Introduction To Extractive Metallurgy

INTRODUCTION TO EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY
(A Practical Approach)
VENT103
LECTURE NOTES 2020
DEPARTMENT OF METALLURGY
PREPARED BY: ENGINEER. A. RUNGANI
Compiled by: Eng. A. Rungani rungani@yahoo.co.uk +263778817943 Page 1

DISCLAIMER
This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a substitute for prescribed
textbooks. The information presented here is merely a collection by the author for their respective
teaching assignments as an additional tool for the teaching-learning process. Various sources as
indicated in the references of the document as well as freely available material from internet were
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or institutions. Further, this document is not intended for use in commercial purposes and the
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The Department members make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or
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CONTENTS
TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO MINERAL PROCESSING .................................................................................. 5

TOPIC 2: ORE HANDLING OPERATIONS ......................................................................................................... 10
TOPIC 3: ORE CRUSHING OPERATION I ......................................................................................................... 13
TOPIC 4: ORE CRUSHING OPERATION II ........................................................................................................ 24
TOPIC 5: ORE SCREENING ................................................................................................................................ 34
TOPIC 6: PARTICLE SIZE ANAYSIS FOR COURSE AGGREGATES ............................................................ 46
TOPIC 7: ORE MILLING ....................................................................................................................................... 50
TOPIC 8: MILLING PLANT OPERATIONS I ...................................................................................................... 60
TOPIC 9: MILLING PLANT OPERATION II ....................................................................................................... 79
TOPIC 10: ORE CLASSIFICATION OPERATION ............................................................................................. 89
TOPIC 11: PARTICLE SIZE ANAYSIS FOR FINE AGGREGATES ............................................................... 101
TOPIC 12: CONCENTRATION METHODS ...................................................................................................... 105
TOPIC 13: CONCENTRATION PLANT PRACTICE ......................................................................................... 117
TOPIC 14: FROTH FLOTATION ........................................................................................................................ 124
TOPIC 15: SAMPLING ........................................................................................................................................ 130
TOPIC 16: SAMPLING OF SLURRIES .............................................................................................................. 139
TOPIC 17: SAMPLE PREPARATION ................................................................................................................ 143
TOPIC 18: CONCENTRATOR PLANT CONTROL ........................................................................................... 148
TOPIC 19: DEWATERING PLANT PRACTICE ................................................................................................ 153
TOPIC 20: CONCENTRATE DEWATERING PROCESSES ............................................................................. 157
TOPIC 21: DRYING PROCESSES ...................................................................................................................... 169
TOPIC 22: CHARGE PREPARATION PROCESSES ......................................................................................... 178
TOPIC 23: METAL SMELTING PROCESSES ................................................................................................... 186
TOPIC 24: ELECTRICAL AND FIRE REFINING ............................................................................................. 195
TOPIC 25: LEACHING ........................................................................................................................................ 203
TOPIC 26: SOLUTION PURIFICATION AND ENRICHMENT ....................................................................... 211
TOPIC 27: METAL RECOVERY PROCESSES ................................................................................................. 220

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO MINERAL PROCESSING
Objective:
The purpose of this information sheet is to give information so as to:

 Understand the scope of mineral processing and extraction branches
 Understand the role and economics of mineral processing
 Understand ores and mineral deposits, gangue and minerals
Information:
Mineral processing is the separation or concentration of valuable materials or metal bearing components
from unwanted minerals, mainly by physical and mechanical methods. It is based on separation processes
and is involved in performing and description of separations, as well as their analysis, evaluation and
comparison. Sometimes called mineral dressing, mineral separation, mineral beneficiation, and recently
minerallurgy, follows mining and its objective is to liberate and upgrade the target mineral before further
extraction of the values. The branches of mineral beneficiation are shown in the diagram below:

1.1 Unit operations in mineral processing
The functions of mineral processing are:
 Comminution (size reduction)
 Classification (separation according to particle size)
 Concentration (separation according to chemical composition)
 Filtration and dewatering (control of pulp density, separation of solids and liquids)
 Ancillary operations (size control, sampling, material transfer, storage and feeding)
The unit operations are clearly shown on the diagram below.
1.2 The objective of mineral processing

‘As Mined’ or ‘Run of Mine’ (R.O.M) ore consists of valuable metallic minerals and waste (gangue).
Mineral processing involves regulating the size of ore, i.e it is the process of physically separating the
grains of valuable minerals from gangue to produce an enriched portion (concentrate). There are two
fundamental operations in mineral processing, i.e Liberation and Concentration.
a. Liberation is the setting of valuable fraction in ore free from the waste fraction in order to
separate the two fractions. This is achieved by size reduction (comminution) done by crushing
and grinding. Liberation is indicated by the degree of liberation which is the percentage of the
valuable mineral occurring as free particles in relation to the total valuable content in the ore.
b. Concentration is the separation of minerals based on physical or chemical properties. The
process of concentration can be grouped as follows;
i. Sorting- separation depending on optical or radioactive properties of the material.
ii. Gravity- separation depending on the difference in specific gravity
iii. Froth flotation- separation by exploiting the differences in surface properties
iv. Magnetic- separation dependent on magnetic properties
v. High tension- utilizes the difference in electrical conductivity between various minerals
in the ore feed.
1.3 Economic advantages of mineral processing

Mineral processing operations reduce the amount of concentrate to be carried/ taken to the extraction plant.
This gives a reduction in transport cost. Smelting of a smaller concentrate quantity reduces smelting energy
cost as well as reducing metal losses to slag/ waste. Again a smaller concentrate volume reduces reagent
consumption in leaching processes and thus reduces the cost associated with extraction.
1.4 Minerals and ores

• Mineral- is a naturally occurring inorganic substance of definite chemical composition and crystal
structure. NATURAL (occurs naturally…not manmade), INORGANIC (is not and was never alive),
CRYSTALLINE (atoms are arranged in an orderly pattern), DEFINITE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
(uniform atomic ratios and can be represented by a chemical formula), SOLID (not a gas, not a liquid).
• Rock- is an aggregate of one or more minerals, or a body of undifferentiated mineral matter, or of solid
organic matter.
 Ore- a mixture of minerals (one or more) which can be economically exploited.

• Gangue- are all minerals having no economic value in the ore
‘Man made’ minerals are not minerals by definition, but from a processing point of view they are similar to
virgin minerals and are treated accordingly (mainly in recycling processes). Examples are shown below.
1.5 Classification of minerals

Classes of minerals can be summarized as shown in the diagram below.
Minerals are also classified as precious minerals, semi-precious minerals, natural stones and base metals.
The occurrence of metals in nature depends on their reactivity with the environment i.e. with oxygen,
sulphur, carbon dioxide and water. Metals are usually found in the following ore types;
Oxides- e.g. iron ores; haematite and magnetite. Other metals produced from oxide ores include:
manganese, chromium, titanium, tungsten and tin.
i. Sulphides- most common are the copper ores which often consist of mixed sulphides of copper and
iron e.g. chalcopyrite. Nickel, cobalt, zinc, lead and mercury also occur as sulphide ores. Sulphides
sometimes contain native metals i.e. silver, gold, platinum and platinum group of metals (PGMS)
ii. Oxysalts- include silicates, carbonates, aluminates etc.
iii. Native form- these metals are found in their elemental state. They include silver, gold, platinum,
PGMS, copper and mercury.

The minimum metal content (grade) required for a deposit to qualify as an ore varies from metal to metal.
The value of the mineral depends on the metal content and current price of the contained metal. A deposit
will be economic to work on if the contained value per tonne is greater than the total mining and processing
costs and loss plus other costs per tonne.
Questions:
1. What is mineral processing?
2. What is the main objective of mineral processing?
3. What are the economic benefits of mineral processing?
4. Define the terms: mineral, ore, and deposit?
5. Minerals can be classified as: industrial minerals, mineral fuels, rock minerals, and mineral ores.
Give one example of mineral in each of the four classes.
6. Minerals are found in different ore types depending on reactivity with the environment. List the
types, giving one example of mineral in each class.
Reference:
1. Biswas,A.K.and Davernport, W.G. (1980). The Extractive Metallurgy of Copper. Oxford Prgamon
Press
2. Deer Wet A1, (1978). An Introduction to Rock forming minerals. Longman.
3. Pyror, E.J. (1983). Mineral Processing. London: Pitman.
4. Road & Watson, (1978). Introduction to Geology Vol 1. London: McMillan.
5. Wills, B.A. (1980). Mineral Processing Technology. London: Pitman.
6. D.V. Subba Rao, (2011). Mineral Beneficiation, A concise Basic course. CRC Press. London.

TOPIC 2: ORE HANDLING OPERATIONS
Objective:

 Understand the need for ore storage
 Understand the role of transport systems in mineral processing operations
 Understand the types of transportation, storage and ore feeding equipment
 Have knowledge and understanding of different ore feeders
 Understand the ore feeding mechanisms, applications, advantages and disadvantages of feeders
 Understand factors influencing operation and quantify effect of these factors if possible in the
feeding process
Information:
Ore handling involves transportation, feeding, storage and washing of the ore.
2.1 Transportation
The basic philosophy of ore transportation requires maximum use of gravity and continuous movement
over shortest possible distances between processing units. Tractors, dump trucks, wagons, lorries etc. can
be used to transport ROM ore to the processing plant. Chutes are used to move dry ore and sharp turns are
avoided. The slope should be sufficient for ore sliding. Feed chutes must be designed to deliver the bulk of
the material to the Centre of the belt and at a velocity close to that of the belt. Conveyor belts handle loose
bulk materials. Carrying capacity of belts is increased by passing it over troughing idlers. These are
support rollers set normal to the travel of the belt and inclined upward from the edges and gives it a trough
like profile. Spacing along the belt is at a maximum interval which avoids excessive sagging. Normally, an
interlock system is incorporated in conveyor belt systems. Gravity bucket elevators can be used but have
low handling rates. They consist of a continuous line of buckets attached by pins to two endless roller
chains running on tracks and driven by sprockets. Transport of wet ore include the use of launders and
pipes via centrifugal pumps.
2.1 Ore storage

Ore storage is necessary since mineral processing operations are carried out at different rates. We can have

batch, continuous operations etc. It also allows for stoppages and maintenance of different sections.
Storage is accomplished by stock piles, bins or tanks. Stock piles are used to store coarse ore of low value
outdoors. Ore bins or tanks are normally used to store crushed ore for continuous feeding of crushed ore to
the grinding (milling) circuit. Pulp storage can be done in the conditioning tanks to provide time for
chemical reactions to proceed. Agitation is done to prevent settlement and choking up. Surge tanks are
necessary to smooth out small operating variations of feed rate.
2.2 Ore feeding

Feeders are necessary for the uniform delivery of ore. Feeding is a conveying operation in which the
distance travelled is short and rate of passage is regulated. They are necessary where operations are
interrupted by storage step. Feeders include: apron, belt, chain, roller, revolving disc and vibrating
feeders. Dump trucks can feed directly into large gyratory crushers in primary crushing.
2.3 Ore washing

This is done to facilitate sorting by removing obscuring dirt particles from surfaces of ore particles. Fines
or slimes are also removed. High pressure jets of water on screens are used.
2.4 Removal of harmful materials

Ore entering the crushing plant from the mine normally contains a small proportion of material which is
potentially harmful to the plant equipment and processes. Examples are:
 Large pieces of iron and steel broken off from mine machinery can jam in crushers
 Wood chips ground into fine pulp cause choking or blocking of screens. It can also choke flotation
cell ports, consume flotation reagents by adsorption and decompose to give depressants which
render valuable minerals unfloatable.
 Clays and slimes on the ore may hinder screening, filtration, and thickening, and also consume
flotation reagents.
All the above materials must be removed as far as possible at an early stage in the treatment.
2.5 Methods of removing harmful materials
 Hand sorting from conveyor. The method declined due to the development of mechanized methods
which can cope with large tonnages
 Electromagnets suspended over conveyor belts removes pieces of tramp iron and steel. The method

is however not suitable for magnetic ores
 Metal detectors which measure electrical conductivity of non-ferrous metals and non-magnetic
steel are installed over conveyor belts. When a metal object causes an alarm, the belt automatically
stops and the object can be removed.
 Wood chips flattened out by crushing are removed by scalping screens. Screen apertures are
slightly larger than ore particles allowing the ore particles to fall through and the wood chips to
ride over and be collected.
 Washing of ROM ore can be done for the purpose of; facilitating hand sorting by removing
obscuring dirt from the surfaces of the ore particles and removing very fine material or slimes of
little or no value.
Questions:
1. Describe the importance and purpose of the following ore handling aspects and indicate the types of
equipment or accessories that are used.
a) Ore transportation.
b) Ore storage.
c) Ore feeding.
d) Ore washing
2. Give an outline of the methods that are used to remove harmful materials in mineral processing
plants.
Reference:
1. Biswas, A.K. and Davernport, W.G. (1980). The Extractive Metallurgy of Copper. Oxford
Prgamon Press

TOPIC 3: ORE CRUSHING OPERATION I
Objective:

 Understand comminution theories that can help predict the power drawn by crushers and mills
 Have knowledge of crushing plant start-up procedures
 Understand the crushing mechanisms of common crushing machines
 Understand crushing plant accessory equipment
 Understand crushing plant pre-start safety procedures
Information:
The first stage in the process of comminution (after drilling and blasting) is crushing. The purpose of
crushing is maximum size reduction in preparing ore feed for the milling (grinding) plant circuit, top size
reduction for materials handling and conveyor belt design, top size control for minimum fines reduction.
Crushing is usually a dry process and normally performed in two or three stages i.e. primary, secondary,
and tertiary crushing.
3.1 Theories of comminution
Comminution theory is concerned with the relationship between energy input and product particle size
produced from a given feed. Minerals are crystalline materials and it is assumed that they are brittle
though in reality they exhibit elastic behavior. Minerals that have some elastic behavior can store energy
without breaking and release this energy when the stress is removed. When fracture does occur some of
the stored energy is transformed into free surface energy. Therefore most of the energy in a comminution
machine is absorbed by the machine itself and only a small portion is available to break the material. It
has been shown that 1% of total energy input to a ball mill is available to size reduction.
Rittinger’s law
It states that Energy consumed in size reduction is proportional to the area of the new surface produced. For
spherical particles of uniform diameter, the surface area is inversely proportional to the diameter. It follows
that the energy input (E) is given as;

1 1
𝑬 = 𝑘( − )
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑓
Where: k = a constant
𝑑𝑝 = product particle size
𝑑𝑓 = feed particle size
The law applies in the range 10 to 1000μm i.e. fine grinding range.
Kick’s law
States that energy consumed in size reduction is proportional to the reduction in volume of the particles. Kick
expressed the energy required (E) as;
log 𝑅
𝑬=𝐾
𝑙𝑜𝑔 2
Where: Where R is the reduction ratio which is the ratio of feed particle diameter to product
𝑑
particle diameter ( 𝑑𝑓).
𝑝
Kick’s law applies to particle sizes greater than 1cm diameter (crushing range)
Bond’s law
Energy consumed in size reduction is proportional to crack tip length of particle produced in breakage.
Crack tip length in a unit volume of material is inversely proportional to the square root of the diameter.
The energy input is given as;
1 1
𝑾 = 10𝑊𝑖 ( − )
√𝑃 √𝐹
Where: 𝑊= work input in kwh/t
𝑊𝑖 = work index in kwh/t
𝑃 = diameter in microns which 80% of the product passes
𝐹 = diameter in microns which 80% of feed passes
The law applies reasonably in the range of conventional rod mill and ball mill grinding.
Work index
Is the comminution parameter which expresses the resistance of the material to comminution and is
constant for a given material. Numerically Wi is kwh/t required to reduce the material from the
theoretically infinite feed size to 80% passing 100 microns. Ore hardness refers to the ability to withstand

penetration and deformation. It requires more energy to crush or grind hard ores than soft ores. The work
index is the most common measure of ore hardness. Ores that are difficult to grind have a high work
index.
Grindability
This refers to the ease with which ore can be comminuted. The most widely used parameter to measure
grindability is the bond work index Wi. There is however variation in breakage characteristics of a
material with particle size and Wi has to be obtained for specific grind size to evaluate performance of
comminution operations.
Limitations of the comminution laws

 Each of the laws applies to a narrow range of particle size.
 In reality not all the energy applied to the machine is used in size reduction i.e.
Energy supplied = Energy absorbed (sound, heat, friction etc.) + Energy used to break and create new
surfaces
 Material which is plastic will consume energy in changing shape, a shape which it will retain
without creating significant new surface
 Theories assume material to be brittle so that no energy is absorbed in processes like elongation or
contraction
3.2 Up and downstream problems

Upstream
 Delays and breakdowns in the crushing plant as a whole will have the following impact on the
upstream (mining operations):
 The mining operations will have to be stopped when the crushing ore storage facilities are full.
This would lead to a serious loss of production.
 The delays in mining operations will lead to the entire mine’s production targets not being met.
Downstream
Delays and breakdowns in the crushing and screening section as a whole will have the following impact
on the downstream (milling) operations:
 In the event of coarse crushing in the primary crushers, the secondary crushers may become
overloaded.
 If the crushed ore size distribution is not consistent it will result in ineffective control of the
milling plant
 If the product from the crushing plant as a whole contains too fine material, it will cause a lot of
challenges in the recovery process
 Delays in the crushing plant will result in delays in the milling plant and thus loss of production for
the entire mine
3.3 Crushing plant equipment/ machines
Crushers are operated in a production line with feeding chutes, conveyor belts, screens, ore bins and the
mills. The following pieces of equipment are found in the crushing plant.
 Ore storage silos (rough ore bin), stockpiles and fine ore bins
 Rough ore conveyor belts
 Rough ore conveyor magnet
 Vibrating grizzly screen
 Weight meter

 Jaw crusher feed chute
 Grizzly undersize chute
 Mill rod charging trolley
 Overhead crane
 Jaw crusher
 Gyratory crusher
 Cone crusher
 Rod mill
 Vibrating screens
 Linear Screens
 Process control instruments
 Crusher Product Chutes
 Crusher Product Transfer Conveyors
 Product Transfer Conveyor Magnet
 Double Deck Vibrating Screens
 Crusher feed conveyors
 Fine Ore Bin Conveyors
 Screen underflow chutes
3.4 Crushing plant layout
Plant layout is normally presented in a flow sheet. A flow sheet is a diagrammatic representation showing
the sequence of operations in the processing plant. It can be represented in two ways i.e. block flow sheet
or line flow sheet. A block flow sheet is the simplest form, which groups processes of similar nature. A
line flow sheet is detailed and can indicate machines, settings, rates etc. Below is an example of a crushing
plant and milling plant layouts, a block flow sheet and a line flow sheet. Mineral processing technicians
need to be aware of the plant layout before being able to start the crushing plant as a whole.

Block flow sheet
Line flow sheet

3.5 Crushing machines operation
3.5.1 Jaw crusher
The distinctive feature of this class of crusher is the two plates which open and shut like animal jaws. The
jaws are set at an acute angle to each other, and one jaw is pivoted so that it swings relative to the other
fixed jaw. Material fed into the jaws is alternately nipped and released to fall further into the crushing
chamber. Eventually it falls from the discharge aperture. Jaw crushers are rated according to the receiving
areas i.e. jaw width x gape. The gape is the distance between the jaws at the feed opening. For example, an
1830 x 1220mm crusher has a width of 1830mm and a gape of 1220 mm. The discharge size of material is
controlled by the set and the feed size is controlled by the gape. The jaws are usually constructed from cast
steel and are fitted with replaceable liners made from manganese steel or ‘Ni – hard’. This is done to
reduce wear and minimize crushing energy consumption. The speed of jaw crushers vary inversely with
the size and usually lie in the range 100 to 300 r.p.m. The capacity of a jaw crusher can go up to 725tph
above which the economic advantage of the jaw crusher diminishes and the gyratory crusher becomes
more preferred.
Crushing action
On the crushing stroke, a lump of ore is shattered and on the opening stroke those fragments that are larger
than the discharge gap are retained for further crushing. Those that are small enough fall through and are
no longer available to be broken. In this way a process of size classification takes place simultaneously
with breakage in a crusher. When a large piece is broken the fragments fall downward in the crusher until

they are again nipped and once more broken into smaller pieces. The throw of the mantle gets larger as the
particle moves down in the chamber and demand for power, becomes greater as the center of gravity of
the rock mass moves downward in the crusher. During each “bite” of the jaws the rock swells in volume
due to the creation of voids between the particles. Since the ore is also falling into a gradually reducing
cross-sectional area of the crushing chamber, choking of the crusher would soon occur if it were not for
the increasing amplitude of swing towards the discharge end of the crusher.
This accelerates the material through the crusher, allowing it to discharge at a rate sufficient to leave space
for material entering above. This is arrested or free crushing as opposed to choked crushing, which occurs
when the volume of material arriving at a particular cross-section is greater than that leaving. In arrested
crushing, crushing is by the jaws only, whereas in choked crushing, particles break each other.
This inter-particle comminution can lead to excessive production of fines, and if choking is severe can
damage the crusher. The discharge size of material from the crusher is controlled by the set, which is the
maximum opening of the jaws at the discharge end. This can be adjusted by using toggle plates of the
required length. Wear on the jaws can be taken up by adjusting the back pillow into which the back toggle
plate bears. A number of manufacturers offer jaw setting by hydraulic jacking, and some fit
electromechanical systems which allow remote control.
Important definitions
Gape = is the distance between jaws at feed opening and it determines the largest feed size that the crusher
will accept
Set = is the maximum opening of jaws at the discharge and controls the product size it will discharge, also
known as Open Size Setting (OSS). It can be adjusted, and wear on jaws is compensated by adjusting back
pillow.
Throw/ stroke = is the maximum amplitude of swing of the jaw i.e. maximum distance at delivery = Open
Size Setting – Closed Size Setting.
Angle of nip = is the angle between the jaws and it varies between 11 and 26°. Larger angles lead to
slipping, reduction in capacity and increased wear.
3.5.2 Gyratory crusher
Mantle - covering of abrasion resistant steel that protects the main shaft, intended to wear
Hydro-set Piston - moves the main shaft assembly up or down as oil is pumped into or released from the
cylinder
Eccentric - A circular journal and bushing where the bottom of the main shaft moves in a circle around
the crusher centerline

Spider Cap - A heavy steel cap
that protects the top of the main
shaft
Spider - is the steady rest
(fulcrum) point for the top of
the main shaft, constrains it.
Main shaft – is the moving
part in a gyratory crusher. It is
massive so as to remain rigid
during the crushing process.
With the spider acting as the
pivot (fulcrum) at one end, the
load in the middle, and the
effort applied at the other end,
it acts as a lever to apply high
crushing forces.
Pinion - transfers motor power
to the main shaft.
Concaves - abrasion resistant
steel plates that protect the
crusher top shell bowl,
intended to wear
Crushing action
Gyratory crushers are principally used in surface crushing plants, although a few currently operate
underground. The gyratory crusher consists essentially of a long spindle, carrying a hard steel conical
grinding element, the head, seated in an eccentric sleeve. The spindle is suspended from a “spider” and, as
it rotates, normally between 85 and 150 rev min−1, it sweeps out a conical path within the fixed crushing
chamber, or shell, due to the gyratory action of the eccentric. As in the jaw crusher, maximum movement
of the head occurs near the discharge. This tends to relieve the choking due to swelling, the machine thus
being a good arrested crusher. The spindle is free to turn on its axis in the eccentric sleeve, so that during
crushing the lumps are compressed between the rotating head and the top shell segments, and abrasive
action in a horizontal direction is negligible. At any cross-section there are in effect two sets of jaws
opening and shutting like jaw crushers. In fact, the gyratory crusher can be regarded as an infinitely large
number of jaw crushers each of infinitely small width. Since the gyratory, unlike the jaw crusher, crushes
on full cycle, it has a much higher capacity than a jaw crusher of the same gape, and is usually favored in
plants handling very large throughputs. Crushers range in size up to gapes of 1830mm and can crush ores
with top size of 1370mm at a rate of up to 5000 t h−1 with a 200mm set. Large gyratories often dispense
with expensive feeding mechanisms and are often fed direct from trucks.

