to use a
70
stamped part that couldn’t meet the tolerances needed. Other human and latent roots
included the fact that management had eliminated engineering reviews of machinery
revisions because they thought it was an unnecessary step in the process; also, some
sensors were disconnected because of “too frequent” alarms.
Things to avoid
A dominant person’s attempt to take over the process can affect the quality of the logic
tree and the resulting root causes. Often there will a person with an official—or unoffi-
cial—leadership position who will try to control the process, whether inadvertently or on
purpose. The coordinator must then ask the person to let the others participate more.
Secondly, to eliminate latent roots, a champion is needed to follow up with management

and effect change in the way the site is operated.
Lastly, don’t be afraid to talk to a professional. Outside experts can offer insight that
team members might be unaware of.
The article first appeared in the STLE magazine and is based on a webcast presentation
from Neville W. Sachs, P.E., a professional engineer and a graduate of Stevens Institute
of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey. STLE is a CFE Media content partner.
Mary Beckman is a freelance science writer based in Richland, Wash.
71
How to manage multi-vendor motion
control architectures
Manufacturers and machine builders may be required to match motors
and drives from different brands; careful design considerations can yield
successful applications.
W hile it is possible to pair a motor and a drive made by different manufacturers, it

is not without risks. Mismatched motors and drives can complicate machine start-
up and potentially lead to failures. They can also make troubleshooting inefficient and
cause users to rely heavily on vendor support.
Naturally, matching equipment from different sources is rarely the first choice when
designing motion control systems. Designs can be complicated because brands differ in
terms of motion control software, power ratings, encoder feedback types, and more. This
makes it difficult to incorporate new equipment into existing system architectures.
To avoid these issues, manufacturers and machine builders logically select motors and
drives made by the same brand that are designed to work together a majority of the
time. However, special application considerations or certain unique features can lead
engineers to select a drive from one vendor and a motor from another.
When deciding whether it is necessary to use motors and drives that are different
brands, it is imperative to carefully consider the equipment’s specifications and ability to
work on an open platform in terms of cabling, networking, and software. Cross-vendor
compatibility takes a front seat in these situations. It also is important to consider wheth-
72
How to manage multi-vendor motion control architectures
er dedicated or distributed drives Figure 1: Engineers can successfully match motors and drives
from different vendors if they carefully consider both devices’
can remedy some of these potential specifications and the environmental factors of the application.
problems. Images courtesy: Beckhoff Automation
Reasons why engineers mix and match motors and drives

Why do engineers mix and match motor and drive manufacturers?
Too commonly, machine builders and manufacturers mix different brands of motors and
drives to cut costs. In situations where the bottom line drives everything, it is common
73
that those involved will not consider all of the technical aspects required to successfully
pair a motor and drive. This leads to potential issues that are often preventable.
It also is important to consider every aspect when matching motors and drives for more
fundamental reasons. One common scenario is manufacturers may require drives that
operate on higher than normal voltage or offer variable frequency drive (VFD) functional-
ity. VFDs can adjust the motor speed to meet demands, which also helps reduce energy
usage, improves process control in production, and minimizes maintenance and prema-
ture machine failures. However, the motor must be compatible with the VFD.
In another example, a voice coil actuator may require higher accuracy movement than
the same manufacturer’s drives are able to supply. This can lead plant engineers to look
for a more precise drive from another brand. In addition, there are external factors unre-
lated to whether the motor and drive are compatible. These include whether the motors
will be used in hazardous, washdown, or high heat environments.
Motor-drive communications
When attempting to properly pair motors and drives from different brands, there are a
number of considerations. At the most obvious level, any drive system must specifically
support the type of motor it will be paired with whether it’s linear, rotary, synchronous, or
asynchronous. Other information, such as amperage and torque, can be compared be-
tween two motion control devices.
Also consider whether the drive and motor are compatible with additional features, such
as integrated actuators in ball screws, one cable connections, or advanced feedback
measurement. This last feature monitors how effectively a drive is pushing the motor and 74
Figure 2: A drive system must support the type of motor it will be

adjusts to improve the motor’s paired with, whether linear or rotary, synchronous or asynchronous.
service life. It is key that drives Information such as amperage and torque can be compared between
support many standard en- two motion control devices. Courtesy: Beckhoff Automation
coder feedback types such as BiSS C, EnDAT 2.2, Hiperface and TTL, among others.
To make operation easier, EtherCAT industrial Ethernet communication and PC-based

motion control software based on open standards allow users to more easily communi-
cate with new and legacy systems, even if applications are saddled by multiple buses.
PC-based motion control software can detect a new motor or drive’s configuration file
(or “electronic nameplate”) through EtherCAT and add it to the file library so users can
operate multiple brands of equipment connected in the same motion architecture.
75
Dedicated versus distributed drives