They can be operated satisfactorily with the head buried in feed. Although excessive fines may have to be
“scalped” from the feed, the modern trend in large capacity plants is to dispense with grizzlies if the ore
allows. This reduces capital cost of the installation and reduces the height from which the ore must fall
into the crusher, thus minimizing damage to the spider. Choked crushing is encouraged to some extent, but
if this is not serious, the rock-to-rock crushing produced in primary crushers reduces the rock-to-steel
crushing required in the secondary crushers, thus reducing steel consumption. Choke feeding of a gyratory
crusher has been claimed to be also beneficial when the crusher is followed by SAG mills, whose
throughput sensitive to the mill is feed size. Operating crushers under choke feeding conditions gives more
moderate mantle wear and longer life. Choking counteracts slippage by maintaining a weight on top of the
rock in the crusher and thus promotes crushing of particles by other particles. This reduces wear on mantle
and concaves, produces more fines (finished product), and increases the effective reduction ratio. It also
even out the power demand, maximize the machine's capacity.
3.6 Plant start/ stop procedure
When starting the crushing plant, the site specific standard operating procedure must be followed
religiously. This includes the SHE requirements and the equipment manual specifications. Pre-start
checks are done on all the equipment in the crushing circuit. The readiness of up and downstream
equipment is also checked before starting the crushing plant. The operator must know the security in the
area near equipment to be started. They must also learn the methods of operation, safety precautions and
maintenance of equipment. This information is obtained from the equipment operation manuals.
Equipment should not be started until all the safety and protective systems has been applied. The operator
must strictly comply with the procedures provided in the instruction manual to start/stop machines. It is
important to ensure that nobody is standing in the area where they may be injured. Must check and warn
workmates of one’s intention to start the plant. In many cases, sirens are used for warning purposes.
Conveyor belts, feeders, chutes, and crushers are inspected to make sure that they are empty i.e. they don’t
have ore material or broken metal pieces on them. Equipment should be started when empty. Lubrication
and cooling systems of all equipment should be checked.
The tightness of conveyors and electrical equipment are also checked.When all pre-checks procedures has
been exhausted, the crushing plant is started from the tertiary crusher discharge conveyor, tertiary crusher
followed by conveyors from secondary crusher and backwards to the primary crusher feeder conveyor in
that order (i.e. from downstream upstream). The plant stop procedure is opposite to the start sequence.
When shutting down, the system should be switched off from the start to the end i.e. feeders to the
conveyors, the conveyor belts, primary crushers, secondary crushers and then tertiary crushers
respectively. Conveyors should be switched off when empty. The start/ stop procedure for every
equipment is found in the equipment manuals and has to be strictly followed.

During plant operation, operators must always notice the changing of instruments, meters, and running
situation of equipment. If abnormal indications or abnormal noises are found, the machine affected should
be stopped immediately and the problem checked. The machine must be stopped first, then switch off
power supply and lock-up electric control bin when carrying out repairing, maintenance, lubricating and
adjustment work. The machine can be restarted only after the problem has been solved.
Questions:
1. Outline the checks and safety precautions that one should undertake before starting a Jaw crusher
2. Outline the modes of transport used for transporting ore in a crushing plant.
3. Explain the effects of choke crushing in both the Jaw crusher and the Gyratory crusher?
4. What is the power required to crush 100 t/h of limestone if 80% of the feed passes 50800µm
screen and 80% of the product passes 3175µm screen? The work Index for limestone may be taken
to be 13.03 kWh/t
5. Describe the crushing mechanism of a jaw crusher.
6. Explain the functions of the main parts of a gyratory crusher.
7. Distinguish between choke crushing and arrested crushing.
8. Outline the procedure for starting the crushing plant.
9. List the equipment that is found in the ore mineral crushing plant.
Reference:
1. Biswas,A.K.and Davernport, W.G. (1980). The Extractive Metallurgy of Copper. Oxford,
Prgamon Press

TOPIC 4: ORE CRUSHING OPERATION II
Objective:

 Have knowledge and understand crushing process flow sheets
 Have knowledge of different crushers and other crushing accessories
 Understand the crushing mechanisms, applications, advantages and disadvantages
 Understand factors influencing operation and quantify effect of these factors if possible in the
crushing process
Information:
The first stage in the process of comminution (after drilling and blasting) is crushing. The purpose of
crushing is maximum size reduction in preparing ore feed for the milling (grinding) plant circuit, top size
reduction for materials handling and conveyor belt design, top size control for minimum fines reduction.
Crushing is usually a dry process and normally performed in two or three stages i.e. primary, secondary,
and tertiary crushing.
4 Types of crushing circuits
These can be done on an open or closed circuit depending on the product size required and stage of
crushing. The diagrams below distinguish between open circuit and closed circuit crusher arrangement. In
open circuit crushing, the product from the crusher goes to the next crushing without re-crushing by the
same machine. The closed circuit arrangement screens the crusher product and recycles the oversize
product from the screen for re-crushing by the same crusher before going to the next crusher. The major
advantage of closed circuit is that it allows flexibility of crushing operation by making it possible to select
the product particle size and is normally associated with high production rate (throughput).

Below is a basic flow sheet for a crushing plant.
4.1 Primary crushing

Primary crushers take run-off mine rock and start size reduction. Lumps of R.O.M ore as large as 1.5m
diameter are reduced to a size of about 10 to 20cm. Primary crushers are heavy duty machines that are
always operated in open circuit. They are usually in line with scalping screens (grizzlies). There are two
main types of crushers used at this stage i.e. the jaw crusher and the gyratory crusher.
4.1.1 Jaw Crusher
Distinct feature is the two plates which open and shut like animal jaws. Jaw crushers are rated according to
the receiving areas i.e. jaw width x gape. The discharge size of material is controlled by the set and the
feed size is controlled by the gape. The jaws are usually constructed from cast steel and are fitted with
replaceable liners made from manganese steel or ‘Ni – hard’. This is done to reduce wear and minimize
crushing energy consumption. The speed of jaw crushers varies inversely with the size and usually lies in
the range 100 to 300 r.p.m. The capacity of a jaw crusher can go up to 725tph above which the economic
advantage of the jaw crusher diminishes and the gyratory crusher becomes more preferred.
Advantages of a Jaw crusher

i. Simple and reliable construction
ii. Wide range of application e.g. suited for hard, tough and abrasive rock
iii. Relatively simple maintenance
Disadvantages of a Jaw crusher
i. Low capacity since crushing is done on half cycle
ii. There is need for strong foundation and heavy plywood because of vibration caused by alternate
loading and release of stress
The diagram below shows the basic elements of a Jaw crusher.
4.1.2 Gyratory Crusher
Consists of essentially of a heavy spindle carrying a hard steel conical grinding element (the head) seated
in an eccentric sleeve. The eccentric motion gyrates a moveable crushing surface as the head sweeps out a
conical path within a fixed crushing chamber or shell. The spindle speed range is 85 to 150 r.p.m. and the
maximum movement occurs at the discharge. The gyratory crusher crushes on full cycle and hence has a
higher capacity than a jaw crusher of the same gap. It can handle through put of up to 900tph. This crusher
is identified by the dimension of the feed opening and spindle diameter.

Advantages of a gyratory crusher
i. Large capacity
ii. More suitable for slabby feeds
iii. Slow compression of crushing head limits fines generation
The diagram below shows the main elements of a Gyratory crusher.
4.1.3 Crusher choice
The choice of a crusher depends on:

i. Maximum size of the ore which the crusher would take.
ii. Capacity required
The jaw crusher is preferred where the gap is more important than the capacity. For example to crush
material of a certain maximum diameter, the gyratory crusher having equal gap has the capacity three
times higher than that of the jaw crusher. If large gap is required but not capacity, use the jaw crusher. The
jaw crusher will be a smaller and more economical machine both.

4.2 Secondary crushing
The secondary crushers reduce primary crushing discharge of size 10 to 20cm to a final product of about
0.5 to 2cm diameter. They are much lighter as opposed to jaw crushers. Examples are; cone, roll and
hammer mills.
4.2.1 Cone crusher
Is basically a modified gyratory. The main difference is that the Cone crusher has a short spindle which is
supported in a curved universal bearing below the head cone.
The diagram above shows the basic elements of a Cone crusher. The crushing chamber flares outwards
because a large gap is not required. This design allows a much greater head angle than in the gyratory
crusher while returning the same angle between crushing surfaces. This gives the Cone crusher a high
capacity, up to 1100tph. They are rated by the diameter of the cone lining and ranges from 559mm to
3.1m. The Cone crusher is normally used for secondary and subsequent stages of crushing. In South Africa
gold industry it is sometimes employed as a primary crusher.
Advantages of a Cone crusher

i. High capacity
ii. High reduction ratio (hammer action of crushing head)
iii. Non-choking characteristics

4.2.2 Roll Crusher
It is preferred when crushing friable and/or sticky ores. Suitable to crush; limestone, coal, chalk, gypsum
and phosphate which clog at the discharge of cone crushers. Smooth surface rolls are used for fine
crushing while coarse is done by rolls having corrugated surfaces or with stub teeth in a chequered surface
pattern. The Roll crusher is characterized by:
 Low reduction ratio
 Small amount of fines
 High wear rate
Shown in the diagram below are the basic elements of a Roll crusher.
4.2.3 Impact Crusher
Comminution is accomplished by impact rather than compression. The moving parts of the machine
(beaters) transfer some of their kinetic energy to the free falling ore particles. Impact crushers are
characterized by;
 High percentage of fines
 High reduction ration
 Works well with feeds that are not hard or abrasive

The figure below shows the main elements of an Impact Crusher.
4.2.4 Rotary Coal breaker
Is used in the mineral processing of coal. It consists of a massive drum revolving at 12 r.p.m. The walls are
perforated to a size which the coal is to be broken. ROM coal is fed up to 1500tph. The machine utilizes
differential breaking. Small particles fall through the perforations and larger ones are retained. Retained
particles are lifted by the longitudinal lifter to the top and they fall again. The rotary coal breaker has a
large capacity and low maintenance costs in addition to the good size control.
4.3 Tertiary crushing
Tertiary crushing can be done using Secondary crusher but with a smaller discharge size. In some cases
this is achieved using grinding machines e.g. Rod Mill. This is the final crushing in preparation of feed for
the Grinding (milling) plant.

A typical multistage crushing circuit arrangement is shown in the figure below.
4.4 Crushing Plant Operation
Crushers are operated in a production line with feeding chutes, conveyor belts, screens, ore bins and the
mills. When starting the crushing plant pre-start checks are done which may include; checking crusher gap
and adjusting if necessary, checking if safety guards are in position, checking that personnel are clear off
the equipment and that the conveyor attendants are in position and are instructed that the plant is going to
be started. Starting up begins from the mill side then backwards to avoid overload of equipment. When
shutting down, the system should be switched off from the start to the end i.e. feeders to the conveyors, the
conveyor belts, primary crushers, secondary crushers and then tertiary crushers respectively. Conveyors
should be switched off when empty.
4.5 Crushing Plant Parameters

Some of the aspects to be monitored when the crushing plant is running include;
 Crushing product size- If oversize material from the crusher is too big, the crusher is stopped and
adjusted
 Checks for leaks on the oil and water systems, conveyor belt tracking, belt condition, effectiveness
of belt scrapers and conditions of conveyor trip wires.
 Maximize throughput so as to reduce operating time which saves on power costs and makes clean
up time available.

 Levels of ore bins
4.5.1 Operator Controlled Variables
 Feed rate- Alter speed of feeders. Highest production rates are obtained by increasing feed rate
until power is constant and oil pressure indicate maximum throughput.
 Crusher setting- must be varied to compensate for liner wear and maintain product size. This can
be changed to vary crushing rate if product size is not critical.
Questions:
1. Using sketches of circuits distinguish open circuits from closed circuits in crushing.
2. Name the three stages of crushing ore from the mine and give the respective types of crushers that
are used.
3. Identify operator controlled variables in the crushing plant and explain how they can be adjusted
4. Identify pre-start checks that are done before starting a crushing plant
5. Explain the factors used when choosing a primary crusher
Reference:
1. Biswas,A.K.and Davernport, W.G. (1980). The Extractive Metallurgy of Copper. Oxford,
Prgamon Press

TOPIC 5: ORE SCREENING
Objective:

 Understand the definition and need for screening
 Explain the purpose or applications of screening
 Identify types of screens used in industry
 Describe factors affecting screening efficiency
Information:
Screening is the mechanical separation of particles on the basis of size. The solid particles are separated
into different size groups by passing the particles of various shape and sizes through holes or slots on the
screen surface. Industrial sizing is extensively used and is generally carried out on relatively coarse
material (> 250μm). Screening efficiency decrease rapidly with fineness due to clogging.
5.1 Industrial screening
The main objectives of industrial screening are to:

 Prevent entry of undersize particles in crushing machines thus increasing plant capacity and
efficiency
 Prevent oversize material from passing to the next stage in close circuit crushing or grinding
operations.
 Prepare a closely sized feed to the grinding circuit and certain gravity concentration processes.
 Produce a closely sized end product in industrial minerals like coal, query, gypsum etc.
 Perform Desliming- remove fines (typically <0.5 mm).
 Perform Dewatering- remove moisture.
 Drain and rinse- medium recovery in dense medium circuits.
 Remove Trash - remove plastic and wood from underground.
There are two main types of screens and theses are static (stationary) screens and Dynamic (moving)

screens.
5.1.1 Static Screens
a) Grizzly
This is a very coarse screen used for heavy duty applications. They are commonly used to scalp large rocks
before crushing. A grizzly consists of a series of parallel heavy bars set in a frame. The screen is installed
at a downward angle of 20 to 50 degrees. Particle size which can be handled is in the range of 20 to
300mm. These screens can have a capacity of up to 1000tph.
b) Flat panel
This is used for light duty applications, for example when removing excess water or medium. The screen is
installed at a downward angle and can be used in conjunction with vibrating screen. Aperture size is 0.5 to
2 mm.

Sieve bend
These are wedge wire screens consisting of a 60° segment of a circle. They are made of stainless steel
wires or polyurethane. Aperture sizes range from 0.3 to 3 mm.
Applications
 Normally applied in very fine wet sizing duties e.g. in closed circuit grinding to prevent over
grinding of heavy minerals.
 Dewatering- removal of excess medium (together with vibrating screen)
5.1.2 Dynamic (moving) Screens
a) Vibrating Grizzly
Similar to static grizzly except that shaking action is introduced.
b) Revolving Screen
Is a slightly inclined rotating cylindrical screen, for example the Trommel screen. The feed material can be
introduced wet or dry. Revolving screens may be arranged in series.
The figure below shows the construction of the Trommel screen

Characteristics of the screen
 Cheap, vibration free and robust.
 Low capacity – use one third of screening area at any given point in time.
 Prone to blinding
Applications
 Sizing – sand and gravel industry
 Scalping – diamond recovery
 Trash removal – beach sands
c) Vibrating Screens
Vibrating screens are important for mineral processing operations. They can handle materials up to 25cm
down to 250μm in comminution circuits. Vibration is induced vertically by electrical motors. The screens
are usually operated in multi-deck systems with the coarsest screen at the top and the finest at the bottom.
The vibrating screen layout is shown on the figure above.
Vibrating screens Installation angle

 Horizontal
 Inclined
 Multi-slope
Vibrating screens Motion
 Forward stroke
 Circular
 Elliptical (forward and reverse)
c) Shaking Screens
They have mechanically induced reciprocating movement in the horizontal direction. They are mounted
either horizontally or with a gentle slope. Speeds of 60 to 800 strokes per minute can be achieved with size
ranging down to 12mm. This screen is widely used in dry coal preparation.
5.2 Linear screen
The linear screen is usually located just after the cyclone, to screen the overflow and remove any tramp
material that may affect the process later.
5.2.1 Purpose
The purpose of the linear screen is to remove the tramp material from the cyclone overflow, to prevent any
problems further in the process. The tramp material is usually woodchips, which comes from the packs
they use underground for support. The woodchips usually block up valves, pumps and they can be the
cause of production delays. They also interfere with the flotation process, as they are very light and float.
Other tramp material may be plastic or grit material which has not been milled properly and which may
report to the cyclone underflow because of a low density or because of poor operation.

5.2.2 Function
The slurry is distributed onto a filter cloth, which is supported by pulleys and rollers. The head pulley has a
drive motor which pulls the cloth around the tail pulley, much like a conveyor belt. The slurry is smaller
than the filter cloth aperture size and so flows through the cloth into an under pan, and the woodchips are
too big, so they stay on the surface of the cloth. At the discharge end of the cloth, sprays wash the
woodchips so that there is no adhering slurry, and then more sprays help to spray the woodchips into a
sump or over a sieve bend to remove the entrained water.
5.2.3 Components
Screen Frame
This is a steel structure manufactured with suitably stiffened joints and channel sections with an integrated
collecting launder. It is welded/bolted together and protected by a protective coat, and/or rubber lining
Head Pulley
This is a mild steel pulley; rubber lined and is located at the oversize discharge end. It is also known as the
Drive Pulley.
Drive Unit
The Filter Drive consists of a mechanical variable speed drive through a spiral bevel helical gearbox.
Screen Cloth
An endless screen cloth travels over the support rollers. After the oversize discharge, the cloth returns to
the tail pulley via a system of return rollers. The cloth has a pneumatically controlled guiding system.
Tensioning is achieved by a roller mounted on a pivoted frame under gravity.
Screen Wash Sprays
The screen cloth returns through a screen cloth wash spray located at the discharge end of the screen. The
nozzles are easily removable for cleaning purposes. Sprays are constructed out of corrosive and abrasive
resistant materials. Constant pressure and flow of water is required for efficient operation. The spray
nozzles flare the water out to ensure good coverage of the screen cloth. The design and size of the sprays
selected must allow for adequate coverage of the screening area. The top sprays ensure that the oversize
material is efficiently washed. They also help to push the material which may be stuck in the apertures
through. The bottom sprays are there to assist the woodchips, which adhere to the underside of the cloth,
to be discharged into the oversize discharge chute.
Bearings
All the rollers and pulleys have sealed Plummer blocks on the shaft ends. These bearings are all fitted with
grease nipples for lubrication.
Slurry Feeder
The slurry feeder consists of a rubber lined feed box with rubber lined distributor plates to regulate the feed
and evenly distribute the slurry onto the filter screen.
Support roller
Support the screen cloth to prevent pooling of slurry on the cloth and also facilitate movement of the cloth
Tensioning system
The tensioning system is attached to the tail pulleys of the screen. The lower tail pulley can be lowered or
raised to adjust the tension of the cloth by using the counterweight system. The tension should be adjusted
so that the cloth is pulled taut, but not too tight as this will cause excessive wear of the cloth.
Oversize discharge chute

Is the chute into which the oversize material falls.
Alignment System
The alignment system consists of a proximity switch, which will trip out the linear screen if the cloth is not
aligned on the centre of the cloth, and is at risk of being jammed in the pulley bearings. The proximity
switch can have some play on it so that if the cloth is not totally misaligned, it is just guided to the centre
again.
Feed box
The feed box distributes the slurry onto the centre of the cloth, to prevent slurry splashing over the sides of
the screen cloth. It also controls the flow of slurry onto the cloth, because it has holes, through which the
slurry has to fall before reaching the cloth.
Under pan
The under pan is situated underneath the screen cloth and the opening of the under pan is designed to
receive all the slurry passing through the cloth, so that none may cause spillage.
5.2.5 Operating parameters
The following parameters can be controlled while operating the linear screen and these controls can affect
the screen efficiency.
 Feed flow rate
 Feed Density
 Condition of cloth
 Spray water efficiency
Feed flow rate

The feed rate to the linear screen affects the screening efficiency. If the feed rate is too high, the feed box
will overflow or the screen will overflow and the overflowing material, still containing the woodchips will
fall into the under pan or create spillage. If the feed rate is too low the screen capacity will not be fully
utilized and wear of the cloth tends to be only in the middle.
Feed Size
The feed size of the ore particles in the slurry should be small enough to fit through the screen cloth

apertures. If they are too course, that material will report to the oversize, which is discarded.
Feed Density
The lower the density of the feed to the linear screen, the more efficient the screening will be. Water
flushes the slurry through the cloth, and if there is not enough water, the slurry particles move more slowly
through the screen cloth. This tends to “blind” the cloth as near size particles get stuck in the apertures.
Amount of woodchips
The more woodchips there are to be screened out per unit volume of slurry, the more difficult it is for
slurry particles to move through the screen cloth apertures as the woodchips lie over the holes, preventing
slurry from passing through
Spray water pressure and “spread”

The top spray water pressure should be high enough to facilitate movement of the slurry particles from
adhering to the woodchips, to moving through the apertures. The bottom water spray pressure should also
be high enough to eject the oversize into the oversize chute. If it is not, the oversize material will adhere to
the cloth, causing cloth blinding.
Condition of cloth
The linear screen cloth wears and the size of the apertures become bigger, which may allow some oversize
to report to the undersize. More importantly, the cloth should not be torn or have holes in as this would
cause woodchips to report to the undersize. The cloth also needs to be clean, so that all the apertures are
open for screening.
The amount of spaces available on the screen cloth for slurry to pass through is known as the percentage
open area of the screen.
Spray water quality

The nozzles allowing the high pressure water to spray the cloth are very fine and may become blocked up.
This is usually identified by stripes of slurry adhering to the cloth. The cloth holes can also be blinded, if
there is too much calcium in the water. The calcium surrounds the inside of the aperture making the hole
smaller. This is called scaling, and can only be removed by acid treating the screen cloth. The acid
treatment is not ideal as any spillage of acid corrodes the structure and the acid will also cause excessive
wear on the cloth weave.
Cloth alignment
If the cloth does not run dead centre of the head and tail pulley, material can fall directly into the under pan

where there is no cloth to screen. This can also cause cloths to become jammed in the pulleys which could
tear the cloth. Causes of cloth running skew can be:
 Pulley not installed exactly horizontal
 Pulley lagging worn on one side
 Torn cloth
 Feed distributed only on one side of the cloth because of blocked holes in the feed box.
 Alignment system not working properly
 Belt tensioning not correct
5.3 Screen Performance
 Open area- refers to the total area of holes or is the area of the panel. Woven wire and wedge wire
have higher open areas as compared to polyurethane.
 Aperture- refers to the opening of the surface and can be round, square, rectangular, teardrop etc.
 Blinding- is the gradual buildup of fine material on the screen apertures.
 Pegging- is when particles lodge in apertures.
 Aperture vs separation size
Aperture refers to the actual gap whereas separation size refers to the average particle size that will
pass through the screen. Under normal operating conditions, separation size is less than aperture
size.
Material of mixed size presented to the screen surface will either pass through or be retained according to
whether the particles are smaller or larger than the cut off diameter of the screen aperture.
5.3.1 Factors affecting screening efficiency

 Depth of bed material (overloading gives low efficiency).
 Mode and rate of vibration of machine. High vibration reduces blinding and should be used with
higher feed rates.
 Moisture content of the feed. Presence of moisture can lead to agglomeration of particles.
 Size distribution and shape of feed.
 Angle at which screen is set. Angles close to 90 degrees tend to increase chance of passing.
 Percentage of open area. This is given as ;
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠

× 100
𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
Bad screening efficiency can be due to a number of things which include;

 Blinded screen mats.
 Too much material on the screen (overfeeding).
 Uneven feed distribution.
 Screen mechanically defective.
These faults can and must be rectified to ensure maximum effectiveness of the screen. Crusher efficiency
can be judged by looking at a screen product.
Questions:
1. What is the objective of industrial screening?
2. What is the separation criteria used in particle size screening?
3. Industrial screens can be classified as static or dynamic; give any two examples of screens in each of
the two classes.
4. Outline the factors affecting screening efficiency.
5. Describe the mechanism of operation of a linear screen.
6. Suggest possible causes and corrective measures for the following problems. (Copy and complete the
table).

Vibrating Screen
Effect Cause Corrective measure
Low vibrating amplitude
Under size thrown over
Over size in fine tutes
Reference:
Press

TOPIC 6: PARTICLE SIZE ANAYSIS FOR COURSE AGGREGATES
Objective:

 Understand the need for particle size analysis in crushing circuits.
 Understand methods of particle size analysis for aggregates.
Information:
screen surface. Particle size analysis is done to assess the efficiency of industrial screens, and the
efficiency of grinding operations. It gives a particle size distribution of the product from milling
operations.
6.1 Laboratory Screening of aggregates
Laboratory particle size analysis is a laboratory testing procedure in mineral processing operations that is
used to obtain quantitative data of the size and distribution of particles in the material. After comminution
particles take different irregular shapes making it difficult to determine the exact particle size. Most often
equivalent diameter is quoted. Equivalent diameter of a particle is the diameter of a sphere that would
behave in the same manner as the particle when subjected to some specific operations. The objective of
size analysis is to determine quality of grinding and establish the degree of liberation of the values from
the gangue at various particle sizes. In concentrating stage, size analysis is done to determine the
optimum size of the feed to a process for maximum efficiency and to determine the range at which any
losses in the plant are occurring so that they may be reduced. Methods of size analysis must therefore be
accurate and reliable. Only small quantities are taken in these laboratory tests and so it is essential that the
sample is a representative of the bulk material. Aggregates are normally considered to be above 5mm
diameter. Sieve analysis of aggregates differs from that of fines in the types of sieves used. Aggregates
normally use rectangular trays while fines use round sieves.

6.2 Particle size analysis for aggregates
The sample size for particle size analysis is determined by the particle size of the aggregates. The figure
above gives particle size and the minimum sample size required. Fine particle sizes require a small size of
sample while larger particles need a bigger sample size. The types of sieves used are also a function of
particle size. Aggregates are sieved in rectangular sieves with larger sieve diameters while fine aggregates
are sieved in round sieves.
Sieve analysis of fine aggregates

Sieve analysis of coarse aggregates
The other noticeable difference between fine and coarse aggregates sieving is the type of sieve shaker
used. Aggregates use a large tray shaker while fines use a small shaker.
A known weight of material, the amount being determined by the largest size of aggregate, is placed upon
the top of a group of nested sieves (the top sieve has the largest screen openings and the screen opening
sizes decrease with each sieve down to the bottom sieve which has the smallest opening size screen for the
type of material specified) and shaken by mechanical means for a period of time. After shaking the
material through the nested sieves, the material retained on each of the sieves is weighed.
The cumulative method requires that each sieve beginning at the top be placed in a previously weighed
pan (known as the tare weight), weighed, the next sieve's contents added to the pan, and the total weighed.

This is repeated until all sieves and the bottom pan have been added and weighed. Mechanical sieve
shaker, if used, must provide a vertical or lateral and vertical motion to the sieve, causing the particles
thereon to bounce and turn so as to present different orientations to the sieving surface. Sieve shakers
must provide sieving thoroughness within a reasonable time.
Sieving time for coarse aggregates is normally up to 10 minutes while fine aggregates can be shaken to 15
minutes. The finer the material, the more the time needed for shaking. The results of weights obtained are
tabulated in the sieve analysis table.
Questions:
1. What is the objective of particle size analysis in the crushing plant?
2. Explain the relationship between particle size and the minimum sample size needed for sieve
analysis.
3. Identify the differences between sieve analysis of fines and that of coarse aggregates.
Reference:
1. Biswas,A.K.and Davernport, W.G. (1980) The Extractive Metallurgy of Copper Oxford

Prgamon Press

TOPIC 7: ORE MILLING
Objectives:
 Have knowledge and Understand the purpose of mineral liberation
 Review the objectives of comminution
 Understand milling plant layout
 Identify milling plant auxiliary equipment
 Have knowledge of milling plant feeders
 Have knowledge and understanding of feed control mechanism
Information:
As outlined in earlier modules, the main objective of mineral processing is to separate economic mineral
particles from waste (gangue), and subject minerals to processes in order to concentrate (upgrade) them or
to extract metals from the. It was also highlighted that the first step towards this goal is comminution and
the second is separation. This topic will concentrate on the first step (comminution).
7.1 Comminution
Comminution is another word for size reduction. It is the process of breaking large particles into smaller
particles. Particle size of materials is progressively reduced in order to liberate or unlock valuables which
are associated with gangue. Thus the main objective is mineral liberation. Liberation is the setting of
valuable fraction in ore free from the waste fraction in order to separate the two fractions. It is indicated by
the degree of liberation which is the percentage of the valuable mineral occurring as free particles in
relation to the total valuable content in the ore. The easy of liberation is determined by ore grindability.
Grindability is the ease with which ore can be comminuted. The most commonly used parameter to measure
grindability is the work index Wi (kwh/t) which is a parameter denoting the energy required to grind one
tonne of ore mineral from one particle size to another under the given conditions. Rate of breakage, also

referred to as grinding kinetics, depends on the type of crushing or grinding equipment and on its operation.
Small particles are more difficult to break because for the same mass many more particles must be broken.
Ore hardness refers to the ability to withstand penetration and deformation. It requires more energy to crush
or grind hard ores than soft ores. Ore hardness is also evaluated by using the Mohs hardness scale. This
scale places all minerals between 1 and 10, 1 being the softest mineral and 10 the hardest.
From top left to right: Talc, Gypsum, Calcite, Fluorite, Apatite, Potassium feldspar, Quartz, Topaz,
Corundum, and Diamond
It is important to realize that; while we mine rocks, we concentrate minerals. The figure below shows how

minerals are upgraded and finally metals being extracted. Mineralogy determines recoverability. It is how
the mineral value is distributed in the rock matrix.
Schematic showing stages in metal extraction
Schematic showing valuable mineral intergrown in a silicate matrix

Comminution should achieve liberation, create surface area for separation processes (e.g. flotation), and
create the desired size and shape for other concentration methods. A balance must be struck between
creating the correct/ required particle size range for separation and the maximum liberation of minerals to
be separated (floated). Mineralogy studies include grain size and it determines particle size to achieve
liberation. Comminution equipment choices are determined by the liberation requirements. Many at times
mineral particles are found locked inside gangue materials. Locked particles contain both the valuable
mineral and the gangue mineral. Difficulties associated in treating these particles results in the loss of
valuable minerals to tailings. The table below shows types of locked particles and how they impact on
subsequent separation processes.
Schematic showing Locking properties
As a result of locking challenges, particles will exit the milling circuit in three forms:
 Fully liberated (concentrate)
 Partially liberated (middlings)
 Unliberated (gangue/ waste)
Schematic showing fully liberated, middlings, and gangue minerals

7.1.1 Particle properties
Particles can be described as: rounded, slabby, acicular, flaky, and angular. Particle shape affects
processing. Usually particles that are not rounded are harder to grind, to classify, and to pump.
Schematic showing particle shapes
When the particle does not have a regular shape, or when the sample contains particles of mixed sizes,
diameter is not an adequate measure. Particle size is determined by screen (sieve) analysis. A screen is
made of a woven wire mesh. The size of the screen is given by the width of one opening, or by the number
of openings in one linear inch. Particle size is reported in mesh size or in microns: 1000 microns (µm) per
millimeter. For example: a 65-mesh Tyler screen has 65 holes per inch, and each opening measures 212µm.
Mineral particle shape also determines the type of screen to be used in particle size separation during
classification. There are different types of screens available in industrial screens depending on the nature of
the mineral being processed. Owing to irregular shapes, particles cannot pass through the sieve unless they
are presented in a favourable orientation, particularly with the fine particles. Hence there is no end point for
sieving. For all practical purposes, the end point is considered to have been reached when there is little
amount of material passing through after a certain length of sieving. Sieving is generally done dry. Wet
sieving is used when the material is in the form of slurry.
When little moisture is present, a combination of wet and dry sieving is performed by initially adding water.

Particle size measurements are used to determine the extent of liberation. They are also used to evaluate
equipment performance. As mentioned before screen analysis is the most common way of measuring
particle size. Two common references for particle size measurements are 80% passing and percentage (%)
passing a specific size.
Cumulative size distribution curve
7.2 Slurry streams
From grinding onward, ore is usually handled as slurry. Slurry is a mixture of water and ore particles, also
known as pulp. The two most important slurry properties are: Density and Viscosity. Strictly speaking,
slurry density should refer to the mass of the slurry per unit volume. However, in the mineral processing
industry, slurry density is usually reported as % solids by mass.
Slurry density can be measured with a Marcy pulp density scale. A Marcy scale is a spring balance fitted
with a one-litre container. Marcy scale converts this true slurry density (in kg / liter) to % solids, given the
particle specific gravity.

7.3 Milling plant equipment
A milling plant will have the following typical equipment:

 Dry ore storage facility
 Coarse milling and fine milling machines
 Water storage tanks
 Slurry storage tanks
 Slurry pumping equipment
 Ore classification equipment (cyclones)
 Grinding media loading equipment
 Dry ore feeders
 Slurry flow pipes
 Process control devices

7.3.1 Fine Ore storage
The following are the main purposes of ore storage:

 To receive ore intermittently and deliver it smoothly
 To accumulate mill products for intermittent disposal
 To maintain an adequate tonnage of ore for treatment
 To smooth out irregularities in working (surge storage)
 To facilitate balanced blending of dissimilar minerals
Bins, Silos and Bunkers are used for dry or filtered materials where the storage period is short. A bin is a
container of cylinder and hopper sections for bulk solids with one or more outlets for withdrawal either by
gravity alone or by gravity assisted by flow promoting devices such as feeders. Silos, bunkers and other
specialized terms used in various industries are also bins. A Silo has large cylindrical section whereas a
Bunker has short cylindrical section. Tanks, usually with an agitator, are employed for storing water and
slurries (pulps). Ponds and Dams are used for storing water and tailing slurries.
7.3.2 Conveying
Within the mill, the ore is transported by gravity and by conveyors. Gravity transport is the flow of material
in which actuating force is gravity and is carried out in chutes and launders. Chutes are steeply inclined
troughs of rectangular sections for the gravity transport of dry solids. Launders are gently sloping troughs of
rectangular, triangular or semicircular sections for the gravity transport of suspensions of ore or mineral.
Conveyors are used to transport the ore when the horizontal distance is relatively short. There is no arbitrary
limit beyond which a conveyor system cannot be used. Travel may be horizontal or inclined either up or
down, the maximum practicable inclination varies with the type of conveyor and the nature of materials. A
Belt conveyor, the most versatile and widely used type, consists of an endless belt running around head and
tail pulleys and resting on various kinds of idlers at intervals along both its upper and return runs. Drive is
generally through the head pulley. Slurries are transported by means of slurry pumps through delivery
pipes.
7.3.3 Feeders
Feeding is essentially a conveying operation in which the distance traveled is short and in which close
regulation of the rate of passage is required. The feeder is installed at the outlet of a bin, silo or bunker. The
different types of feeders are chain feeder, apron feeder, pan feeder, belt feeder, roller feeder, rotary feeder,
reciprocating-plate feeder, plunger feeder, revolving-disk feeder, and vibrating feeders. The type of feeding
arrangement used on the mill depends on whether the grinding is done in open or closed circuit and whether

it is done wet or dry. The size and rate of feed are also important. Dry mills are usually fed by some sort of
vibratory feeders.
7.3.4 Control apparatus
Feed rate of dry ore and grinding media is measured by means of weight meters installed on conveyors.
Feed rate of dilution water and slurries is measured by flow meters installed on feeding pipes to the mills as
well as adjusting pumping pressures/ speeds of slurry pumps. Dilution ratios (density) are also controlled
by altering water pumping speeds and monitoring surge tank levels. Mill load is measured by weight meters
installed on mill trunions as well as checking the mill power (kwh) consumption meter. The mill product
quality is assessed by used of particle size analysis.
Questions:
1. What is the main objective of comminution?

2. Explain the term ‘mineral liberation’.
3. Explain the term ‘80% passing 75 microns’.
4. List the equipment used in the milling plant for the following purposes:
a) Dry ore storage
b) Slurry ore storage
c) Dry ore transportation
d) Slurry ore transportation
e) Dry ore feeding
f) Slurry ore feeding
5. How are the following milling plant parameters measured?
a) Ball mill charge and dry ore charge
b) Slurry and water flow rates

Reference:
Press

TOPIC 8: MILLING PLANT OPERATIONS I
Objective:

 Understand the knowledge behind the milling plant equipment and processes
 Identify and explain the function of the principle components of the equipment used in the milling
plant
 Explain up and downstream problems occurring in the milling plant
 Explain the factors that affect the optimal performance of the milling plant
 Complete duties relating to the milling plant process
 Control and maintain the milling plant unit processes
Information:
Milling or Grinding is the last stage in the process of comminution. Comminution simply means to break
ore into smaller particles. The objective of the milling plant is to further reduce the size of the ore that has
been crushed so that the valuable mineral can be liberated or unlocked from the gangue or waste rock. The
size to which you grind the ore is a very important parameter which is worked out based on financial
calculations, based on the mineralogy of the ores. In order to produce good, clean concentrates, you need
to grind fine enough to liberate all the valuable material, but if you grind it too fine, this could increase the
energy costs and can lead to the production of very fine, untreatable “slime” particles which may be lost to
tailings. Grinding is done in cylindrical steel vessels known as tumbling mills. These contain a charge of
loose crushing bodies known as the grinding medium which is free to move around inside the mill, thus
breaking the ore particles smaller. Grinding medium can be steel rods or balls, hard rock or the ore itself.
Milling circuits vary from mine to mine. A milling plant can either have a single stage milling circuit or
two stages of milling where a primary and secondary mill is used. Primary and secondary mills can either
be consecutive stages or the primary stage can be followed by an initial stage of concentration (flotation),
and the tailings are then sent to the secondary mill. This is called an MF2 circuit – Mill Float Mill Float.
The circuits can also be either being open or closed circuits. An open circuit mill is where the mill product
is sent directly to the next milling stage or the next process in the concentrator. An open circuit is usually
used where the mill product size is not crucial to the next stage, or where over grinding of material is
likely.

In a closed circuit mill, the mill product is first classified into fine and coarse material and only the fine
material is sent to the next stage. The coarse material is returned to the mill to be ground again, until it
becomes fine enough to move on to the next circuit.
A closed circuit is used when it is crucial that the size of the material is within a certain range.
Classification can either be done by cyclones or vibrating screens. The objective of classification in a
milling circuit is to separate a stream of material into coarse and fine products. Therefore, where the size at
which you need to separate the material is large enough, a vibrating screen can be used, but when the size
of separation is finer, a cyclone can be used.
8.1 Up and downstream problems
CRUSHING PLANT
MILLING PLANT
CONCENTRATION
PLANT
Upstream
Delays and breakdowns in the milling and classification section as a whole will have the following impact
on the upstream (crushing) operations:
1. The crushing plant will have to be stopped when the milling ore storage facilities are full. This
would lead to a serious loss of production.
2. The delay in crushing plant could lead to the delays in mining operations and the entire mine’s
production targets may not be met.
Downstream
Delays and breakdowns in the milling and classification section as a whole will have the following impact
on the downstream (concentration) operations:
1. In the event of a coarse grind in the primary mills, the secondary mills may become overloaded.
2. If the primary mills are feeding the concentrator plant then less mineral will be recovered in the
concentration plant as less minerals will be liberated

3. In the event of a coarse grind, the minerals which are not yet will not be recovered during
concentration and they will report to the tailings section, decreasing the overall plant recovery.
4. If the grind size distribution is not consistent it will result in ineffective control of the concentration
plant
5. If the grind is too fine, it will cause a lot of waste material to be mechanically entrained and report
to the concentrate which will decrease the overall grade of the plant concentrate.
8.2 Milling plant equipment/ machines
The following pieces of equipment are found in the milling plant.

 Ore storage silos / stockpiles and fine ore bins
 Mill feed conveyor belts
 Feeders
 Mill feed sampler
 weightometer
 Suspended ball loading system
 Mill rod charging trolley
 Overhead crane
 Rod Mill
 Ball Mill
 Vibrating screen
 Mill Discharge sump
 Cyclone feed pump
 Cyclone overflow pump
 Cyclones
 Mill water tank
 Process water pump

 Linear Screen
 Process control instruments
Suspended loading system

The suspended ball loading system is a system which loads steel balls used as grinding media into the mill
to maintain optimum grind. It consists of a magnet for picking up steel balls, a chute into which to drop the
balls and a mobile container which transports the balls to the loading point. The loading point is usually on
the mill feed conveyor belt. The balls are deposited onto the moving convey and enter the mill with the
feed. The balls should be deposited via a chute.
Rod mill
A Rod mill is a mill which can accept a feed size consistent of that which is supplied by the crushing plant.
It uses steel rods as grinding media. The charge of grinding media is about 20-30% of the mill volume. It
consists of a drive unit with oil lubricating system, feed chute, girth gear, cylindrical shell with liners and
lifter bars, and a discharge end with trunnion bearing.
Ball mill
The final stages of comminution are performed in ball mills using steel balls as the grinding medium. Since
balls have a large surface area per unit weight, they are better suited for fine finishing. Ball mills are also
classified by the nature of their discharge ends. They can be trunnion overflow mills or grate discharge
mills.
Vibrating screen
The purpose of the vibrating screen is to separate the mill product into an oversize product and an
undersized product. The vibrating screen can be used for two different functions. The first is as a trash
screen. In this case the oversize product is the material which been discharged from the mill, but which is
too big to be pumped by the mill discharge pump and could cause damage to the pump. The undersize
product goes directly into the mill discharge sump from which it is pumped to the next section. The second
function of a vibrating screen in a milling circuit could be as a classification screen which will form part of
a closed circuit milling process. In this case the coarse fraction (oversize) will be returned to the mill for
further grinding and the fine fraction (undersize) will continue to the next process or the next stage of
milling.

Mill discharge sump
The mill discharge sump is the vessel into which the mill discharge flows, before being pumped. The sump
should be designed to accept maximum the flow rate of slurry discharging from the mill. The sump is also
a vessel into which any dilution water required for the next process (be it a classification screen or cyclone,
or a flotation process) can be added. The sump level should be carefully monitored to ensure that the
pump pumping the slurry from the sump does not run without any feed, or that the sump does not overflow
and create unnecessary spillage.
Cyclones
The function of a cyclone is to separate a stream of material into a coarse and fine fraction. It is a static
piece of equipment which uses centrifugal forces and gravity, to separate heavy and light material. The
centrifugal force is created by the design of the inlet and the pressure at which the feed is introduced into
the cyclone. The heavy material is flung to the outside of the cyclone and then directed to the underflow
and discharged through the spigot. A vortex or upward suction is created by a vortex finder which sucks
the water and the fine material to the overflow. The cyclone separates material based on size and density.
Linear screen
A linear screen is a mechanical screen which removes unwanted coarse material from slurries. The material
is directed onto a screen cloth, which has apertures. It can be used to remove tramp material from the
slurry, but it was originally designed to remove woodchips from slurries. The woodchips which cannot be
removed from the conveyor belts end up being milled and they can cause blockages of valves, chutes and
flow meters later in the process.

Instrumentation
Instruments are the tools used to measure parameters around the milling circuit. These are the commonly
measured parameters.
 Mill feed rate – weight meter
 Belt speed - tachometer
 Mill inlet dilution water flow rate – flow meter
 Mill mass – load cells or mill bearing pressure
 Mill discharge sump level – level sensor
 Mill discharge dilution flow rate – flow meter
 Cyclone feed flow rate – flow meter
 Cyclone feed density – density meter
 Cyclone feed pressure – pressure transducer or pressure gauge
 Mill product size – PSI/PSE monitor
8.3 Safety, health and risks of the milling plant

The following are workplace hazards that could be encountered.
 Moving machinery
 Working at heights
 Harmful dust
 Noise
 Faulty safety devices
 Hazardous substances
 Uneven surfaces
 Slippery surfaces
 Poor illumination
 Radiation
 Spillage
 Working in confined spaces
 High Temperatures
 Blockages/Systems under pressure
 Suspended loads
 Explosives

CODE NO: PAGE : 6 of 16
 Magnetism
8.4 Steel ball loading system
The steel ball loading system is usually located at the tail end of a mill feed conveyor. The steel balls
should be transferred onto the conveyor belt at a point after the weight on the conveyor belt is measured. If
the balls are measured as part of the mass entering the mill, the production figures could be calculated
incorrectly. In order to ensure that the ball mill achieve its purpose at all times, the steel ball loading system
ensures that the balls can be loaded as quickly and as effortlessly as possible, so that the steel ball load can
be maintain at an optimum level, for optimum grinding. Balls inside the mill are not all the same sizes as
they wear down while grinding the ore. The balls added into the mill should be sufficient to replace the
balls that wear down.
When the power drawn by the mill is decreasing slowly or is low, it usually indicates that more steel balls
are needed. The required operating power is determined for each and every mill. The mill load can also be
an indication of the ratio of slurry to steel balls in the mill. For example if the feed rate is high, but the mill
load is low, it would indicate that more balls are required. It is also important to realize that if the steel ball
load is too high, problems will occur. If excessive steel is added to the ball mill and the steel load becomes
too high, this could relate to excess damage and wear to the mill liners which mean that the steel ball
consumption will be over budget resulting in excessive operating costs.
Upstream problems
A problem that could be encountered if the steel load is not kept at the correct level is loss of production. If
the ball mill is in a closed circuit, the material will only leave the circuit when it is the correct size or
smaller. The circuit will have a classifier to size the mill product and all oversize material will return to the
mill. If there is not enough grinding media in the mill, the material will not be broken down sufficiently and
will stay in the closed circuit. This will build up the circulating load and will eventually limit the amount of
new feed that can be fed to the mill, therefore reducing production.
Downstream problems
If the mill load is not maintained at the correct level, the grinding efficiency of the mill will deteriorate.
This can be determined by performing a particle size analysis of the mill product. The plant will have a
target “grind size” which is usually measured in % -75µm. If the measured grind size goes below this
target, plant recovery will be negatively affected. In some cases, changes in the physical properties of the
plant feed material will mean that more steel balls will be needed in the mill. This decision will usually be
made by the Plant Metallurgist or Process Superintendent.
8.4.1 Components
 Ball bunker- is a concrete structure situated next to the ball loading system. The balls are loaded into the
bunker from bags which the supplier delivers. Sometimes balls of different sizes are used in one mill, and in
that case they should be stored in different bunkers. Ball sizes range from 20mm to 100mm. The ball size
depends on the size of the rocks fed to the mill. It is very important that the level of the balls in the bunker is
measured to ensure that there are always balls available.
 Ball magnet- is a circular electromagnet suspended on chains that is attached to the ball hoist. The magnet
rests on a metal structure next to the ball bunker while it is not in use. Once the electromagnetic field is
activated, the magnet picks up the steel balls.
The magnet is moved by the ball hoist controlled. The balls remain attached to the magnet until the
electromagnetic field is switched off and then they fall into the desired loading point.
 Ball sputnik- is a cylindrical carrying vessel that is lifted by a hoist controlled by the plant
operator. It is used to transport a load of steel balls to the loading point in the mill and is loaded
from the ball magnet
 Ball hoist- is a small winch that is suspended on a metal beam above the ball loading area. It is used
to move the ball magnet from the steel ball bunker to the steel ball loading point. The hoist is also
used to carry the ball sputnik in the systems that use this method of loading.
 Ball chute- is a metal angled chute positioned above the mill feed conveyor belt. It is used in the
steel loading system that loads the steel balls directly onto the mill feed conveyor belt. The chute
channels the steel balls from the loading point onto the conveyor belt.
8.4.2 Operator controls
The parameters to be control are:

 Number/ weight of steel balls- The number of balls added to the mill must be carefully controlled.
This is usually done by a ball counting or weighing system. The number of balls added directly
affects the operation of the mill and the power of the mill which could lead to poor recoveries in the
plant.
 Size of steel balls- Steel balls vary in size depending on the size of the rocks being fed into the mill.
Should the feed size be large then a larger ball is used. If the mill feed has lots of fine material then
a smaller ball should be used.
8.5 Ball mill operation
A ball mill has a very wide range of applications. It can be used as a primary mill, where the feed size to
the mill is small enough, a secondary mill, tertiary mill or a regrind mill. The ball mill is characterized by
the addition of steel balls as grinding media. The grinding media takes up approximately 30 to 40% of the
total mill volume. The above figure outlines the most common locations of a ball mill. The purpose of the
mill is to continue the comminution process. The mill can reduce the ore to up to 80% passing 75 micron,
but the grind depends on the design of the mill, the feed size to the mill, the tonnage milled and the
hardness of the ore. If the mill is operating in closed circuit, it will have either cyclone or screen
classification which will return the coarse material to the mill. In an open circuit mill, the mill product is
usually only screened for tramp material and the undersize of that is sent to the next process. If the mill is a
secondary mill, it is usually fed from a cyclone and not a mill feed belt as the rock has already been
reduced in the first stage milling.
8.5.1 Mechanism of grinding
The grinding of rocks takes place as the ore is tumbled around inside the steel shell of the mill by the
rotational movement of the mill. That is why these types of mills are also sometimes referred to as
tumbling mills. The ore is fed into the mill and the mill is turned by a motor. The slurry formed inside the
mill facilitates the flow of ore from the feed end of the mill to the discharge end of the mill. At the
discharge, the ore is either discharged through a grate discharge or through an overflow, into a discharge
sump.