Another consideration is whether or not a motor requires a dedicated drive. Often the
answer is no. While distributed drive concepts have been around for years, this is still a
unique approach in the field. Because few industrial vendors support this kind of drive
architecture, there are relatively few situations in which it is currently applied. A motor
with a drive integrated in the same housing is one example, but in this circumstance,
pairing the two parts is a non-issue.
There are many benefits to a distributed servo drive system that integrates the drive into
the motor. Some newer distribution models need just one coupling unit to run multiple
drives and provide power and control through one cable via EtherCAT P across an entire
machine or line. This can reduce the machine’s footprint and provide a range of motion
capabilities without any concerns about the proper pairing of a motor and drive since
they are the same.
However, every motion control application is different; there is no one-size-fits-all answer

for which motor will work with which drive. The best solution is to start with the very basic
requirements and then account for the production environment and ensure all compo-
nents in hardware, software and networking fully support open communication. By care-
fully considering all of these technical design aspects, it is possible to pair motors and
drives from multiple brand names to keep a factory’s production line moving.
Matt Prellwitz, drive technology application specialist, Beckhoff Automation.

Edited by Mark T. Hoske, content manager, Control Engineering, CFE Media, mhoske@
cfemedia.com.
76
Low-priced medium-voltage drives
can have long-term costs
Consider how reliability and performance impact total cost of ownership
(TCO) when buying or specifying medium-voltage drives rather than focus
only on the initial price point.
M edium-voltage drives are one of the most process-critical pieces of equipment in

heavy industrial operations. Given the high downtime costs in large-scale oper-
ations, most companies can’t afford for drives to go down for even an hour. However,
drive reliability has become a challenge for many operations as purchasing priorities
have changed. Companies trying to stretch capital further are opting for cheaper
drives, putting their long-term business goals at risk as a result.
Changing buying priorities

Historically, industrial companies purposely bought medium-voltage drives that would
reliably last up to 20 years. But many companies tightened their budgets after the
global economic downturn. This has led them (or the EPC working on their behalf) to
place a higher priority on a drive’s up-front cost than its long-term performance.
Some drive suppliers have noted these new priorities and are using cheaper, low-
er-quality components to offer less-expensive drive options. However, this sacrifice in
product quality can come at the expense of performance and reliability for end users.
For example, some suppliers now use aluminum instead of copper in drive transform-
ers. This cuts the cost of a drive, but results in less efficient transformers. An end user
77
Low-priced medium-voltage drives can have long-term costs
will pay more in energy costs over the drive’s lifetime than what they saved on the
initial cost.
Lower-quality drives, which are more likely to fail, also will be more expensive to main-
tain over their lifetime. And their life span may only be a period of years instead of
decades.
What to look for when buying or specifying a drive

Rather than specifying or buying a medium-voltage drive purely based on up-front
price, consider its total cost of ownership (TCO). This requires evaluating a drive’s per-
formance and reliability and how it can deliver cost savings in areas such as integration
into the control system and risk management.
Performance and reliability

Users need to ask how long a medium-voltage drive will reliably operate. If the answer
is 20 years, specify that in the procurement process. Some suppliers can deliver drives
with upward of 100,000 hours of mean time between failure (MTBF), which is more than
20 years in a typical operation. Other suppliers only offer drives with a fraction of that
MTBF. What may seem like a lower cost drive today will be much costlier down the
road if the drive is replaced in five years instead of 20 years.
Likewise, consider how a drive’s design can impact operating costs. Going back to the
transformer example, the use of aluminum may be 5% less efficient than copper. That
seems small, but lower efficiency can cost more than the initial purchase price in addi-
tional energy costs over a drive’s life span.
78
If redundancy is important, consider using a drive with bypass options. In the event
of a critical component failure, the drive can bypass the component to keep the drive
running. This can provide a user a window to plan for a scheduled shutdown.
Quick start savings

A medium-voltage drive can start paying dividends faster if users can minimize the
time it takes to get it up and running in a plant.
For example, manually integrating and configuring devices and systems can be a
time-consuming and labor-intensive process, so drives that have control systems with
built-in advanced integration can reduce development and configuration time.
With advanced integration, a controller can recognize certain devices and automatical-
ly import their add-on profiles. Mapping devices becomes easier because an engineer
no longer needs to manually associate parameter numbers with descriptions or enter a
device’s details. The ability to use one development environment can reduce the po-
tential for development and input/output-mismatch errors.
A system integrator with the right application expertise can maximize these efficiencies
to integrate the controller with the medium-voltage drive, human interfaces, and re-
mote monitoring for all the connected site applications.
Some drives also come with add-on instructions (AOIs), which are reusable code ob-
jects. AOIs are defined once in a controller project and can be reused multiple times.
This helps commission systems faster and promotes greater programming consistency
across a plant’s operations. 79
A drive that supports remote monitoring allows a vendor