 Cascading- When rotation of the mill commences, the mill load is transported up the rising side of
the mill to a height dependent on mill speed and the degree of slide between the mill shell and the
mill load. If this height is relatively small, the mill load, when reaching the top of its travel, will
curve over and slide down over the rising portion of the mill load to rejoin the rising load. This type
of motion in a mill causes abrasion breakage which means that the ore is broken down by the rocks
rubbing against each other. This type of motion usually produces very fine particles.
 Cataracting- Should the mill speed be increased, (or if the load in the mill is heavier) the load is
projected into a path where it will rise for a short distance before falling back onto the remaining
load. It is very important that the rocks fall onto the “toe” of the load, because if they don’t, they
will fall onto the mill liners and cause excessive wear. This usually happens if the mill is too empty.
This type of motion causes impact breakage which means the rock breaks from the shock and force
of another rock falling onto it. This type of breakage usually produces a coarse product.
 Centrifuging- Should the mill speed be increased further, centrifugal action on the weight of the
mill load will force the load against the inner surface of the mill, preventing throughput. Very little
breakage happens in the mill when it is centrifuging and it is often an indication that the mill is too
full.
8.5.2 Instrumentation
There are various parameters which must be measured on a mill. The main two we are kilowatt hour meter
and mill mass measurement.
 Kilowatt hour meter- measures the power draw on the mill motor which indicates in which range the motor
is operating. There are usually a high and a low limit of power at which the motor can operate and interlocks
on the power safeguards the motor from potential damage. It is also a very important parameter to measure
to determine the efficiency of grinding, and an operator uses it as an indication of the mill loading in
conjunction with mass.

 Mill mass measurement- can be measured in two different ways: - either by load cells, which measure mass
of the mill directly or by bearing pressure measurement. Measuring bearing pressure gives an indication of
the pressure required to support the mill in the trunnion bearing. If it increases, we assume the mill mass
increases and if it decreases we assume the mill mass decreases. This measurement is used in conjunction
with the power measurement to indicate the load inside the mill.
8.5.3 Components of ball mill
Drive unit (single or variable speed drives)

The drive unit is the mechanism which facilitates motion of the mill. High-tension electrical current is
provided to the grinding system via electrical switchgear. The gearbox provides traction for the mill and
facilitates reduction of speed. It consists of a girth gear, pinion, gear box and motor. The motor drive shaft
transfers the motion to the pinion gear, which in turn transfers the motion of the pinion gear shaft to the
girth gear. The mill rotates as the teeth of the pinion mesh with the teeth of the girth gear. A variable speed
drive mill has a variable speed motor which can speed up or slow down the mill when required for effective
operation.
Feed system
The feed system of the mill consists of a cyclone, which classifies the material into a fine and coarse
product. The coarse product is milled and the fine product usually by-passes the mill and is sent directly to
the mill discharge sump, which deposits the ore into a mill feed chute, which feeds the material into the
mill mouth.
Lubrication system
A grease-pumping unit is provided for lubrication of the mill girth gear, which is driven from the gearbox
by means of a pinion gear. Oil is provided to the mill bearings or slipper pads by means of high-pressure oil

pumps. An oil cooling unit is provided to prevent overheating of lubricating oil.
Stop / start stations and Electrical Systems
Stop/start stations are either located at the various units or in a central control room. They are clearly
marked to indicate the unit. Inspections to be done include:
 Test switches daily to determine whether they are functioning correctly
 The on- and off switch should be equipped with a lockout mechanism.
 The switch gear can be disconnected by links which cut off current to the mill during lock-out.
 Switch-gear must be clean
 Switch-gear must be a complete unit
 Switch-gear must be marked with an identification number
 There must not be any obstruction of the switch-gear
 Switch-gear must be easily accessible
 Equipment must be within view of the switch

Control Panel
A control panel consists of stop/start switches, ammeters, alarms and tonnage totalizers and other
instruments which allow the operator to monitor the process. Modern control rooms are equipped with a
process control computer, from which the entire process can be started, monitored, controlled and stopped.
Liners
The inside surface area of the mill shell is protected by steel back-plates or rubber protection to which
manganese steel liners are attached by means of body bolts. Shell liners cover the inner length of the mill
and inlet-end and discharge-end liners and discharge end screen grids are also provided. In some cases
lifter bars are installed between the shell liners to provide extra lift to the mill content for improved grind
by facilitating cataracting and impact breakage.
Main Bearings
Mill main bearings are situated at the drive-end as well as the inlet-end of the mill. These bearings are
either in the form of white metal bearings or slipper pads. In the case of slipper pads, high-pressure oil
“floats” the mill on the slipper pads at either end of the mill. The main bearings support the mill on either
end.
Mill Shell
The mill shell is made from mild steel and is provided with doors through which entry can be gained for
maintenance purposes. Holes are provided to secure mill liners with body bolts. The mill ends are bolted
onto the mill shell.
Sealing ring
A rubber seal ring is fitted between the removable inlet hopper and the inlet trunnion bearing. The function
of this seal ring is to prevent inlet water spillage from entering the bearing area. The sealing ring is heated
up by the friction of the turning mill against the stationary feed chute and is cooled with sealing ring water.
This is to prevent wear and damage. If the sealing ring gets any slime on it, it will wear down much
quicker because of the abrasive action of the particles.
Barring Gear
The barring gear is engaged when the need arises to rotate the mill very slowly, as when relining or
tightening leaking bolts.
Girth gear
The girth gear and pinion are part of the transmission train driven from the mill motor and gearbox.
Trunnion
The mill inlet trunnion provides access for material and personnel. It is situated at the feed end of the mill,
and access into the mill is gained by moving the inlet hopper away from the trunnion.
Bell mouth
The bell mouth is situated at the discharge end of the mill and the ground product discharges from this unit.
It is sometimes equipped with a trommel screen which removes oversized material from the milled product.
8.5.4 Ball mill controls
The operating parameters and control methods are those measurements which we need to observe and
manipulate (control methods) in order to achieve production requirements and to maintain a consistently
good grind, at a cost that is within the budgetary requirements of the milling section. This is the reason
there are standard operating procedures written on each milling plant, which assist to operate and control
each individual mill according to the plant requirements. General operational principles are outlined below.
Feed rate
The feed rate will vary according to production requirements. The feed rate to the mill affects the mill load,
which in turn can affect the grinding motion inside the mill. An attempt must be made to get an optimum
load, and then maintain a constant feed rate so as not to disrupt the smooth operation of the mill. The feed
rate to the mill is measured by the tonnage entering the mill from the cyclone underflow. It can be
controlled by manipulating the cut size in the cyclone. The consequences of not maintaining feed rate are:
 A substandard grind will result and metals locked up in the ore will not be liberated.

 An overloaded mill puts unnecessary stress on machinery and could result in machine failure, but it also
causes inefficient grinding because of centrifuging.
 Ore can be ground too fine which will result in problems further in the process (flotation, classification,
screening and thickening)
Product Size
The required production size is a parameter that can vary from mine to mine based on test work conducted
on the specific ore that you are milling that determines the economic optimum product size for
concentration of the mineral. Product size is measured by taking a sample of the product and doing a
particle size analysis on it, or it can be measured automatically by using a particle size indicator/estimator.
Product size control measures include:
 Maintaining a steady, constant mill feed with optimum mill mass will ensure a good grind.
 As the feed rate to the mill increases, so the grind in the mill will decrease because the particles do not spend
such a long time in the mill and do not get the chance to be milled and vice versa.
 The density inside the mill also affects the grind size.
 The higher the density is inside the mill, the more chance there is of particles being milled and the product
size is finer.
 The density cannot get too high as then the slurry will be too thick to flow inside the mill.
 If the density is too low, the excess water also cushions the blow of the impact.
 The density is controlled by increasing or decreasing the mill inlet dilution water
There are consequences associated with a poor product grind. If the mill product size is too coarse, the
metal content in the coarse ore particles will not be liberated and will therefore not be recovered by the
concentration plant process. These particles may report to the tailings and eventually to the slimes dam.
Too fine a grind will also create unnecessary slimes which results in metal loss to tails as well as
complicate separation process parameters. Energy costs will also increase unnecessarily.
Feed Density / Moisture content

This is a measure of the amount of water to solid ratio which enters the mill. The feed density to the mill is
controlled by manipulating the feed rate and the inlet water to the mill together. A ratio of feed to water
should be obtained so as to keep the density constant, at the optimum density which is worked out by the
plant management. The inlet water can be controlled manually or automatically. The consequence of not
controlling feed density is that inefficient grinding will result in a coarser mill product size. This will lead
to particles not being liberated and thus unable to be recovered during concentration.

Temperatures
Mill discharge temperature is indicative of the mill performance. A satisfactory grind will generate heat and
steam will be evident in the mill discharge. Temperature is controlled by increasing or decreasing the mill
feed to obtain optimum load. Mill inlet water is adjusted if an overload or slow buildup of solids in the
mill is suspected. If temperature is not controlled, the result is an improper grind and low metal recovery.
Mill Load
The mill load is a measure of the volumetric filling or mass of the load inside the mill. The mill load level
should be just below the axis or trunnion of the mill, or at an equivalent mass which has been determined to
be that volume. This may vary with different mills. The mill load is a parameter which is looked at in
conjunction with the mill mass. Increasing or decreasing the mill feed rate optimizes the mill load.
Uncontrolled mill load will result in:
 Improper grind
 Loss of metal to tailings
 Loss of revenue
 Machinery failure due to overloading
 Excessive component wear
Feed Size
Feed size will be dependent on blasting methods and the type of ore being milled. In the case where a
crusher section precedes the milling section, this should be consistent, unless a lot of fines have been
generated. Where ore run off mine is used, the feed size is mainly dependent on the blasting method. In
run-off mine mills where the grinding media is rock itself, a small feed size will adversely affect the
efficiency of grinding in the mill as the feed is too small to mill the bigger rocks. Oversized rocks must be
removed from the feed conveyor. Grizzly screens in the mining operation must be well-maintained. All
efforts must be made in the crushing section to minimize the production of fines. An inconsistent ore feed
size will block mill inlet chutes, damage feeders and belt conveyors, and cause unnecessary downtime.
Dilution water
Inlet dilution water should be optimized to ensure a good throughput of milled ore, and a consistent density
in the mill. Mill discharge water must be adjusted to provide the optimum density for the feed of the next
stage of milling or the cyclone operation. Water addition can be adjusted by hand or automatically by
means of an actuated valve and a control system. Poor slurry density will result in a sub-standard grind,
blocked pumps and pipes, and loss of metal to tailings.
Condition of Liners
Mill liners and lifter bars must be in a good condition in order to be effective. The shape of the lifter bars
normally promotes impact breakage and cataracting in the mill. When these wear, the lift motion is less and
the particles may start to cascade which causes abrasion breakage and the production of fines. Liner
inspection must be done always to ensure that the mill is relined when required. Challenges of damaged
liners are that the mill shell could be damaged if worn liners are not replaced, and worn lifters no longer
serve their purpose causing inefficient grinding.
Mill Power
Mill power is an indication of the load in the mill as well as a way to determine the grinding efficiency.
The mill uses power to turn even when it is empty. Any power required in excess of that initial power, is
used to grind rocks. If the power is too low, not much power is being used to grind rock whereas if the
power is high (at the specified parameter as per instruction), a lot of the power is being used to grind. The
mill power increases as the mill gets fuller. This will happen when the mill mass is increased by
manipulating the feed rate to the mill. The power increases up to a point, at which the power will drop. The
power dropping, when the mill mass is still high, is an indication that the mill is overloaded and the feed
rate should then be decreased, and in emergencies, stopped. Consequences of uncontrolled mill power
include:
 Improper grind
 Loss of metal to tailings
 Loss of revenue
 Power consumption exceeded the maximum demand of the mine or budgetary allowances

Grinding Media
Grinding media addition is dependent on size distribution sampling results and an indication of a lack of
grinding media is an inability to get the power high, even though the feed rate is high. The grinding media
can either be added at regular intervals, or can be controlled by the amount of tons milled. An automatic
ball loading system would ensure that the grind is optimum at all times. The shorter the intervals between
grinding media addition, the better the control of the grind inside the mill. Uncontrolled grinding media
results in a substandard grind, loss of metal to tailings, and loss of revenue.
8.6 Milling plant starting procedures
It is very important to refer to site specific standard operating procedures for starting a milling plant. The
most important part is to follow the SHE procedures for equipment start-up. Grinding mills are operated in
production line with feeding chutes, conveyor belts, screens, ore bins, slurry tanks and cyclones. When
starting the milling plant, pre-start inspection is done. Follow equipment manuals to inspect their readiness
for plant starting (mills, pumps, conveyors, feeders, cyclones, tanks, chutes etc.). This may include;
checking hydraulic levels, lubrication levels, and adjusting if necessary, checking if safety guards are in
position, checking that personnel are clear off the equipment and that the conveyor attendants are in
position and are instructed that the plant is going to be started. The standard plant safety procedures must
be followed religiously so as to avoid fatalities. Upstream and downstream equipment is also checked.
From the upstream side, it is important to check that there is enough ore in the fine ore bins before starting
milling plant. On the downstream side, the readiness of storage facilities of the concentrator feed should
have enough space for the ground ore. Starting up begins from the cyclones side then backwards to avoid
overload of equipment. When shutting down, the system should be switched off from the start to the end
i.e. feeders to the conveyors, the conveyor belts, primary mills, secondary mills and then cyclones
respectively. Conveyors, slurry pumps and cyclones should be switched off when empty.

Questions:
1. Outline the checks and safety precautions that one should undertake before starting a milling
plant.
2. Which production parameters must be met to ensure efficient operation of a ball mill?
3. What is the effect of not maintain the correct slurry density in a ball mill?
4. What precautions can be taken to ensure that the correct size and volume of steel balls are in the
ball mill at any given time during milling?
5. Outline the milling plant start-up and shutdown procedure.
6. Name the principle elements of a ball mill and briefly explain the function of each component.
7. Explain the effects of not grinding efficiently on upstream and downstream processes.
8. Which production parameters can be affected by not maintaining the correct steel ball load?
Reference:
Press

TOPIC 9: MILLING PLANT OPERATION II
Objectives:
 Identify different mill types available
 Calculate critical speed of a mill
 Understand the process variables in grinding operations
 Understand the grinding mechanisms of common grinding machines
Information:
The next stage of mineral processing after crushing is grinding which is the final stage of comminution.
Particle size reduction is achieved by a combination of abrasion and impact. Grinding is performed in
rotating cylindrical vessels known as tumbling mills. The mills contain loose grinding media which are
large, hard and heavy relative to the ore particles but small in relation to the mill volume. When the mill is
rotated the mixture of the medium, ore and water (mill charge) is intimately mixed. The medium
comminuting the particles by any of the three mechanisms i.e. impact/chipping, compression, and abrasion.
This process is usually performed wet although dry process is possible.
Advantages of wet grinding

 Lower power consumption.
 Higher capacity per unit mill volume.
 Wet screening or classification is possible to produce a closed size product.
 Environmentally acceptable since dust is eliminated.
 Handling and transportation is made simple through the use of pipes and pumps.
 Aids longitudinal flow through the mill.
 Facilitates addition of chemical reagents to the pulp when their actions on freshly broken surfaces
are desired.

Advantages of dry grinding
 Reduced wear lining.
 Does not alter chemical nature of the ore.
 Produce a higher proportion of fines.
9.1 Tumbling mills
The figure above shows the cross section of a tumbling mill. There are three basic types of grinding mills
i.e. ball mill, rod mill and autogenous mill, on the basis of grinding medium and shell proportions. In ball
mills, the grinding medium is steel balls; in rod mills, steel rods; in tube or pebble mills, pebbles of hard
rock or other non-metallic material; in autogenous mills, coarse ore particles. A mill is generally a
horizontal cylindrical shell with renewable wearing liners and a charge of grinding medium. The cylinder is
supported so as to rotate on its axis on hollow trunnions attached to the end walls. Feed material is
introduced to the mill continuously through one end and the ground product leaves via the other end
although some designs have ports on the cylinder periphery.
9.1.1 Rod mills

Rod mills are used for coarse grinding and dominated grinding until the 1970’s. The autogenous mills
provide alternative to coarse grinding. Feed as large as 50 mm can be taken by rod mills and discharge
material can be as fine as 300 microns. The reduction ration is 15 to 20: 1. Mill shell length is 1.5 to 2.5
times the diameter and the rods are only a few centimeters shorter than the shell to prevent them from
turning so that they become wedged across the diameter of the cylinder. Rod mills are normally run
between 50 to 60% of the critical speed with a pulp density of 65 to 85% solids. They produce a narrow
size range which is suitable feed to gravity concentrators, magnetic separators and ball mills. The rods are
kept apart by the coarsest particles. The grinding action results from line contact of the rods on the ore

particles and is exerted preferentially on the coarsest particles. Smaller and fine particles do not grind till
the coarsest particle is reduced in size. Thus the rod mill produces a more closely sized product with little
oversize or slimes. Hence the rod mills may be considered as coarse grinding machines. If the material
inside the mill is made to discharge through the periphery of the mill shell, it passes through quickly and
less over-grinding takes place.
Rod mills are classed according to the method of the discharge of ground product as Peripheral, Overflow
and Grate discharge mills. There are two types in peripheral discharge mills. In the end peripheral
discharge mills, the material is fed at one end of the mill and the ground product is discharged from the
other end by means of several peripheral apertures into a close-fitting circumferential chute. In centre
peripheral discharge mills, the material is fed at both ends of the mill and the ground product is discharged
through a circumferential port at the centre of the shell. The material is fed at one end and the product is
discharged through the other end by overflow in overflow discharge mill. In a grate discharge mill,
discharge grates are fitted through which pulp flows freely and lifted up to the level of the discharge
trunnion.
9.1.2 Ball mills
The final stage of comminution is done in the ball mill. Steel balls are used as grinding media. Balls have
greater surface area per unit mass. The length of the cylindrical shell is 1 to 1.5 times the diameter. If the
ratio goes up to 3 – 5 then the mill is a tube mill. Tube mills are usually used in dry operation to grind
materials like gypsum, cement and phosphate. Often pebbles are used as grinding media. The system of
discharge is such that pulp flows through the opening of the grate and is lifted to the trunnion opening and

this leads to a relatively coarser product. The other type of discharge is the overflow discharge or trunnion
overflow. This leads to a finer product relative to grate discharge and energy consumption is 15% less for
the same mill size. Ball mills are usually operated at 65 to 80% solids pulp density and 70 to 80% critical
speed. The ball charge is usually 40 to 50% of the mill volume. Grinding balls are normally made of forged
or rolled high carbon steel or alloy steel and consumption is usually 0.1 to 1kg per tonne of ore varying
with ore hardness and fineness of grind. Medium consumption is one of the largest costs of milling
operations and can go up to 40%. Therefore a good grinding operation is a compromise between medium
wear rate and grinding efficiency.
Mill grate discharge
Mill overflow discharge
9.1.3 Autogenous mills

This involves the use of coarse ore particles (ore lumps) as grinding media. A variation of fully autogenous
mill (FAG) is the semi-autogenous mill (SAG) in which the grinding media is a combination of the ore and
a reduced load of steel balls. For an ore to be ground autogenously its specific gravity must generally be at
least 2.5 and the grain boundaries must exist at desired product size. Ore charge usually 25 to 35 percent of
mill volume depending on ore hardness. AG mills use a grated discharge because coarse particles must be

retained in the mill as media.
Disadvantages of Autogenous mills

 Ore type must be amenable to milling
 Control of feed properties
Schematic AG/ SAG milling process
Schematic of various sections of an AG mill
Main advantages of Autogenous mills

 Lower capital and operating costs.
 Ability to treat wide range of ore types. Wet and sticky material can be handled.
 Lower manpower requirements.
 No negative impact on surface chemistry due to the grinding media

Key variables in Autogenous mills
 Feed size
 Ore hardness
 Mill speed
 Ball size (SAG)
 Ball loading (SAG)
Feed size - Grinding media comes from ore. Change in feed size distribution means change in grinding size
distribution. For AG-milling large enough rocks for impact breaking of smaller sizes are used. In general
AG mill performs better with coarser feeds. In SAG mills there is no need for large rocks for impact
breaking, the big rocks become burden. Feed size impact greater on AG-milling than SAG-milling.
Ore hardness - Harder ore requires coarser feed size. In AG milling if the ore is too soft not large enough
quantities of larger grinding media produced and this leads to a low throughput. On the other hand, too hard
an ore is difficult to break hence throughput decreases also.
9.1.4 Other mills

There are other grinding mill types, though not very commonly used in most mineral processing operations.
These include: Vibratory mills, centrifugal mills, tower mills, stirred media mills and high pressure
grinding rolls. Their mechanism of operation will not be covered in this module.
9.2 Motion in a tumbling mill

At relatively low speed the medium tends to halt down to the toe of the mill and abrasive comminution
occurs. The media is said to be cascading leading to finer grinding and increased liner wear. At higher
speeds the media is projected clear off the charge parabolically before landing on the toe of the shell. The
media cataracts leading to comminution by impact and a coarser end product with reduced liner wear. The
optimum mill speed should produce comminution by both cascading and cataracting motion.
Motion of the charge in a ball mill

Milling modes of breakage
9.2.1 Critical speed
The inside of the ball mill consists of four zones:
1. An empty zone where no balls occupy this zone during operation.
2. A dead zone where no grinding takes place.
3. A zone of circular path where balls roll on each other and grinding takes place by slippage between
ball layers before they are lifted.
4. A zone of parabolic path where the balls spread out and fall down
When the speed of the mill exceeds the critical speed, all these zones disappear, the balls will centrifuge
and no grinding takes place anywhere inside the mill. Hence the mill should be operated at a speed below
the critical speed. The usual range is 60–80% of critical speed. As the speed of the mill increases, the balls
are lifted higher and a stage is reached where the balls are carried around the shell and never allowed to
fall. That means centrifuging occurs. The balls will rotate as if they are part of the shell. The speed at which
centrifuging occurs is known as critical speed. An expression for the critical speed is given by:
42.3
Critical speed= 𝑁𝑐 = 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 ; where D = internal diameter of mill in metres, and
√(𝐷−𝑑)
d = diameter of the balls in metres.
Balls vary in size. The largest balls are used for coarser grinding. Initially, at the start of a ball mill, balls of
various sizes, known as seasoned charge, are introduced. As the balls wear out gradually, only the largest
balls are added as make up media.

9.3 Ball mill operation
Charge volume is the percentage of the cross sectional area of the mill covered/ occupied by balls/ rods and
their interstices. Large balls are needed to crush large ore pieces. Hard ore requires larger balls. Finer
grinding requires larger surface area per unit mass. This is achieved by smaller balls through the attrition
milling surface effect. The slurry density should be viscous enough to cover balls. If water is increased:
 It reduces the number of smaller particles to be milled.
 It reduces the number of effective impacts
An even (lower) more amount of water makes the slurry not viscous enough to cover balls; thus the power
draw decreases.
9.3.1 Milling circuits

Grinding circuits can also be classified as open or closed. In open circuit grinding material is fed into the
mill at a rate calculated to produce the correct product in one pass. The feed rate must be low enough to
ensure that every particle spend enough time in the mill to be reduced to the correct product size.
In closed circuit grinding no effort is made to effect all the size reduction in a single pass
Material returned to the mill by the classifier is known as circulating load. Usually in closed circuit
grinding circulating load is around 250%. Grinding in mineral processing is almost always performed in
closed circuit.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

% 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = × 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑
Advantages of closed circuit grinding over open circuit

 It reduces residence time of particles in each pass thereby increasing throughput.

 It prevents overgrinding, increasing energy available for useful grinding.
Grinding units can be operated in parallel or in series. Series circuits provides for multistage grinding
producing successively finer products.
Series units
Parallel units
The most common are the two stage grinding circuits incorporating a primary and a secondary ball mill.
Two stage circuits can also incorporate a rod mill and a ball mill to give rod mill – ball mill grinding circuit
as illustrated below.
Rod mill – ball mill grinding circuit
9.3.2 Control of grinding circuits

Milling operations aim to produce a product of known and controllable particle size. The principle
variables which can affect control are;
 Changes in the new feed rate and circulating load.
 Size distribution of the feed and the hardness of the ore.
 Rate of water addition to the circuit.
 Interruptions like power surges.
Parameters that you need to control are the particle size distribution, feed rate, circulating load, pulp

density, mill load and power monitoring.
Milling control variables

Questions:
1. Using sketches of circuits distinguish open circuits from closed circuits in milling operation.
2. Outline the advantages of wet milling over dry milling
3. Rod mills can be classified according to discharge method of ground product, identify the
classes.
4. Outline the key variables in AG and SAG mill operation.
5. Define critical speed and explain its importance in ball mill operation practice.
6. With the help of a sketch circuit, outline the control variables of a milling circuit.
Reference:
Press

TOPIC 10: ORE CLASSIFICATION OPERATION
Objective:

 Identify factors influencing particle separation
 Describe hindered and free settling and how this influences the separation of particles
 Identify different types of classification equipment
 Have knowledge and understanding of the hydro cyclone as a classifying device
Information
Classification is the separation of mixtures of mineral particles into two or more products by exploiting
the difference in the velocity with which the grains flow through the fluid medium. Particles of various
sizes, shapes and specific gravities are separated by being allowed to settle in a fluid. In mineral
processing the fluid medium is usually water. This process is usually applied to particles which are too
fine for efficiency separation by screening (<250μm size range).
Factors influencing particle separation
The basic principle of classification is that coarser, heavier and rounder particles settle faster than the
finer, lighter and more angular particles. In classification, certain particles are only allowed to settle in the
fluid medium in order to separate the particles into two fractions. Factors that affect separation can be
classified as:
 Factors relating to the properties of the particles.
 Factors relating to the property of the fluid (e.g. water, air or dense medium).
 External acceleration forces (gravity, centrifugal forces).
 Flow regime (e.g. laminar or turbulent).
Factors relating to the properties of the particles
These include:
 size (equivalent diameter)
 density of particles
 shape of particles
 surface roughness

Factors relating to the property of the fluid
These include:
 Fluid viscosity
 % Solids (relates to the viscosity of fluid)
 Stability of the medium in fluid
 Density of fluid
10.1 Theory of classification

When a particle falls through a viscous fluid medium, it experiences resistance to its motion which
increases with the velocity of fall. Equilibrium is reached between gravitational and fluid resistance forces
and the particles fall at a uniform rate called terminal velocity. Classifiers are essentially sorting columns
in which a fluid is rising and the particles are introduced so that they either sink or rise depending on their
terminal velocity.
Schematic of a classifier-sorting column
There are two types of settling: Free settling (no interference of flow patterns) and Hindered settling
(interference of flow patterns).
10.1.1 Free settling

This occurs when the percentage of solids in the fluid medium is relatively low, usually less than 15% by
weight. Free settling refers to the sinking of particles in a volume of fluid which is large with respect to
the total volume of particles, hence particle crowding is negligible. It can be deduced that:
 If two particles have the same density, then the particle with the larger diameter has the higher terminal
velocity.
 If two particles have the same diameter, then the heavier particle has the higher terminal velocity.
The density difference between the particles has a more pronounced effect on classification at coarser size

ranges. This is important where gravity concentration is being utilized. Over-grinding of the ore must be
avoided, such that particles are fed to the separator in as coarse a state as possible, so that a rapid
separation can be made, exploiting the enhanced effect of specific gravity difference. The enhanced
gravity effect does, however, mean that fine heavy minerals are more likely to be over ground in
conventional ball mill-classifier circuits, so it is preferable where possible to use rod mills for the primary
coarse grind.
10.1.2 Hindered settling

As the solid concentration in the pulp increases, particle crowding occurs and the falling rate of particles
decrease, a phenomenon called hindered settling. The system begins to behave as a heavy liquid whose
density is that of the pulp rather than that of the carrier liquid. Because of the high density and viscosity of
the slurry through which a particle must fall in a separation by hindered settling, the resistance to fall is
mainly due to the turbulence created. Hindered settling reduces the effect of size, while increasing the
effect of density on classification. Hindered-settling classifiers are used to increase the effect of density on
the separation, whereas free-settling classifiers use relatively dilute suspensions to increase the effect of
size on the separation. Relatively dense slurries are fed to certain gravity concentrators, particularly those
treating heavy alluvial sands. This allows high tonnages to be treated, and enhances the effect of specific
gravity difference on the separation. The efficiency of separation, however, may be reduced since the
viscosity of slurry increases with density.
10.2Types of classifiers
Many different types of classifier have been designed and built. They may be grouped, however, into two
broad classes depending on the direction of flow of the carrying current. Horizontal current classifiers
such as mechanical classifiers are essentially of the free-settling type and accentuate the sizing function;
vertical current or hydraulic classifiers are usually hindered-settling types and so increase the effect of
density on the separation.
10.2.1 Settling cone
These are the simplest form of classifier, in which there is little attempt to do more than separate the solids

from the liquid. Initially the spigot is closed and the cone is filled with pulp until water and pulp over
flow. The coarse solids and sands build up then the spigot is opened and the solid discharge is maintained
at the same rate as the feed. Classification action occurs radially from the feed curtain with coarse solids
flowing and slimes overflowing the lip. Settling cones are used to de-slime coarse sands products in the
aggregate industry and for dewatering in small scale operations.
10.2.2 Mechanical classifier

Several forms of classifier exist in which the material of lower settling velocity is carried away in a liquid
overflow, and the material of higher settling velocity is deposited on the bottom of the equipment and is
dragged upwards against the flow of liquid by some mechanical means. The liquid overflow carries the
slime while the material of high settling velocity is deposited at the bottom and is screwed upwards
against the flow of liquid by some mechanical means. Settled solids are conveyed up the inclined trough
and the conveying mechanism also stirs the particles and keeps them in suspension. Mechanical classifiers
are used in closed circuit grinding operations and classification of products from ore washing plants. A
rake classifier and a spiral classifier are examples of mechanical classifiers.
Picture of a spiral classifier

Schematic of a spiral classifier
10.2.3 Hydraulic classifier

Consists of a series of sorting columns through each of which a vertical current of water is rising and
particles are settling out. The water is introduced into the sorting column so that its direction of flow
opposes that of particles (counter current). The rising water current and the different column sizes give
rise to different product sizes which are; coarse, medium and fine. Hydraulic classifiers may be free or
hindered settling type. Hindered settling types are the most common and they have sorting columns that
are constricted at the bottom in order to produce a teeter chamber (fluidizing chamber). For this reason,
hindered settling classifiers use much less water and are more selective in action due to the scouring
action in the teeter chamber. Hydraulic classifiers are mainly used for sorting the feed for certain gravity
concentration processes.

Principle of hydraulic classifier
10.3 Hydrocyclone
Overflow elbow (1), vortex finder (2), inlet

head (3), barrel (4), conical section (5),
spigot(6)

The figure above shows the anatomy of a hydrocyclone. The hydrocyclone is a static device (no moving
parts) which is used to separate or classify a feed into a coarse fraction and a fine fraction. The basis of
separation is size and water is used as the transport medium. Mostly used for classification of particles
between 150 and 5μm. Feed is introduced under pressure through the tangential inlet generating a vortex
with a low pressure zone along the vertical axis. The particles in the feed are subjected to two opposing
forces i.e. outward centrifugal force and inward dragging force. The centrifugal force accelerates the
settling rate of the particles thereby separating according to size and density. Heavier and fast settling
particles move to the wall where velocity is lowest and migrate to the apex or spigot as underflow. The
drag force pushes slower settling particles to the zone of low pressure along the vertical axis where they
are forced upwards through the vortex finder and report to the overflow. Because of the very high
centrifugal forces inside the hydrocyclone, vertical or horizontal installation orientation has no effect on
separation performance.
10.3.1 Components of a cyclone
Safety Devices- The safety devices such as the pump lockout at the cyclone section must be identified and
their functions understood.
Instrumentation-Instrumentation controls such as the stop/start of the pump around the cyclone section
must be identified and their functions understood.
Stop/start stations-Stop/start stations around the cyclone section must be identified and their functions
understood.
Vortex Finders-Vortex finders of the cyclone provide the overflow or fines product of the cyclone that
will go to the next stage in the process. Vortex finders can have various diameters subject to cyclone sizes
and product requirements. Vortex finders must be identified and their functions understood.
Spigots-Spigots of the cyclone provide the underflow or coarse product of the cyclone that will go to the
next stage in the process or back to the previous stage. Spigots can have various diameters subject to
cyclone sizes and product requirements. Spigots must be identified and their functions understood.
Spigot housing-The spigot housing is the section at the bottom of the cyclone and the spigot fits into this
housing. The spigot housing must be identified and its function understood.
Inlet-The inlet is the point of entry into the feed chamber. This is normally a rectangular orifice, with the
larger dimension parallel to the cyclone axis. The inlet must be identified and their functions understood.
Cone-The conical section or cone section has an included angle of between 10O and 20 O and provides the
retention time necessary for separation. The cone must be identified and their functions understood.
Spray chamber-The spray chamber is normally a box at the discharge end of the spigot. The material
together with water is sprayed into these chambers.
Feed nozzle-The feed nozzle is at the point of entry into the feed chamber. This is normally a rectangular
orifice, with the larger dimension parallel to the cyclone axis. The basic area of the inlet nozzle is
approximates 0.05 times the cyclone diameter squared. The inlet must be identified and their functions
understood.
Wedge-Wedges are used to vary the feed velocity into the feed chamber. Wedges must be identified and
their functions understood.
Division plate-Division plates are used to divide the underflow and overflow products into two different
streams. Division plates must be identified and their functions understood.
Cover plate-Cover plates are used to cover the spray chambers. Cover plates must be identified and their
functions understood.
Overflow hood-The overflow hood is found at the discharge of the vortex finder or overflow. The
overflow material together with water sprays into this hood.
Lining-Lining is there to protect the cyclone and to increase the lifetime of the cyclone and to decrease
maintenance time. Linings must be identified and their functions understood.
Splash skirting-Below the apex a splash skirting helps to contain the underflow slurry. Splash skirting
must be identified and their functions understood.
10.3.2 Operating parameters

Several parameters influence the results of the separation. Sharpness of separation decreases with
increasing pulp density. The geometry of the cyclone such as cone angle and the relative sizes of the
orifice openings allow modification of specific characteristics of the separation of the hydro cyclone. To
control this efficiency, four main parameters are usually used: Cut size, Flow split between overflow and
underflow, Sharpness of classification, and Pressure drop. Site specific standard operating procedures
must be referred to. The following are operating parameters.
• Feed flow rate
• Feed size
• Feed density
• Overflow density
• Underflow density
• Pressures
• Spigot size
• Inlet area
Feed flow rate
The feed rate to the cyclone is of utmost importance and is determined by the size of the cyclone at a pre-
determined pressure. When the flow rate increases, the pressure in the cyclone increases which produces
a more precise separation of particles.
Feed Size
The feed size of the material is very important. Various different cyclone sizes have different particle cut

sizes. The larger the size distribution of material is, the better the separation in the cyclone.
Feed Density
The feed density has a very large impact on cyclone separation. When operating at a feed density above
50% solids by weight, small changes in feed density will change the separation size dramatically. The
lower the density to the cyclone, the better the separation inside the cyclone, because the particles can
move more freely and separate faster.
Overflow Density
The overflow density must be lower than the feed density and the underflow density, because there is
more water than solids. If it is not, this would indicate a major blockage or problem with the cyclone.
Underflow Density
The overflow density must be lower than the feed density and the underflow density, because there is
more water than solids.
Pressure
The pressure inside the cyclone is important for the separation process and it will different for various
cyclone sizes. If there is not enough pressure in the cyclone, the centrifugal force created will be lower
and this will cause particles to drop toward the spigot instead of being thrown against the cyclone wall.
Spigot Size
The spigot must be sized to allow a cone shaped discharge (ideally 20 to 30 degree included angle) at the
maximum conditions. The ratio of the spigot size to the vortex finder size, effects the vortex created and
this will change the separation size.
Inlet Area
The inlet area is important for creating a centrifugal force and for maintaining a high pressure in the feed
which both effect the particle separation.
10.3.3 Factors affecting cyclone performance
The following is some basic requirements for good cyclone operation:
• Pressure drop must be maintained for good cyclone operation.

• Operate the cyclone at the lowest feed density possible.
• Apex must be sized to allow a cone shaped discharge at the maximum conditions.
• Circulating load.

• Over grinding.
The following must be observed when the cyclones are in operation:
• Leaks on overflow and underflow and cyclone in general.
• The discharge of the spigot must be in the shape of dovetail flair. If the shape looks like a rope
then there is something wrong and the plant load must be reduced. This can also indicate that
there is a blockage inside the cyclone.
• Check that the feed density is correct.
• Check the feed, flow rate and size of the ore particles.
• Look at the feed, flow rate and size of the ore particles.
• Check the underflow and overflow to determine the efficiency of the separation of the cyclone.
Upstream problems will be experienced, as feed delivery will have to be suspended should the process
need to be stopped in the event of down-stream problems. This could require the mill to stop, which
affects production.
Downstream problems
• Incorrect separation parameters – this means that the point of separation will be either finer or
coarser.
• Flotation efficiency will decrease as the amount of liberated particles decreases if the overflow
is too coarse
• Flotation efficiency will also decrease if the particles are too fine, as they will not have enough
energy to adhere properly to the bubbles. Fine waste material can also be mechanically
entrained in the froth, decreasing the grade of the concentrate
• Thickener settlement is affected if the particles are too fine as finer particles do not settle
efficiently.
• Coarse material could build up in sumps, tanks and thickeners which causes problems for
further machinery or concentration stages
• Damage to equipment which was not designed for that size range of particles
10.3.4 Cyclone trouble shooting
The tables in the next two pages provides problems that are encountered when operating cyclones and
gives possible causes and remedies (corrective measures). A technician manning a classification unit must
be aware of these corrective measures.

Problem Possible cause Corrective action
Blockages Density too high Try to flush out material by stopping the
mill and opening the sump dilution
water to maximum
Increase the mill sump dilution water
Foreign material/grinding media Check trommel or trash screen for
missing panels and replace
Stop the mill and dilution water, lock out
and disassemble the section of pipe
where the suspected blockage is
Coarse material Ensure that all pipes and pumps are
flushed when the milling section is shut
down to prevent material drying in the
pumps and pipes
Pump not taking load Check the pump amps, if they are
running low but the flow rate is low then
report it to the engineering department
Spillage Mill discharge sump overflowing Check pump operation
Check the operation of the sump level
sensor
Report problems and prepare to repair
Leaking Pumps, valves, pipes or Visually check where leak is
cyclone components Report problem
Tramp Material Trommel screen or trash screen Check condition of screens
panels missing or holed Report and repair
Material lying around fell into mill Good House-keeping
discharge sump
Faulty Interlock Safety device has been by-passed Check interlocks and ensure no safety
device is being by-passed
Interlock not working Call technician to investigate
Power failure Mine power supply faulty Close water
Investigate problem
Report
Restart
Pump tripped in sub-station Report to electrician to investigate
Close water
Re-start
Pump tripped on overload Call electrician and fitter to investigate
problem with pump
Oversize material Density too high Increase sump dilution water
Pressure too low Increase pump dilution water
Increase pump speed

Problem Possible cause Corrective action
Oversize material Mill not grinding properly Investigate and tune grinding
parameters according to specifications
Leaks Holes in pipes/pump casing Check where leak is
Report and schedule for repair
Cyclone components worn Investigate where leak is
Report and schedule to repair
Splash covers missing Check for splash covers
Replace or schedule for repair
Roping Density too high Check mill feed dilution water
Check cyclone feed dilution
Check pressure on cyclone
Ensure all parameters are as per
specification
Pressure too low Check cyclone for leaks or worn
components
Report
Check cyclone feed flow rate
Check cyclone feed density
Check circulating load of mill
Check cyclone products for blockages
Flaring Cyclone feed density too low Check dilution water
Check the cyclone feed pressure
Check cyclone products for blockages
Incorrect Density Too high Check feed: inlet dilution ratio and
correct
Check supply of dilution water
Correct
Increase dilution rate
Too Low Check mill feed rate is high enough
Check the flow rate of water too the
sump – faulty reading
Incorrect Pressure Too low Cyclone components for worn spigot or
holes
Check cyclone feed density
Correct parameters if possible, if not
report
Too high Check flow rate of slurry to cyclone
Check for blockages on cyclone
underflow
Check mill discharge density and
increase inlet dilution water.

Questions:
1. Explain the term mineral classification?
2. Explain the theory of classification?
3. What is the separation criteria used in particle size classification?
4. Copy and complete the table below for a Hydrocyclone

Situation Possible cause Suggested solution
Coarse overflow
Roping
Excessive fine overflow
5. Explain the operating parameters of a hydrocyclone classifier.
Reference:
Press
2. Deer Wet A, (1978). An Introduction to Rock forming minerals. Longman.

TOPIC 11: PARTICLE SIZE ANAYSIS FOR FINE AGGREGATES
Objectives:

 Understand the need for particle size analysis
 Understand methods of particle size analysis
Information:
screen surface. Particle size analysis is done to assess the efficiency of industrial screens, and the
efficiency of grinding operations. It gives a particle size distribution of the product from milling
operations.
11.1Laboratory Screening
Laboratory particle size analysis is a laboratory testing procedure in mineral processing operations that is
used to obtain quantitative data of the size and distribution of particles in the material. After comminution
particles take different irregular shapes making it difficult to determine the exact particle size. Most often
equivalent diameter is quoted. Equivalent diameter of a particle is the diameter of a sphere that would
behave in the same manner as the particle when subjected to some specific operations. The objective of
size analysis is to determine quality of grinding and establish the degree of liberation of the values from
the gangue at various particle sizes. In concentrating stage, size analysis is done to determine the optimum
size of the feed to a process for maximum efficiency and to determine the range at which any losses in the
plant are occurring so that they may be reduced. Methods of size analysis must therefore be accurate and
reliable. Only small quantities are taken in these laboratory tests and so it is essential that the sample is a
representative of the bulk material.

11.2Methods of particle size analysis
Test sieving- is the most widely used technique for particle size analysis. This is because it is simple and it
covers a wide range of particle sizes that are of industrial interest. Sieving is particularly used for size
measurement of powders having the greater proportion of particles in the range of 10mm to 38μm. Particle
sizes in the range of 38 to 10μm can be determined by special techniques of sieving. However, there are
other techniques that are preferred for determination of sizes smaller than 38μm (sub-sieve sizes), e.g.
elutriation. A sieve is an open container, usually cylindrical, having fixed spaced and uniform openings
(apertures) in the base. The apertures are square when wire mesh is used and circular when they are formed
by punching holes in a metal plate. Sieving is accomplished by passing a known weight of sample material
successively through finer sieves and weighing the amount collected on each sieve to determine the
percentage weight in each size fraction. Sieving is carried out with wet or dry material and the sieves are
usually agitated to expose all particles to the openings.
Typical examples of standardized screening scales are; German standard, DIN 4188; British standard,
BSS410; French series, AFNOR; American Tyler series; and ASTM, E11. The most common scale is the
American Tyler screen scale. Sieves were designated by the mesh number which is the number of wires per
inch or number of square apertures per inch. An effective sieve scale is one in which the ratio of the
aperture width of adjacent sieves is the square root of two (i.e. you divide by √2). The advantage of such a
scale is that the aperture area doubles at each sieve facilitating graphical presentation of the results.
Intermediate sieves should never be chosen at random, as data obtained will be difficult to interpret. In
general, sieve range should be chosen such that no more than 5% of sample is retained on the coarsest

sieve. Machine sieving or the vibrating sieve shaker is the most universally used method of testing. The
sieves are arranged in a stack or nest with the coarsest sieve on the top and the finest at the bottom. A
receiver pan is placed below the bottom sieve to receive the final under size.
Presentation of results for sieve analysis is as shown on the table below which shows size distribution.
The results of a sieving test will then be plotted graphically in order to assess their full significance. The
most common graph is that of the cumulative % passing against particle size. A semi-logarithmic plot is
normally used for that purpose. The mesh of grind is usually given in terms of one point on the cumulative
undersize curve, often being the 80% passing size. This facilitates routine control of the grinding circuit.
For example, if 80% passing 100μm is the target grind, then a fraction of mill product is screened at one
size. If only 50% of the sample is minus 100μm, then the product is too coarse hence control steps are
taken to rectify this.

Questions:
1. What is the objective particle size analysis in the milling plant?
2. Explain the meaning of ‘80% passing 75 microns’ in the milling plant.
3. Copy and complete the table below.
Reference:
Press

TOPIC 12: CONCENTRATION METHODS
Objectives:
 Describe the concentration of minerals using gravity techniques
 Explain concentration using jigs, spirals, Knelson concentrator and shaking tables
 Describe dense medium separation process
 Explain concentration using magnetic properties
 Explain the principle of flotation
Information
We have seen that the reason for size reduction (comminution) is to liberate minerals from gangue. The
next stage is to separate the liberated minerals from the gangue minerals. This separation process is known
as mineral concentration. To recover and concentrate valuable minerals, the product from the size reduction
step is separated into two streams: valuable mineral (concentrate), and gangue (tailings). An intermediate
product with partially liberated minerals, called middlings is often recycled internally. Flotation, magnetic
separation, and gravity methods are typical separation processes. Ideally, the concentrate should contain
100% valuable minerals and tailings should contain 100% gangue. In reality, concentrate contains some
gangue and tailings contain some valuable minerals. Mineral processing combines liberation and separation
to concentrate valuable minerals.
Concentration is the separation of minerals based on physical or chemical properties. The purpose of
concentration is to separate the wanted mineral from the unwanted gangue.

Valuable product
Intermediate product contains

FEED dilute valuable product
Discarded product, contains

gangue minerals
The middlings fraction needs to be reground to completely liberate the value. This is normally the case in a
two stage separation process where you have primary and secondary concentration stages.
12.1Gravity concentration
Gravity concentration is used to separate minerals of different size and specific gravity by their relative
movement in response to gravity or more other forces especially resistance to motion due to a viscous fluid
such as water or air. It is essential that minerals are well liberated. For effective separation, there must be a
marked difference in density between valuable minerals and the gangue. The concentration criterion of
gravity separation is;
𝐷ℎ −𝐷𝑓
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐷𝑙 −𝐷𝑓
Where 𝐷ℎ , 𝐷𝑙 and 𝐷𝑓 are specific gravities (densities) of the heavy mineral, light mineral, and fluid
medium respectively. If the value of the concentration criterion is > 2.5 then gravity separation is relatively
easy but if it is < 1.25 then gravity separation is not commercially feasible.
Gravity separation devices include; jigs, spirals, shaking tables, Knelson concentrators, Molzey
concentrators and the sluices. Generally, gravity separators require a well sized feed which entails the
removal of oversize by screening and classification of the feed. They are effective on particles > 10μm.
12.1.1 Jigs
Jigs are used to concentrate relatively coarse material usually > 150μm. For narrow specific gravity
difference, a closed size feed is required. When the specific gravity difference is large, good separation is
achieved even with a wider difference in size. Jigging is a method of sorting particles by stratification,
based on movement of a bed of particles relative to a fluid in a vertical plane. Stratification relate to the

movement of particles in a vertical plane. Basically a jig is an open tank filled with water, with a horizontal
screen at the top and a spigot in the bottom, or hutch compartment, for concentrate removal. The bed of the
jig consists of a layer of coarse, heavy particles, or ragging, placed on the screen on to which pulp is fed.
Grains with a high specific gravity penetrate through the ragging and screen to report as concentrate.
Light grains are carried away by the cross-flow to be discarded as tailings.
Mechanism of separation
Separation of minerals of different specific gravities is achieved as a result of stratification produced by a

fluidizing pulsating current of water or air. The feed bed is dilated so that the heavier smaller particles
penetrate the interstices of the bed and large high specific gravity particles fall under hindered settling
conditions. The pulsating fluid current in the jig produces a sinusoidal flow. The pulsations are produced
by the harmonic action of pistons or alternating air currents. On the pulsation stroke the bed is lifted as a
mass and as the velocity decreases the bed dilates and particles at the bottom fall until the whole bed is
loosened. On the suction stroke the bed closes slowly again and this is repeated every half cycle. Cycle
frequency ranges from 55 to 330 cycles per minute. Acceleration of the particle only depends on the
density of the fluid and of the particle. The higher the density of the particle the higher the terminal velocity
and acceleration. Therefore, relatively denser particles settle faster. To separate small heavy minerals from
lighter particles, short jigs are required (short cycles). However, more control and better stratification is
achieved by using longer slower jigs especially when dealing with coarse particles.

Typical application of jigs
 Coal washing (fines, small and coarse)
 Ferro-alloy recovery (FeCr, FeMn, SiMn, FeV and steel)
 Upgrading of metallic ores (Cr, Mn, Fe, Pt)
 Upgrading of non-metallics (diamonds, garnet, corrundum)
 Washing of wastes
12.1.2 Spirals
Spirals are extensively used in the treatment of tin, chromium and gold bearing ores as well as heavy
mineral sand deposits e.g. zircon, rutile, ilimenite and monazite. The feed consisting of particles of 3 to
75μm at a pulp density of 15 to 45 % solids by weight. The spiral achieves better stratification length by
employing a curved trough of multiple turns. The particles stratify due to the combined effect of;
centrifugal forces, differential settling of particles and interstitial trickling through the flowing bed.
Separation is due to hindered settling with the heaviest particle reporting to the concentrate vent along the
inner edge of the stream. Wash water is added at the inner edge of the stream and it flows outwardly across
the concentrate vent. Capacity of the spiral ranges from one to five tonnes per hour and this limited
throughput coupled with little tolerance in variations in the feed pulp characteristics such as particle size
distribution are the main weaknesses of the spiral. To improve on this, several units are used in parallel.
12.1.3 Knelson concentrator

In the Knelson concentrator, particles are subjected to centrifugal forces≈ 60 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒.
This enables the recovery of very fine particles. The enhanced gravitational force together with the
fluidization process enables the concentrator to achieve good separation. Water is introduced into the
rotating concentrator cone through a series of fluidization holes. Feed slurry is then introduced through a
stationery tube. The slurry gets to the bottom of the cone and is forced outwards and up the wall by

centrifugal forces. The slurry fills each ring to capacity to create a concentrate bed. As water is injected into
the ring, the flow is controlled to achieve optimum fluidization. High specific gravity particles are retained
in the concentrator cone. Light particles move out of the bowl as overflow. When the concentrating cycle is
complete (one to two minutes), concentrates are flushed out from the cone. Advantages of the Knelson
concentrator includes: low maintenance costs, it does not require a lot of space and good for precious
metals because it is a closed and secure component. Its major disadvantages are that:
It has a relatively low throughput ≈ 150 t/h, is a high cost device and difficult to concentrate grains of
heavy minerals of different sizes effectively.
12.1.4 Shaking tables
Very efficient form of gravity separation used to treat smaller and more difficult minerals to produce a finer
concentrate from the products of other gravity separation operations. A shaking table consists of a slightly
inclined deck onto which feed of about 25% solids is introduced through the feed box. Wash water is

distributed and the table is vibrated longitudinally. The mineral particles are subjected to two forces i.e. due
to the motion of the table and due to the flowing film of water which is at the right angle to the 1st force.
The net result is that the particles move diagonally across the deck. Vertical stratification due to the shaking
action occurs in the riffles. The finest and heaviest particles go to the bottom while the coarsest and lightest
particles would be at the surface. Trough depth decrease moving from feed side to the opposite side with a
smooth part. Layers of particles are moved across the riffles by crowding action of new feed and the
flowing stream of wash water.
Variables affecting performance of shaking tables

 Amount of wash water.
 Deck slope- it should be moderate so that the heavy particles are able to climb the riffles more
readily than the less dense particles.
 Amplitude of vibration- fine feed requires high speed and shorter strokes than coarse feed.
 Particle size and shape- as the particle size range widens, efficiency of separation decreases. Flat
particles are not efficiently separated as they cling to the deck and report the concentrate side
regardless of their specific gravity.
Shaking table capacity varies directly as the particle size of the feed and the concentration criteria. For
example, size of 100 to 150μm can achieve capacity of 0.5 tph, 1.5mm 2tph and 15mm 15tph. Introduction
of double or triple deck system increase capacity. Applications of shaking tables are in:
 Gold recovery.
 Cleaning of spiral concentrate.
 Retreating of crushed slag to remove free metallics.
 Precious metal separation.
 Heavy mineral and sulphide recovery.
 Upgrading of flotation product (metallics).
12.1.5 Dense Medium Separation

Dense medium separation (DMS) also called heavy medium separation (HMS), sort particles on the basis
of their apparent density relative to that of the carrying medium. The medium is usually a suspension of
fine particles in water. The specific gravity range of the media is 1.3 to 3.4. An ore mineral consists of a
range of densities. The fluid medium within which the separation takes place is called the medium and its
density performs the separation. Floats are lighter minerals which float on top of the medium while sinks
are minerals with higher density than that of the medium are thus sinks to the bottom. Application of DMS
include:
 To produce a finished marketable product by simple density split. E.g. coal, iron, diamonds etc.
 To produce a final waste material and a concentrate which require further processing to meet
specifications e.g. base metal ores.
Advantages of DMS
 Ability to produce sharp separations at a wide range of densities.
 Close control of density of separations
Disadvantages of DMS
 An expensive process mainly due to the ancillary equipment.
 Range of application i.e. mainly applied to coarse sizes, greater than 0.5mm. This is because fine
particles take long periods to settle.
 Porous materials give unsatisfactory results due to entrainment of liquid in the pores. This changes
the apparent density of the particles.
Typical DMS plant layout
There are three main sections of the plant i.e. feed preparation section which comprises of crushers, sizing

screens or desliming cyclones; separation stage i.e. gravitational or static, or dynamic/centrifugal; and
medium recovery, cleaning and control circuit which consist of a new medium addition system, storage
tank, pumps, medium density control, wash screens and a magnetic medium cleaning system.
Dense Medium
Laboratory scale normally use heavy organic liquids e.g. tetrabromoethane (TBE) with SG 2.96, is usually
used and diluted with tetrachloromethane of SG 1.58 to give densities below 2.96. However, organic
liquids give toxic fumes and must be used with adequate ventilation. The liquids are also expensive and
therefore cannot be used on large scale operation. Another is di-iodo-methane with SG up to 3.9.
Characteristics of an ideal medium
 Should have a high SG so that density can easily be adjusted.
 Easily recoverable from sinks and floats for reuse.
 Must be cheap.
 Non-toxic.
 Immiscible in liquids.
 Minimum viscosity.
 Maximum stability and resistance to degradation by corrosion.
 Unaffected by gravitational forces
Salt solutions e.g. aqueous solutions of; sodium chloride, calcium chloride and zinc chloride can also be
used as media in laboratories. Industrial scale operations make use of solid suspensions instead of liquids.
Below a concentration of ≈30% by volume finely ground suspensions in water behave essentially as
Newtonian fluids.
Solid suspension in common use

Aqueous solutions of sand, magnetite and ferrosilicon are the most widely used suspensions. The selection
of the separation is based on the particle size which also depends on the ore mineralogy and texture which
defines the particle size required to achieve good separation. Magnetite is relatively cheap and is recovered
by washing and magnetic separation. It is mostly used in coal preparation. It is the most widely used
medium for metalliferous ores. Ferrosilicon is an alloy of iron and silicon (not less than 82% Fe and 15 to
16% Si). Like magnetite, ferrosilicon is relatively cheap and is recovered by washing and magnetic
separation.

Material Properties Advantages Disadvantages
Sand  𝜌 Solids = 2.65 t/m3  Low viscosity.  Unstable
• Size range – 100 to 500 microns.  Cheap.  Upward flow of water
• Density range – 1.3 to 1.8 Kg/l.  Easy to recover required
Magnetite  𝜌 Solids = 5.1 t/m3.  Density easily  Unstable at low densities.
 Size range – coarse, medium and fine grades adjustable.  Viscous at high densities
available.  Easy to recover.
 Typically 95% < 45 micron.  Relatively cheap
 Density range – 1.3 to 2.5Kg/l.
 Magnetic.
Ferrosilicon  𝜌 Solids ≈ 6.8 t/m3.  Density easily  Unstable at low densities.
• Size range – various grades available: adjustable.  Viscous at high densities
(Milled; from 30 to 90% < 45micron)  Easy to recover.
(Atomized; from 45 to 90% < 45 micron)  Relatively cheap
• Density range – 2.0 to 3.4Kg/l.
• Magnetic
Separation vessels
Separating vessels may be classified into gravitational (static-baths) and centrifugal (dynamic) vessels.
Gravitational vessels have a large surface area and contain a relatively large volume of gently agitated
medium. Floats are removed by paddles, rakes or by overflow. Sinks are discharged in such a manner that
downward medium currents are avoided. Examples of the gravitational vessels are; Wemco cone separator,
Drum separators, Wemco Drum. Centrifugal vessels increase the rate of settling of fine particles through
the medium and lower the viscosity of the medium thus enabling much finer separations to be achieved.
Feed particle size range is usually 0.5 to 50mm. Examples of centrifugal separators are; Dense medium
cyclones, Vorsyl separator, Large coal dense medium separators (LARCODEMS), Dyna Whirlpool, and
Triflo separators.
12.2Magnetic separation
The basic principle in magnetic separation is the exploitation of the difference in magnetic properties
between ore minerals. Magnetic separation is used to;
 Separate valuable mineral from non-magnetic gangue e.g. magnetite from quartz
 Magnetite contaminants from non-magnetic values e.g. magnetite from tin bearing ores
All materials can be divided into two broad categories depending on whether they are repelled or attracted
by magnets. Diamagnetic and paramagnetic are the two categories;
Diamagnetic materials - Diamagnetic materials are repelled along the lines of magnetic force to a point
where the field intensity is smaller. The forces involved are very small and diamagnetic substances cannot
be concentrated magnetically.
Paramagnetic materials- Materials that are paramagnetic are attracted along the lines of magnetic force to
points of greater field intensity. Paramagnetic materials can be concentrated in high intensity magnetic
separators e.g. ilmenite (FeTiO3), rutile (TiO2), monazite (rare earth phosphate), wolframite ((Fe, Mn)
WO4), siderite FeCO3 etc. Ferromagnetism is a special case of paramagnetism involving very high forces.
The principle ferromagnetic mineral is magnetite (Fe3O4). Hematite and siderite can be roasted to produce
magnetite and hence good separation on low magnetic intensity separators.
Magnetism
A moving electric charge e.g. current in a conductor acts as a source of magnetic field in the surrounding
region. A charged particle moving in a magnetic field experiences a force that depends on; the speed and
charge of the particle, and the magnitude of the magnetic field. The capacity of a magnet to lift a mineral
depends on the value of the field intensity and the field gradient i.e. the rate of increase of field intensity
towards the magnetic surface.
Types of magnetic separators

Magnetic separators are classified as; low intensity separators which can treat dry or wet feed and high
intensity separators which can also handle wet or dry feed.
Low-intensity magnetic separation

They are used to treat ferromagnetic materials and some highly paramagnetic minerals e.g. concentration of
very magnetic sands. In general, particle size of >0.5cm are separated in dry operation and those < 0.5cm
are wet separated. Examples include drum separators, cross belt magnetic separators and disc magnetic
separators. The figure below shows a cross belt separator.
High- intensity magnetic separation

Very weakly paramagnetic minerals can only be effectively removed from an ore feed if high intensity
fields of 2 T (teslas) and more can be produced. Examples of such separators are; Induced roll magnetic
separators (IRMs), and the Jones separator. The induced roll magnetic separator is shown in the figure
below.

12.3Froth flotation
Froth flotation is a beneficiation process that utilizes the differences in physico-chemical surface properties
of minerals, finely divided and suspended in an aqueous medium, to effect separation. The differences in
the physico-chemical surface properties of minerals become readily apparent after treatment with reagents.
In order for the process to occur, an air bubble must attach itself to a particle and rise through the pulp to
the water surface thus forming a froth layer on the top of the flotation cell. There is an optimum particle for
a successful operation. If the particle is too big, the adhesion force between the particle and bubble
becomes less than the particle weight and the bubble drops its load. In direct flotation, the desired mineral
component is transferred to the float, leaving the gangue minerals in the pulp. Reverse or indirect flotation
is where by the gangue is floated leaving the valuable component in the pulp. Air bubbles can only adhere
to the mineral particle if they displace water from the mineral. In order for this to happen, the mineral need
to be water repellent (hydrophobic). Once the loaded bubble reaches the surface of the pulp it becomes
necessary to form a stable froth to avoid bubble breaking and loss of mineral back into the pulp. To achieve
these conditions, various chemicals known as flotation reagents must be added.
Mineral properties
Minerals are either polar or non-polar depending on their surface characteristics. The surfaces of non-polar
minerals are characterized by weak molecular bonds making them hydrophobic. Solids like graphite,
sulphur, molybdenite, diamond, coal and talc have a relatively high natural hydrophobicity. Minerals with
strong covalent and ionic surface bonding are polar and they are bonded strongly to water molecules ie they
are naturally hydrophilic. The degree of polarisation increases as; sulphides→ sulphates→ carbonates→
halides→ phosphates→ oxides-hydroxides→ silicates. In order to float most minerals, hydrophobicity has
to be imparted to them. This is done by addition of reagents to the pulp and time is given for adsorption
during agitation (conditioning period).
Flotation practice
Flotation is carried out in the flotation plant. Plant layout varies from mine to mine. The main components
of the plant include reagent conditioning tanks, flotation cells, cleaning cells and regeneration of reagents.
A detailed process description will be given in the next topic.
12.4Plant start/ stop procedure

As might be noticed from the variety of concentration methods that are available, plants ranges from single,
simple unit operations in gravity separation to complicated flotation circuits. The stages needed to start the
plant will significantly very from plant to plant. The general rule when starting any plant is to first inspect
the condition of all the equipment, check upstream and downstream readiness to supply and to receive
respectively from the concentration plant. All safety precautions being observed, the downstream
equipment is started first, going opposite to the direction of material flow. The concentrator is started
followed by feeding equipment.
Questions:
1. Explain mineral concentration by the:
a) Knelson concentrator.
b) Shaking tables.
2. Describe the Dense Medium Separation (DMS/ HMS) process.
3. Explain the froth flotation process.
4. Explain mineral separation by Magnetic separation process.
5. Explain the need for mineral concentration giving the products of the concentration process?
Reference:
Press

TOPIC 13: CONCENTRATION PLANT PRACTICE
Objectives:

 Understand concentration plant equipment
 Understand concentration plant layout
 Have knowledge of feeding sequence
Information:
After liberation of all individual minerals in a rock or an ore feed by grinding, they can be separated
individually depending on their behavior. The process of separation is called mineral concentration and is
done through classical methods which include: gravimetric, flotation, magnetic, and leaching.
If there is a certain difference in density between two minerals or rock fractions, they can be separated by
using this difference. Separation by gravity covers two different methods:
• Separation in water (Gravity concentration)
• Separation in heavy medium (Dense Medium Separation)
13.1 Separation in water
Equipment Particle size range Typical application

Coal jigs 40 – 200mm coal
Mineral jigs 75𝜇m – 6mm Gold, chromite, galena
Spirals 75𝜇m – 1.0mm light Coal, beach sands, iron
75𝜇m – 0.5mm heavy Cassiterite
Shaking tables 50𝜇m – 2mm Tin, copper, gold, lead, zinc, tungsten

Separation by Jigs
The jig operation consists of two actions: one is the effect of hindered settling; meaning that a heavier
particle will settle faster than a light particle. The other one is the separation process in an upward flow of
water which will separate the particles by density. These two actions are combined in a Jig by slurry pulses
generated mechanically or by air.
Separation by Spiral Concentrators

A spiral concentrator uses gravity to separate particles of different densities. It should not be confused with
a spiral classifier which usually separates particles of different size. A spiral concentrator consists of one or
more helical profiled troughs supported on a central column. As slurry travels down the spiral high and low
density particles are stratified and separated with adjustable splitters at the end of the spiral.
Separation by Shaking Tables

A cross stream of water transports material over the table to riffles running perpendicular to the direction of
feed. Particles build up behind each riffle and stratification occurs with heavier particles sinking to the
bottom. The light particles are carried over each riffle to the tailings zone. The shaking action of the tables
carries the heavy particles along the back of each riffle to the concentrate discharge.
13.2Separation in Dense Media

Gravity separation utilizes the settling rate of different particles in water to make a separation. Particle size,
shape and density will affect the efficiency of the separation. Dense Medium Separation takes place in a
fluid medium with a density between that of the light and heavy mineral fractions that are to be separated.
The separation is dependent upon density only.
Dense Medium Density
Sand in water 1.2 – 1.6
Fine magnetite in water 1.6 – 2.5
Atomized ferrosilicon in water 2.4 – 3.5
Heavy liquids for lab testing 1.3 – 3.5
13.3Magnetic separation
The basic principle in magnetic separation is the exploitation of the difference in magnetic properties
between ore minerals.
13.4Froth flotation
Froth flotation is a concentration process that utilizes the differences in physico-chemical surface properties
of minerals, finely divided and suspended in an aqueous medium, to effect separation. The differences in
the physico-chemical surface properties of minerals become readily apparent after treatment with reagents.
In order for the process to occur, an air bubble must attach itself to a particle and rise through the pulp to
the water surface thus forming a froth layer on the top of the flotation cell.

13.4.1 Flotation machines
A flotation machine is the equipment used to carry out flotation operation. It provides the hydrodynamic
and mechanical conditions which effect the separation. Basically the flotation machine must include:
1. Means for receiving the pulp.
2. Means for agitation and mixing the pulp.
3. Means for settling and discharging the pulp.
4. Means for air introduction and dispersion.
5. Means for discharging the froth.
The most commonly used flotation machines are of two types, namely mechanical type and pneumatic
type. In a mechanical type flotation machine a mechanically driven impeller agitates the pulp and disperses
the incoming air into small bubbles. The air may be drawn in by suction created by the impeller or may be
introduced to the base of the impeller by an external blower. These flotation machines are often composed
of several identical cells arranged in series in such a way that one cell receives the de-frothed pulp (tailing
of preceding cell) as feed. Such a series of cells are called a bank. The Denver sub-aeration machine is well
known cell-to-cell machine.
Denver sub-aeration cell
The pulp from the weir of the preceding cell flows through the feed pipe on to the rotating impeller. The
positive suction created by the impeller draws air through a hollow standpipe, sheared into fine bubbles by
impeller and intimately mixed with the pulp. The diffuser arranged around the impeller prevents the
agitation and swirling of the pulp above the impeller. The stationary hood above the impeller prevents the
pulp in the cell having direct contact with the impeller. The mixture of bubbles and pulp leaves the impeller
and bubbles ascend with their mineral load to form the froth. As the bubbles move to the pulp level, they
are carried to the overflow lip by the crowding action of succeeding bubbles and removed by froth paddles.

The Pulp from the cell flows over the adjustable weir on to the impeller of the next cell. Particles which are
too heavy to flow over the weir are by-passed through sand relief ports. In an open-flow type machine,
intermediate partitions and weirs between cells are eliminated. The pulp is free to flow through the machine
without interference.
In pneumatic machines, air is introduced through the porous bottom of the cell. The air used in these
machines not only creates aeration and produces froth but also maintains suspension by circulation. They
either use air entrained by turbulent pulp addition or air which is either blown or induced e.g. the flotation
column. Pneumatic cells do not make use of the impellor. They can treat fine particles very efficiently and
achieve high grade concentrate. Generally, a reduction in capital and operating costs is obtained.
Column flotation cell
The flotation column is a simplest form of pneumatic type flotation machine. It consists of a tall cylindrical
column having the height to diameter ratio of more than 10. The reagent conditioned feed pulp enters
somewhat at the middle of the column. Compressed air is admitted through a distributor near the bottom of
the column. In the section below the feed point, called recovery section, the feed pulp travels downwards
against the rising air bubbles. Valuable mineral particles adhere to the air bubbles and are transported to the
top part of the column, called washing section. Gangue mineral particles that are loosely attached to the
bubbles are washed down by water sprays and only clean froth rises and discharged through annular
trough. The basic advantage of column flotation is the production of high grade concentrate without the
loss of recovery. A single flotation column can replace five to six stages of operations involving
conventional cells and yet achieve better performance.

There are considerable savings in reagent requirement. The column occupies less floor space. The
advantages of the column cell includes:
 No mechanical agitation.
 Low power consumption.
 Bubble size distribution is more uniform.
 Particle entrainment in the froth is minimized.
 More accurate control of pulp and air rates.
 Automation is simpler.
 Less floor space demand
13.4.2 Flotation circuits

Flotation circuit designs vary in complexity depending primarily on the type of mineral, degree of
liberation of valuable minerals, grade (purity) of the product and the value of the product. Flotation circuits
often incorporate the roughing, scavenging and cleaning stages.
Roughing- this is the removal of a rough concentrate at the earliest stage of treatment of the ground ore. It
caters fast floating particles.
Scavenging- Scavenging done to recover slow floating particles. It is the removal of the last recoverable
fraction of value before discarding the final tailings from the treatment section.
Cleaning- This is the treatment of the rough concentrate to improve its quality. Particles that may have
been entrapped are removed.
A basic flotation circuit arrangement is shown in the figure below. However in practice there are several
scavenger and cleaner cells.
Typically the first rougher stage would comprise 10 – 40 % of the total rougher volume and will produce a
good grade concentrate with but only medium recovery. The second rougher stage comprises 60 – 90 % of
the total rougher volume and is designed to maximize recovery. The scavenger cells would have a cell
volume equal to the total rougher stage and are included when particularly valuable minerals are being
treated or a very high recovery is needed. Cleaner cells are used to maximize the grade of the final
concentrate. Typical cleaner retention time is 65 – 75% of that for rougher flotation and will be at lower
percentage solids. Less cells per bank than for rougher duties can be used.
13.5Ore and reagents feeding practice

The separation processes of valuable mineral from gangue minerals are a wet process as might be noticed
from the methods discussed. This shows that feed material to a concentration plant will be in slurry. The
slurry density will vary from process to process and type of mineral to be upgraded. Concentration plant
equipment will generally encompass the following:
 Feed slurry tank
 Process water storage tanks
 Slurry and water pumps
 Flow control meters
 Level sensors
 Concentrator unit
 Concentrate storage tanks
 Collector tank
 Frother tank
 Conditioner tank
 Depressant tank
 pH modifier tank
The type of equipment in the concentration plant will largely be determined by the concentration method.
The feeding procedure also is a function of the process being used. Gravitational concentration and
magnetic separation methods have more simple feeding mechanisms effectively done by slurry pumps.
They feed mainly just slurry feed and sometimes, process water in the case of shaking tables. However
froth flotation process is a bit complicated. Due to a number of feed streams into the concentrator, flow
rates of each stream have to be regulated. Flotation reagents are firstly mixed with the slurry feed in the
conditioning tank. This is done to give flotation reagents enough time to react with mineral surfaces and
make them ready for flotation before being introduced in to the flotation cells. It is essential that reagents
are fed smoothly and uniformly to the pulp, which requires close control of reagent feeding and on the pulp
flow rate. Frothers are always added last when possible; since they do not react chemically they only
require dispersion in the pulp, and long conditioning times are unnecessary. Adding frothers early tends to
produce a mineralized froth floating on the surface of the pulp during the conditioning stage. This is due to
entrained air, which can cause uneven distribution of the collector. In flotation, the amount of agitation and
consequent dispersion are closely associated with the time required for physical and chemical reactions to
take place. Conditioning prior to flotation is now considered standard practice and is an important factor in
decreasing flotation time. This is perhaps the most economical way of increasing the capacity of a flotation
circuit. The minerals are converted to a readily floatable form as a result of ideal conditioning, and

therefore a greater volume can be treated. Although it is possible to condition in a flotation machine, it is
generally not economical to do so, although it is currently common practice for stage addition to include
booster dosage of collector into cell banks, particularly at the transition from rougher to scavenger
collection. Where very close control of conditioning time is essential such as in the selective flotation of
complex ores, special conditioning tanks are incorporated into the flow-line. The pulp and reagent are fed
down the open stand-pipe and fall on to the propeller, which forces the mixture downwards and outwards.
The outlet at the side of the tank can be adjusted to give a height sufficient to give the pulp its desired
residence time within the tank. Stage addition of reagents often yields higher recoveries at substantially
lower cost than if all reagents are added at the same point in the circuit.
Questions:
1. Give an outline of equipment found in a mineral concentration plant.
2. Draw a simple flotation concentrator circuit showing a rougher, scavenger, and a cleaner.
3. What is the criterion used for mineral separation in the following methods?
a) Separation in water
b) Separation in Dense medium
c) Magnetic separation
d) Froth flotation
4. Draw and describe the operation of the Denver cell
5. Draw and explain the operation of the column flotation cell.
6. Explain the need for feed conditioning in flotation practice.
Reference:
Press

TOPIC 14: FROTH FLOTATION
Objectives:

 Understand the mechanism of froth flotation
 Have knowledge of flotation reagents and their chemical properties
 Understand the function of each of the flotation reagents
Information
Flotation is a mineral separation process, which takes place in water-mineral slurry. The surfaces of
selected minerals are made hydrophobic (water- repellent) by conditioning with selected reagents. The
hydrophobic particles become attached to air bubbles that are introduced into the pulp and are carried to
a froth layer above the slurry thereby being separated from the hydrophilic (wetted) particles. In addition
to the reagents added, the flotation process depends on two main parameters:
• Retention time needed for the separation process to occur determines the volume and number of
flotation cells required.
• Agitation and aeration needed for optimum flotation conditions, determine the type of flotation
mechanism and the power input required
14.1Mechanism of flotation
In a beaker of water, if air is introduced from the bottom, air bubbles are produced and rise to the surface
of the water as the density of an air bubble is much less than that of water. Similarly air bubbles also rise
if air is introduced in a pulp containing mineral particles. If a mineral particle of high density adheres to
the air bubble, the air bubble along with the mineral particle rises to the surface because the apparent
density of the air bubble and the adhered mineral particle is less than that of water.

If many mineral particles are adhered to the air bubble, still the air bubble rises to the surface as the
apparent density of the air bubble and adhered mineral particles is less than that of water due to the
relatively large volume of the air bubble. This concept is the basis for froth flotation operation. To use this
concept or phenomenon, the following are required:
• Method to make the mineral particles adhere to the air bubble
• Method to keep the air bubble alive when it reaches the surface of water
It is known that the air bubble collapses when it reaches the surface of water. When it is collapsed, the
adhering mineral particles are dropped into the water. So the air bubble must be kept alive on the surface
of the water for a sufficient length of time for it to be removed from the surface. The following are the
methods adopted in practice:
• To make the mineral particles adhere to the air bubble whilst it is rising through the pulp,
the mineral particles are treated with suitable chemicals to acquire adhering properties.
• To prevent the air bubble from collapse, some other chemicals are used to prevent the
collapsing of the air bubble or in other words to increase the life of the air bubble.
The required mineral particles after adhering to the air bubble float to the surface along with the air
bubble. The aggregation of several such mineral adhered air-bubbles forms the froth on the surface of the
pulp. Hence this operation of mineral separation is named Froth flotation. Flotation is a method of
separating the minerals in a relatively finely divided state. It utilizes the differences in physico-chemical
surface properties of particles of various minerals. This method can only be applied to relatively fine
particles (less than 150μm). If the particles are too large, the adhesion between the particle and the bubble
is less than the weight of the particle and the bubble drops the mineral particles. The air bubbles can only
stick to the mineral particles if they can displace water from the mineral surface. This can only happen if
the mineral is water repellent or hydrophobic. Air bubbles, after reaching the surface, can continue to hold
the mineral particles if they can form a stable froth. If not, air bubbles will burst and drop the mineral
particles. In order to achieve the favourable conditions for froth flotation, the pulp is treated with various
chemical reagents known as flotation reagents. The chemicals used for treating the mineral particles to
make them to adhere to the air bubbles are called collectors and the chemicals used to increase the life of
the air bubbles are called frothers. The majority of the ores mined at present require fine grinding for a
high degree of liberation of valuable minerals, and thus the flotation becomes the only possible means of
beneficiation for higher grades and recoveries. Flotation treatment is extensively applied to the
concentration of metalliferous minerals, both sulphides and oxides. About 90% of the world’s important
ores of lead, zinc and copper are upgraded by flotation operation. The flotation technique is also
extensively used in upgrading of non-metallic ores like graphite, limestone, fluorite, fluorspar, clay, rock
phosphate and coal.

14.2Flotation reagents
Flotation reagents are substances added to the ore pulp prior to or during flotation in order to make it
possible to float valuable mineral particles and not to float the gangue mineral particles. Important
flotation reagents are collectors, frothers, depressants, activators and pH regulators.
Collectors
A Collector is a chemical reagent, an acid, base or salt, and is hetero-polar in nature; the polar part of it
has an affinity towards a specific mineral and the non-polar part has an affinity towards an air bubble. A
small amount of collector is added to the pulp and agitated long enough that the polar part is adsorbed on
to the mineral to be floated whilst the non-polar part is oriented outwards and makes the surface of
mineral particles hydrophobic. The collector increases the contact angle of the valuable mineral particles.
Collectors are broadly classified as anionic, cationic and oily collectors. Anionic and cationic collectors
are ionizable organic compounds. They are said to be an anionic or cationic collector depending on
whether the ion that carries hydrocarbon group is anion or cation. Oily collectors are oily liquids which
spread out thinly on solid surfaces to cause bubble attachment. Xanthates, Dithiophosphates (known as
Aerofloats), Dithiocarbamates, Fatty acids and soaps are the important anionic collectors. Xanthates are
the most widely used collectors for flotation of sulphide minerals.
Frothers
A Frother is a chemical reagent and is heteropolar in nature; the polar part of it has an affinity for water
and the non-polar part has an affinity for gas or repulsion for water. The frother acts upon the gas water
interface. The addition of a frother decreases the surface tension of water and increases the life of bubbles
produced. The main objective of a frother is to permit the production of a sufficiently stable froth to hold
the mineral particles that form a network around the bubbles until they are removed from the flotation
unit. As a result of the addition of a frother, the gas bubbles, formed under the surface of the water, are
more or less completely lined with a monomolecular sheath of frother molecules which allows each
bubble to come in contact with other bubbles. This forms froth. Thus froth is simply a collection of
bubbles. Cresylic acid and pine oil are the most widely used frothers. A wide range of synthetic frothers
are now in use in many plants. Methyl Iso-Butyl Carbinol (MIBC) is most important among the synthetic
frothers. Eucalyptus oil, camphor oil and sagebrush oil are used when they are more cheaply available
than the common frothing agents. To have an independent control, the frother should not have a collecting
property. The reagents having both frothing and collecting properties are known as frother collectors. The
compounds like fatty acids, sulphonates and amines which are in use as collectors have also frothing
properties. Kerosene is a frother-collector used in coal flotation. Other chemical reagents, depressants,
activators and pH regulators, called modifiers, are used extensively in flotation to modify the action of the

collector, either by intensifying or reducing its water – repellent effect on the mineral surface. Thus they
make collector action more selective towards certain minerals.
Depressants
Depressants are inorganic chemicals. They react chemically with the mineral particle surfaces to produce
insoluble protective coatings of a wettable nature making them non-floatable even in the presence of a
proper collector. Thus formed protective coatings prevent the formation of collector film. Sodium or
potassium cyanide is a powerful depressant for sphalerite and pyrite. A combination of sodium cyanide
and zinc sulphate is more effective in depressing zinc sulphide minerals, sphalerite and marmatite. They
also have a depressing action on pyrite. Lime is sometimes used to depress pyrite in sulphide flotation.
Sodium or potassium dichromate is used to depress galena. Sodium silicate is extensively used for the
depression of silicates and quartz. Sodium silicate is much used as a dispersant for removing slimes from
particle surfaces of sulphide minerals. Sulphuric acid is used to depress quartz in soap flotation. Lactic
acid is a powerful depressant in iron sulphide flotation. Metaphosphates are used as depressants for non-
silicates like barite, fluorite and calcite.
Activators
Activators, generally inorganic compounds, can modify the surface of non-floatable or poorly floatable
mineral particles by adsorption on particle surface so that the collector may film the particle and induce
flotation. An example of this is the use of copper sulphate in the flotation of sphalerite. Copper sulphate
dissociates into copper ions in solution and copper sulphide is formed at the surface of sphalerite. Then it
reacts with xanthate and forms insoluble copper xanthate which makes the sphalerite surface
hydrophobic. In the flotation of lead-zinc ore, after lead flotation, the sphalerite is activated with copper
sulphate and floated. Copper sulphate also activates depressed pyrite when added in sufficient quantity.
Sodium sulphide is used to activate oxide minerals of lead, zinc and copper such as cerussite, smithsonite
and malachite. As sodium sulphide imparts sulphide surface to the mineral particles to facilitate for
collector coating, this activator is also known as sulphidizer. Sodium sulphide is also used to float
previously depressed pyrite. It has dispersing and depressing effects on sulphide minerals when added in
large quantities.
Modifiers/ pH regulators
pH regulators are used to modify the alkalinity or acidity of a flotation circuit or in other words to control
the pH of the pulp. The pH of the pulp has an important and sometimes very critical controlling effect on
the action of the flotation reagents. Common pH regulators are lime and soda ash for creating alkaline
conditions, sulphuric and hydrochloric acids for creating acidic conditions.

Reagent dosages
The quantity of reagents used in flotation varies from ore to ore and day to day or hour to hour for one
ore. Small quantities of reagents are normally required. Low and high quantities of the reagents are of no
use. In certain cases, increasing quantities results in other effects. For example, use of increased quantities
of collector tends to float other mineral particles (other than required) also. A general dosage range is
shown in the table below.
Quantities of flotation reagents

Reagent Quantity in kg/t
Collectors 0.023- 1.179
Frothers 0.011- 0.11
Depressants 0.023- 0.454
Activators 0.227- 0.907
pH regulators 0.227- 4.536
Dispersants 0.045- 0.318
14.3Types of flotation
As a mineral is selected and floated in flotation, it is called selective flotation. As a required mineral is
selected and floated, it is also called direct flotation. When an unwanted mineral is selected and floated, in
which case, sink is the required product, it is called reverse flotation. When an ore contains two or more
valuable minerals, one valuable mineral is selected and floated first and second valuable mineral is floated
from the tailings. This flotation is called differential flotation. Alternatively, when all the valuable
minerals are selected and floated, it is called bulk flotation. The individual minerals are selected and
floated one after the other from the floats.
14.4Reagent conditioning
Each ore is a unique problem and reagent requirements must be carefully determined by test work,
although it may be possible to obtain guidelines for reagent selection from examples of similar operations.
An enormous amount of experience and information is freely available from reagent manufacturers.
Selection of reagents must be followed by careful consideration of the points of addition in the circuit. It
is essential that reagents are fed smoothly and uniformly to the pulp, which requires close control of
reagent feeding and on the pulp flow rate. Frothers are always added last when possible; since they do not
react chemically they only require dispersion in the pulp, and long conditioning times are unnecessary.
Adding frothers early tends to produce a mineralized froth floating on the surface of the pulp during the
conditioning stage. This is due to entrained air, which can cause uneven distribution of the collector. In
flotation, the amount of agitation and consequent dispersion are closely associated with the time required
for physical and chemical reactions to take place. Conditioning prior to flotation is now considered

standard practice and is an important factor in decreasing flotation time. This is perhaps the most
economical way of increasing the capacity of a flotation circuit. The minerals are converted to a readily
floatable form as a result of ideal conditioning, and therefore a greater volume can be treated. Although it
is possible to condition in a flotation machine, it is generally not economical to do so, although it is
currently common practice for stage addition to include booster dosage of collector into cell banks,
particularly at the transition from rougher to scavenger collection. Where very close control of
conditioning time is essential such as in the selective flotation of complex ores, special conditioning tanks
are incorporated into the flow-line. The pulp and reagent are fed down the open stand-pipe and fall on to
the propeller, which forces the mixture downwards and outwards. The outlet at the side of the tank can be
adjusted to give a height sufficient to give the pulp its desired residence time within the tank. Stage
addition of reagents often yields higher recoveries at substantially lower cost than if all reagents are added
at the same point in the circuit.
Questions
1. Explain the mechanism of concentration by froth flotation.

2. Explain the functions of the following flotation reagents:
a) Collectors.
b) Frothers.
c) Modifiers.
d) Depressants.
3. Give two examples of reagents used as; collectors, frothers, modifiers, and depressants.
4. Describe types of flotation.
5. Explain the need for reagent conditioning.
Reference:
Press

TOPIC 15: SAMPLING
Objectives
 Outline sampling procedure
 Outline sampling errors
 Explain sampling techniques
 Outline sampling equipment
 Describe chemicals and physical properties of materials
 Describe types of samples
Information:
Sampling is the procedure of collecting a representative of portion of material for analysis. This can
be done by various methods. The most important step in analysis is the collection of the sample of the
material to be analyzed. The sample must be representative meaning it should reflect the true value
and distribution of analyte in the original material Sufficient amount must be taken for all analysis.
15.1The Sampling Plan

A sampling plan must support the goals of an analysis. In characterization studies a sample’s purity is
often the most important parameter. For example, a material scientist interested in the surface
chemistry of a metal is more likely to select a freshly exposed surface, created by fracturing the
sample under vacuum, than a surface that has been exposed to the atmosphere for an extended time. In
a qualitative analysis the sample’s composition does not need to be identical to that of the substance
being analyzed, provided that enough sample size is taken to ensure that all components can be
detected. In fact, when the goal of an analysis is to identify components present at trace levels, it may
be desirable to discriminate against major components when sampling. In a quantitative analysis,
however, the sample’s composition must accurately represent the target population. The focus of this
section, therefore, is on designing a sampling plan for a quantitative analysis. Five questions should be
considered when designing a sampling plan:
1. From where within the target population should samples be collected?

2. What type of samples should be collected?
3. What is the minimum amount of sample needed for each analysis?
4. How many samples should be analyzed?
5. How can the overall variance be minimized?

15.2Sampling errors
Sampling errors occur when a sample’s composition is not identical to that of the population from which
it is drawn. When the material being sampled is homogeneous, individual samples can be taken without
regard to possible sampling errors. Unfortunately, in most situations the target population is
heterogeneous in either time or space.
When the target population’s heterogeneity is of concern, samples must be acquired in a manner that
ensures that determinate sampling errors are insignificant. If the target population can be thoroughly
homogenized, then samples can be taken without introducing sampling errors. In most cases, however,
homogenizing the target population is impracticable. Even more important, homogenization destroys
information about the analyte’s spatial or temporal distribution within the target population.
15.3Steps in Sampling Process

1. Gross representative sample is collected from the lot.
2. Portions of gross sample are taken from various parts of material. Sampling methods include;
Long pile and alternate shovel (used for very large lots), and Coning and quartering.
3. Aliquot- Quantitative amount of a test portion of sample solution.
15.4Sampling techniques
15.4.1 Random Sampling
The basis of random sampling is that each population unit has equal probability of being selected.
Random methods are good if the population does not have any obvious trends or patterns. If the system
varies with location within it, as a mine dump would, we have to sample across the surface and down into
it, so that any point in the three dimensional space of the landfill has an equal chance of being chosen.
Typically, the area to be sampled is divided into triangular or rectangular areas with a grid. Three
dimensional grids are used if the variation in depth (or height) also needs to be studied. The grid blocks
are given numbers. A random number generator or a random number table is then used to select the grid
points at which samples should be collected. If a waste site contains numerous containers of unknown
wastes and it is not possible to analyze every container, a fraction of the containers are selected at random
for analysis.
15.4.2 Systematic sampling

Measurements are taken at locations and/or times according to a predetermined pattern. For example, the
area to be analyzed may be divided by a grid, and a sample taken at each point of the grid. For air
pollution studies, an air sample might be taken at fixed intervals of time, say every three hours. This
approach does not require the prior knowledge of pollutant distribution, is easy to implement, and should

produce unbiased samples. However, systematic sampling may require more samples to be taken than
some of the other methods
15.4.3 Judgmental sampling

This is a non-statistical sampling procedure. Prior knowledge of spatial and temporal variation of the
analyte is used to determine the location or time for sampling. In the lake example, samples might be
collected just around the outfall point. This type of sampling introduces a certain degree of bias into the
measurement. For example, it would be wrong to conclude that the average concentration at these
clustered sampling points is a measure of the concentration of the entire lake. However, it is the point
which best characterizes the content of the waste stream. In many instances, this may be the method of
choice, especially when purpose of the analysis is simply to identify the pollutants present. Judgmental
sampling usually requires fewer samples than statistical methods, but the analyst needs to be aware of the
limitations of the samples collected by this method.
15.4.4 Stratified Sampling

When a system contains several distinctly different areas, these may be sampled separately, in a stratified
sampling scheme. The target population is divided into different regions or strata. The strata are selected
so that they do not overlap each other. Random sampling is done within each stratum. For example, in a
pond or a lagoon where oily waste floats over water and sediment settles to the bottom, the strata can be
selected as a function of depth, and random sampling can be done within each stratum. The strata in a
stratified scheme do not necessarily have to be obviously different. The area may be divided into
subareas. Then a set of these are selected randomly. Each of these units is then sampled randomly. For
example, a hazardous waste site can be divided into different regions or units. Then, the soil samples are
collected at random within each region or within randomly selected regions. Stratification can reduce the
number of samples required to characterize an environmental system, in comparison to fully random
sampling.
15.4.5 Haphazard Sampling

A sampling location or sampling time is chosen arbitrarily. This type of sampling is reasonable for a
homogeneous system. Since most environmental systems have significant spatial or temporal variability,
haphazard sampling often leads to biased results. However, this approach may be used as a preliminary
screening technique to identify a possible problem before a full scale sampling is done.

15.4.6 Systematic Judgmental Sampling
Combinations of the three primary approaches to sampling are also possible. One such combination is
systematic–judgmental sampling, which is encountered in environmental studies when a spatial or
temporal distribution of pollutants is anticipated. For example, a plume of waste leaching from a landfill
can reasonably be expected to move in the same direction as the flow of groundwater.
15.5Implementing the Sampling Plan

After a sampling plan has been developed, it is put into action. Implementing a sampling plan normally
involves three steps: physically removing the sample from its target population, preserving the sample,
and preparing the sample for analysis. Except for in situ sampling, the analysis of a sample occurs after
removing it from the target population. Since sampling exposes the target population to potential
contamination, the sampling device must be inert and clean. Once a sample is withdrawn from a target
population, there is a danger that it may undergo a chemical or physical change. This is a serious problem
since the properties of the sample will no longer be representative of the target population. For this
reason, samples are often preserved before transporting them to the laboratory for analysis. Even when
samples are analyzed in the field, preservation may still be necessary.
The initial sample is called the primary or gross sample and may be a single increment drawn from the
target population, or a composite of several increments. In many cases the gross sample cannot be
analyzed without further treatment. Processing the gross sample may be used to reduce the sample’s
particle size, to transfer the sample into a more readily analyzable form, or to improve its homogeneity. In
the sections that follow, these three steps are considered for the sampling of liquids (including solutions),
gases, and solids.
15.6Sampling of Gases
Generally gases are considered homogeneous. Samples are stirred before portions are taken for analysis.
Gas samples may be filtered if solid materials are present.
Grab samples- Samples taken at a single point in time.
Composite Samples- Samples taken over a period of time or from different locations.
Scrubbing- Trapping an analyte out of the gas phase.
Examples include:
 Passing air through activated charcoal to adsorb organic vapors.
 Bubbling gas samples through a solution to absorb the analyte.

Sampling equipment for gases
 Gas-tight syringes
 Balloons (volatile organic compounds may contaminate samples)
 Plastic bags (volatile organic compounds may contaminate samples)
 Glass containers (may adsorb gas components)
Sample Collection
The simplest approach for collecting a gas sample is to fill a container, such as a stainless steel canister or
a Tedlar /Teflon bag, with a portion of the gas. A pump is used to pull the gas into the container, and, after
flushing the container for a predetermined time, the container is sealed. This method has the advantage of
collecting a more representative sample of the gas than other collection techniques. Disadvantages include
the tendency for some gases to adsorb to the container’s walls, the presence of analytes at concentrations
too low to detect with accuracy and precision, and the presence of reactive gases, such as ozone and
nitrogen oxides, that may change the sample’s chemical composition with time, or react with the
container. When using a stainless steel canister many of these disadvantages can be overcome with
cryogenic cooling, this changes the sample from a gaseous to a liquid state. Due to the difficulty of
storing gases, most gas samples are collected using either a trap containing a solid sorbent or by filtering.
Solid sorbents are used to collect volatile gases (vapor pressures more than approximately 10–6 atm) and
semivolatile gases (vapor pressures between approximately 10–6 atm and 10–12 atm), and filtration is
used to collect nonvolatile gases.
15.7Sampling of Liquid Samples
May be collected as grab samples or composite samples. Adequate stirring is necessary to obtain
representative sample. Stirring may not be desired under certain conditions (analysis of oily layer on
water). Undesired solid materials are removed by filtration or centrifugation. Layers of immiscible liquids
may be separated with the separatory funnel. Typical examples of liquid samples include those drawn
from containers of commercial solvents; and leaching tanks.
Sample Collection Homogeneous solutions are easily sampled by siphoning, decanting, or by using a
pipet or syringe. Unfortunately, few solutions are truly homogeneous. When the material to be sampled is
of manageable size, manual shaking is often sufficient to ensure homogeneity. Samples may then be
collected with a pipet, a syringe, or a bottle. The majority of solutions, however, cannot be sampled in this
manner. To minimize the effect of heterogeneity, the method for collecting the gross sample must be
adapted to the material being sampled. The chemical composition of surface waters, such as streams,
rivers, lakes, estuaries, and oceans, is influenced by flow rate and depth. Rapidly flowing shallow streams

and rivers, and shallow (<5 m) lakes are usually well mixed and show little stratification with depth. Grab
samples are conveniently collected by submerging a capped bottle below the surface and removing the
cap. The air- water interface, which may be enriched with heavy metals9 or contaminated with oil, is
avoided when collecting the sample. After the sample bottle is filled, the cap is replaced and the bottle
removed. Slowly moving streams and rivers, lakes deeper than 5 m, estuaries, and oceans may show
substantial stratification. Grab samples from near the surface can be collected as described earlier,
whereas samples at greater depths are collected with a weighted sample bottle that is lowered to the
desired depth. Once it has reached the desired depth, the sample bottle is opened, allowed to fill, and
closed before retrieving. Grab samples can be analyzed individually, giving information about changes in
the analyte’s concentration with depth. Alternatively, the grab samples may be pooled to form a
composite sample.
Wells used for collecting groundwater samples must be purged before the sample is collected, since the
chemical composition of water in the well-casing and in the adjacent matrix may be significantly different
from that of the surrounding groundwater. These differences may result from contaminants introduced
when drilling the well, or differences in the groundwater’s redox potential when exposed to atmospheric
oxygen. In general, wells are purged by pumping out a volume of water equivalent to several well-casing
volumes, or until the water’s temperature, pH, or specific conductance are constant. Samples collected
from municipal water supplies must also be purged since the chemical composition of water left standing
in pipes may differ significantly from the treated water supply. Samples are collected at faucets after
flushing the pipes for 2–3 minutes. Samples from municipal wastewater treatment plants and samples of
industrial discharges often are collected as 24-h composites. Samples are obtained using an automatic
sampler that periodically removes individual grab samples.
Sampling equipment for liquids

Sample containers for collecting solutions are made from glass or plastic. Containers made from Kimax or
Pyrex brand borosilicate glass have the advantage of being sterilizable, easy to clean, and inert to all
solutions except those that are strongly alkaline. The disadvantages of glass containers are cost, weight,
and the likelihood of breakage. Plastic containers are made from a variety of polymers, including
polyethylene, polypropylene, polycarbonate, polyvinyl chloride, and Teflon (polytetrafluoroethylene).
Plastic containers are lightweight, durable, and, except for those manufactured from Teflon, inexpensive.
In most cases glass or plastic bottles may be used, although polyethylene bottles are generally preferred
because of their lower cost. Glass containers are always used when collecting samples for the analysis of
pesticides, oil and grease, and organics because these species often interact with plastic surfaces. Since
glass surfaces easily adsorb metal ions, plastic bottles are preferred when collecting samples for the
analysis of trace metals. In most cases the sample bottle has a wide mouth, making it easy to fill and

remove the sample. A narrow-mouth sample bottle is used when exposing the sample to the container cap
or to the outside environment is undesirable. Unless exposure to plastic is a problem, caps for sample
bottles are manufactured from polyethylene. When polyethylene must be avoided, the container cap
includes an inert interior liner of neoprene or Teflon.
15.8Sampling of Solids
Solids are the most difficult to sample since they are least homogeneous compared to gases and liquids.
Large amounts are difficult to stir and they must undergo size reduction (milling, drilling, crushing, etc.)
to homogenize the sample. Adsorbed water is often removed by oven drying. Typical examples of solid
samples include large particulates, such as those found in ores stock piles, ore bins and conveyor belts;
smaller particulates, such as soils and sediments and fine ore from classification.
Sample Collection
Solids are usually heterogeneous, and samples must be collected carefully if they are to be representative
of the target population. Solids come in a variety of forms, each of which is sampled differently.
Sediments from the bottom of leaching tanks, streams, rivers, lakes, estuaries, and oceans are collected
with a bottom grab sampler or with a corer. Grab samplers are equipped with a pair of “jaws” that close
when they contact the sediment, scooping up sediment in the process. Their principal advantages are ease
of use and the ability to collect a large sample. Disadvantages include the tendency to lose finer grained
sediment particles as water flows out of the sampler and the loss of spatial information, both laterally and
with depth, due to mixing of the sample. An alternative method for sampling sediments uses a cylindrical
coring device. The corer is dropped into the sediment, collecting a column of sediment and the water in
contact with the sediment.
With the possible exception of sediment at the surface, which may experience mixing, samples collected
with a corer maintain their vertical profile. As a result, changes in the sediment’s composition with depth
are preserved. The main disadvantage to a corer is that only a small surface area is sampled. For this
reason sampling with a corer usually requires more samples. Soil/ ore samples collected at depths of up to
30 cm are easily collected with scoops or shovels, although the sampling variance is generally high. A
better method for obtaining soil samples near the surface is to use a soil punch. This thin-walled steel tube
retains a core sample when it is pushed into the soil and removed. Soil samples collected at depths greater
than 30 cm are obtained by digging a trench and collecting lateral samples with a soil punch. Alternatively
an auger may be used to drill a hole to the desired depth and the sample collected with a soil punch. The
sampling of particulate material is often determined by the size of the particles.

Large particulate solids, such as coals and ores, can be sampled by randomly collecting samples with a
shovel or by riffling. A riffle is a trough containing an even number of compartments with adjacent
compartments emptying on opposite sides of the riffle. Particulate material dumped into a riffle is divided
into two parts. By repeatedly passing half of the separated material back through the riffle, a sample of
any desired size may be collected. Smaller particulate materials, such as powders, are best collected with
a sample thief, which allows material to be collected simultaneously from several locations. A typical
sample thief consists of two tubes that are nestled together. Each tube has an identical set of slots aligned
down their length. Before the sample thief is inserted into the material being sampled, the inner tube is
rotated so that slots are closed. When the sample thief is in place, the inner tube is rotated to open the
slots, allowing the powder to enter the sample thief through each slot. The inner tube is then rotated to the
closed position and the sample thief withdraws. When sampling a metal, it usually is necessary to obtain
material from both then surface and the interior. When the metal is in the form of a sheet, random samples
can be collected with a metal punch. Samples can be obtained from a metal wire by randomly cutting off
pieces of an appropriate length. Larger pieces of metal, such as bars or bricks, are best sampled by sawing
through the metal at randomly selected points and collecting the “sawdust” or by drilling through the
metal and collecting the shavings. A surface coating can be sampled in situ or by dissolving the coating
with an appropriate solvent. Sampling of biological tissue is done by removing the entire organ, which is
then homogenized before smaller portions are taken for analysis
Coning and quartering

Coning and quartering is a method used by analytical chemists to reduce the sample size of a powder
without creating a systematic bias. The technique involves pouring the sample so that it takes on a conical
shape, and then flattening it out into a cake. The cake is then divided into quarters; the two quarters which
sit opposite one another are discarded, while the other two are combined and constitute the reduced
sample. The same process is continued until an appropriate sample size remains. Analyses are made with
respect to the sample left behind.
Riffle box splitting

A riffle box is a box containing a number (between 3 and 12) of "chutes" - slotted paths through which
particles of the sample may slide. The sample is dropped into the top, and the box produces two equally
divided subsamples. Riffle boxes are commonly used in mining.

Questions
1. Define sampling.
2. What is the main objective of sampling?
3. Outline types of sampling?
4. Explain sampling of liquids gases and solids.
5. Describe conning and quartering.
6. There are several types of sampling. List the types, giving one example where each type can be
applied.
7. Outline advantages and disadvantages of each sampling type.
Reference:
1. David Harvey. (2000). Morden Analytical Chemistry. The McGraw-Hill Companies


TOPIC 16: SAMPLING OF SLURRIES
Objectives
 Outline sampling procedure for slurries
 Outline sampling errors
 Explain sampling techniques
 Outline sampling equipment for slurries
 Describe chemicals and physical properties of materials
Information:
Sampling is the procedure of collecting a representative of portion of material for analysis. This can
be done by various methods. The most important step in analysis is the collection of the sample of the
material to be analyzed. The sample must be representative meaning it should reflect the true value
and distribution of analyte in the original material. Sufficient amount must be taken for all analysis.
16.1The Sampling Plan

A sampling plan must support the goals of an analysis. The purpose of sampling slurries is for analysis.
The results obtained are used to evaluate the process parameters. Concentrate, middlings and gangue
materials are products of the mineral concentration process. The assay values of the mineral in all the
three streams will assist process technicians and engineers in evaluating the efficiency of separation in the
concentration stage. Slurries are also sampled in leaching processes to evaluate the degree of dissolution.
The sampling plan for slurries determines the following:
 Sampling points (positions) along the flowing streams.

 The minimum sample size to be collected.
 The sampling method to be used.
 Frequency of sampling (periodically or continuous).
 Sampling instruments to be used.
Normally, the sampling plan is designed by senior management and the assistant technicians are supposed
to simply follow the procedures as outlined in the sampling plan.

16.2Sampling errors
Sampling errors occur when a sample’s composition is not identical to that of the population from which
it is drawn. When the material being sampled is homogeneous, individual samples can be taken without
regard to possible sampling errors. Unfortunately, in most situations the target population is
heterogeneous in either time or space. When the target population’s heterogeneity is of concern, samples
must be acquired in a manner that ensures that determinate sampling errors are insignificant. If the target
population can be thoroughly homogenized, then samples can be taken without introducing sampling
errors. In most cases, however, homogenizing the target population is impracticable. Even more
important, homogenization destroys information about the analyte’s spatial or temporal distribution
within the target population. Errors can be caused by the instrument being used to perform sampling or
due to the person operating the equipment. In modern day mineral processing plants, sampling is
automated and only in rare situations where physical sampling is practiced. Automatic sampling and real
time online analysis reduces sampling errors. The figures below shows some of automatic samplers used
in industry.

16.3Steps in Sampling Process
A large sample is cut from a flowing stream or a leaching tank at the prescribed time using the prescribed
method. This sample must be representative of the flowing stream in every aspect of the parameters
sought for in the analysis. The sampling instrument should be able to cut across the full width of the
flowing slurry stream and deposit the sample in the collecting container. Many at times, the collected
sample is far much bigger than the size required in the laboratory.
The sampling person should then be able to split the sample systematically to produce the required size.
The remainder of the sample is returned into the process stream. The type of sampling technique practiced
for ore slurries is normally systematic sampling; whereby sampling points and quantities are
predetermined. When samples are collected from a deep bed like leaching tanks, a bottom grab sampler or
corer are used. They grab and scoop the sample from depths. A soil punch, auger, probe/ tube sampler,
shovels/ scoops are used for sampling from low bed streams where the slurries can easily be accessed.
16.4Sample sizing
When manual sampling is done, the correct sample size to be taken to the laboratory is achieved through
sample splitting. The instruments/ tools used for this purpose include:
 Riffle box splitting and

 Coning and quartering
For slurries, splitting is normally done after filtration to remove the bulk of the water in the slurry sample.
16.5Sample identification
An important part of sampling is sample identification. Samples collected should have details of the
sampling points they were collected from, sampling time, method of sampling, and the analysis to be
made on the sample. Thus these details are written on the sample bag or on a sample identification card
which is attached or put inside the sample bag. Samples collected at the same sampling period should
move together in the analysis trail. This is because; the assays of concentrate, middlings, and gangue are
used simultaneously to make process evaluation decisions.

Questions
1. Explain the need for sampling concentrates, middlings, and gangue materials.
2. What information is outlined in the sampling plan for slurries?
3. Outline the advantages of automatic sampling over manual sampling.
4. Identify the sampling tools used for slurry sampling.
Reference:
1. David Harvey. (2000). Morden Analytical Chemistry. The McGraw-Hill Companies.


TOPIC 17: SAMPLE PREPARATION
Objectives
 Explain sample storage
 Explain sample preservation
 Describe sample preparation
Information
Samples are submitted to the laboratory in their raw form, therefore certain manipulations have to take
place in order to prepare the sample for analysis. This involves the sample preparation and extraction of
the analyte from the sample submitted by the competent national authorities. The procedures for sample
preparation and extraction are vital in obtaining reliable results therefore proper procedures have to be
followed in order to ensure that the sample obtained is homogeneous and representative of the original
sample.
17.1Sample storage
After obtaining a representative sample, it must be labeled and stored under appropriate conditions.
Samples should be properly labeled for identification. Samples often have to be collected from places
remote from the analytical laboratory and several days or weeks may elapse before they are received by
the laboratory and analyzed. Furthermore, the workload of many laboratories is such that incoming
samples are stored for a period of time prior to analysis. In both instances, sample containers and storage
conditions (e.g., temperature, humidity, light levels and exposure to the atmosphere) must be controlled
such that no significant changes occur that could affect the validity of the analytical data. The following
effects during storage should be considered:
 Increases in temperature leading to the loss of volatile analytes, thermal or biological degradation, or
increased chemical reactivity.
 Decreases in temperature that leads to the formation of deposits or the precipitation of analytes with
low solubilities.
 Changes in humidity that affect the moisture content of hygroscopic solids and liquids or induce
hydrolysis reactions.
 UV radiation, particularly from direct sunlight, that induces photochemical reactions,
photodecomposition or polymerization.
 Air-induced oxidation.
Physical separation of the sample into layers of different density or changes in crystallinity. In addition,

containers may leak or allow contaminants to enter. A particular problem associated with samples having
very low (trace and ultra-trace) levels of analytes in solution is the possibility of losses by adsorption onto
the walls of the container or contamination by substances being leached from the container by the sample
solvent. Trace metals may be depleted by adsorption or ion-exchange processes if stored in glass
containers, whilst sodium, potassium, boron and silicates can be leached from the glass into the sample
solution. Plastic containers should always be used for such samples. Conversely, sample solutions
containing organic solvents and other organic liquids should be stored in glass containers because the base
plastic or additives such as plasticizers and antioxidants may be leached from the walls of plastic
containers.
17.2Sample pretreatment
Samples arriving in an analytical laboratory come in a very wide assortment of sizes, conditions and
physical forms and can contain analytes from major constituents down to ultra-trace levels. They can have
variable moisture content and the matrix components of samples submitted for determinations of the same
analyte(s) may also vary widely. A preliminary, or pre-treatment, is often used to condition them in
readiness for the application of a specific method of analysis or to pre-concentrate (enrich) analytes
present at very low levels. Examples of pretreatments are:
 Drying at 100°C to 120°C to eliminate the effect of variable moisture content.
 Weighing before and after drying enables the water content to be calculated or it can be established by
thermo-gravimetric analysis.
 Separating the analytes into groups with common characteristics by distillation, filtration,
centrifugation, solvent or solid phase extraction.
 Removing or reducing the level of matrix components that are known to cause interference with
measurements of the analytes.
 Concentrating the analytes if they are below the concentration range of the analytical method to be
used by evaporation, distillation, co-precipitation, ion exchange, solvent or solid phase extraction or
electrolysis.
Sample clean-up in relation to matrix interference and to protect specialized analytical equipment such as
chromatographic columns and detection systems from high levels of matrix components is widely
practiced using solid phase extraction (SPE) cartridges. Substances such as lipids, fats, proteins, pigments,
polymeric and tarry substances are particularly detrimental.
17.3Sample preparation
A laboratory sample generally needs to be prepared for analytical measurement by treatment with
reagents that convert the analyte(s) into an appropriate chemical form for the selected technique and
method, although in some instances it is examined directly as received or mounted in a sample holder for

surface analysis. Type of sample preparation depends on:
 nature of sample,
 technique chosen,
 analyte to be measured,
 the problem to be solved
If the material is readily soluble in aqueous or organic solvents, a simple dissolution step may suffice.
However, many samples need first to be decomposed to release the analyte(s) and facilitate specific
reactions in solution. Sample solutions may need to be diluted or concentrated by enrichment so that
analytes are in an optimum concentration range for the method. The stabilization of solutions with respect
to pH, ionic strength and solvent composition, and the removal or masking of interfering matrix
components not accounted for in any pre-treatment may also be necessary.
An internal standard for reference purposes in quantitative analysis is sometimes added before adjustment
to the final prescribed volume. Some common methods of decomposition and dissolution are given in
Table 1 below.
Acid Dissolution and Digestion

 Used for dissolving metals, alloys, ores, glass, and ceramics.
 Concentrated acid is added to the sample and then heated.
 Choice of acid depends on the sample to be dissolved and the analyte.
 Acids commonly used are: HCl, HNO3, H2SO4.
 HF and HClO4 require special care and supervision.
Fusion (Molten Salt Fusion)

It involves heating a finely powdered solid sample with a finely powdered salt at high temperatures until
mixture melts. Useful for the determination of silica-containing minerals, glass, ceramics, bones, and
carbides. Salts (Fluxes) usually used include: Sodium carbonate, sodium tetraborate (borax), sodium
peroxide, and lithium metaborate.
Dry Ashing and Combustion

It involves burning an organic material in air or oxygen. Organic components form CO 2 and H2O vapor
leaving inorganic components behind as solid oxides. This cannot be used for the determination of
mercury, arsenic, and cadmium. This is because these metals are highly volatile and they escape as gas
during ashing.

Extraction
Is used for determining organic analytes and it makes use of solvents. Solvents are chosen based on
polarity of analyte (like dissolves like). Common Solvents include: Hexane, xylene, and methylene
chloride.
Table 1. Some methods for sample decomposition and dissolution
Method of attack Type of sample
Heated with concentrated mineral acids Geological, metallurgical
(HCl, HNO3, aqua regia) or strong alkali,
including microwave
digestion
Fusion with flux (Na2O2, Na2CO3, LiBO2, Geological, refractory materials
KHSO4, KOH
Heated with HF and H2SO4 or HClO4 Silicates where SiO2 is not the analyte
Acid leaching with HNO3 Soils and sediments
Dry oxidation by heating in a furnace or wet Organic materials with inorganic
oxidation by boiling with concentrated analytes
H2SO4 and HNO3 or HClO4
17.4Reducing Particle Size

A reduction in particle size is accomplished by a combination of crushing and grinding the gross sample.
The resulting particulates are then thoroughly mixed and divided into samples of smaller mass containing
the appropriate number of particles. The process seldom occurs in a single step. Instead, samples are
cycled through the process several times until a laboratory sample of the desired mass is obtained.
Crushing and grinding uses mechanical force to break larger particles into smaller ones. A variety of tools
are used depending on the particle’s size and hardness. Large particles are crushed using jaw crushers
capable of reducing particles to diameters of a few millimeters. Ball mills, disk mills, pulverizers, mortars
and pestles are used to further reduce particle size. Significant changes in composition may occur during
crushing and grinding. Decreasing particle size increases available surface area. With more surface area
there is a greater risk of losing volatile components, a problem made worse by the frictional heat
accompanying the crushing and grinding. An increase in surface area also means that portions of the
sample are freshly exposed to the atmosphere where oxidation may alter the sample’s composition. Other
problems include contamination from the mechanical abrasion of the materials used to crush and grind the
sample, and differences in the ease with which particles are reduced in size. Softer particles are reduced in
size more easily and may be lost as dust before the rest of the sample has been processed. This is a
problem since the analyte’s distribution may not be uniform between particles of different size. To ensure
that all particles are reduced to a uniform size, the sample is intermittently passed through a sieve.
Processing of those particles not passing through the sieve continues until the entire sample is of uniform
size. The sample is then mixed thoroughly to ensure homogeneity, and a secondary sample obtained with
a riffle or by coning and quartering. The gross sample is piled into a cone, flattened, divided into four
quarters, and two diagonally opposed quarters are discarded. The remaining material is cycled through the
process of coning and quartering until the desired amount of sample remains.

Questions
1. Explain sample storage.
2. Explain sample preservation.
3. Describe sample pretreatment.
4. Explain what determines the type of sample preparation process.
5. Describe the following sample preparation methods.
a. Acid dissolution
b. Fusion
c. Dry ashing
d. Extraction
6. Describe size reduction of sample material.
Reference:
1. David Harvey