Finally, different drive vendors offer to monitor its performance. The vendor can notify of
varied factory acceptance testing (FAT) any faults, warnings or performance outside of a defined
tolerance. Image shows the Allen-Bradley PowerFlex
levels. A vendor that tests the drive at
6000 medium-voltage ac drives from Rockwell
full voltage and power can give the user Automation, which allow for flexibility in a variety of
greater confidence the drive will per- applications, new and retrofit, variable torque, and
constant torque. Courtesy: Intermountain Electronics
form as expected, before it arrives at
the facility.
80
Risk management
A medium-voltage drive can help better manage the risks and costs of potential safety,
security and downtime incidents.
Safety: Arc-resistant drives can help users meet stringent global arc-resistance stan-
dards. These drives redirect hazardous energy and gases created from arc-flash events
away from personnel. This reduces safety risks as well as protects equipment.
Drives also can use safe torque off (STO) technology to remove power from a motor
without removing power to the drive. This is critical to reduce cycle times for batch
process applications and can help achieve a faster system restart after a safe state is
reached. STO is designed into the drive control and doesn’t require additional elec-
tromechanical components, which can help lower hardware, inventory and installation
costs.
Security: Drives, like all aspects of industrial operations, are increasingly connected.
With this greater connectivity comes greater potential for security risks. If the drive
offers remote monitoring and data collection capabilities, make sure it offers secure
connectivity features such as a secure socket layer through a standard Internet connec-
tion.
Downtime: In addition to specifying or purchasing reliable drives to prevent downtime

in the first place, different levels of support can help monitor and maintain the drives.
For example, a drive that supports remote monitoring allows a vendor to monitor its
81
performance. The vendor immediately notifies the user of any faults, warnings or per-
formance outside of a defined tolerance. Advances are being made to design in pre-
dictive analytics to forecast device health and proactively schedule maintenance. This
helps a user identify and respond to any issues to reduce or avoid downtime complete-
ly. It can also offset skills-shortage challenges by tasking drive monitoring to a trusted
vendor.
Protect your operations

Medium-voltage drives should help facilitate a company’s operations and business
goals,. When specifying drives, look beyond the sticker price to understand lifecycle
costs in key areas like downtime, energy usage, system integration, and risk manage-
ment.
Pat Lemmon, director of technical support, Intermountain Electronics. Edited by Chris

Vavra, production editor, Control Engineering, CFE Media, cvavra@cfemedia.com.
82
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2017 Motor Drives Report:

Four risks to consider when

2017 Motor Drives

Motor load types

• Variable horsepower and constant torque

Variable horsepower and constant torque applications include conveyors, cranes,

doesn’t change. The required

size (radius) of the load as well as friction, gear-

1. Is it a constant speed application?

Four risks to consider

(VFD) creates a useful choice for applica-

A stepper is designed to accurately move to a position at a moderate speed and then

Four risks to consider

Bryan Sisler, product manager, AutomationDirect.

losses due to the insu-

2017 Motor Drives

change could there-

Simulation is a further area of software innovation. It allows “virtual prototyping” of motion

of these integrated motors also favors more applications.

K ey trends in variable-speed, servo and/or stepper, and medium-voltage drives

 2017 Motor Drives

 2017 Motor Drives

Four risks to consider

Amanda Pelliccione, Research Director for CFE Media.

tional needs. 2017 Motor Drives

For example, a downhill conveyor

3. Safety risks  Four risks to

Worry less, do more

Pat Lemmon is director of technical support, Intermountain Electronics.

W hen manufacturing processes require high precision, high-speed repeatability

Power components overview

The mechanical energy can be rotary-to-linear or direct-to-linear motion. Rotary-to-lin-

Achieving positioning accuracy is done by integrating controls, switches, sensors, and

Moving the load

Guidance and support

bearing blocks that ride on

The bearing blocks fasten

Specifying linear motion components

• Acceleration/deceleration: Acceleration/deceleration refers to the rate at which

• Required accuracy: Accuracy is how closely the system moves compared to a

• Repeatability: A linear system’s repeatability relies on its components consistently

F ast-moving product development efforts demand rapid improvements in controls

cycle, it should be simulated

The 3-D simulation of machine

Factor in Fieldbuses and networking

With EtherCAT industrial Ethernet technolo- MathWorks Matlab/Simulink environments enable

Real-time HIL, SIL simulations

Virtual commissioning, real engineering efficiency

Daymon Thompson, automation product manager, North America, Beckhoff Automation.

Designers are, at times, overwhelmed by the wide variety of motor manufacturers,

Benefits of getting the right motor

Energy efficiency is anoth-

Improper installation resulting in misalignment and or excess vibration will mechanical-

Steps for motor sizing

• Investigating the load operating characteristics

A motor’s primary job is to continue spinning at a commanded speed regardless of the

Figure 2: Material handling conveyors are a

torque applications, it is necessary to determine the load experienced by the motor in

Consider the environment

Plan for available power supply

• Single-phase or 3-phase ODP motors:

• 3-phase TEFC motors:

• NEMA premium efficiency inverter duty TEBC motors: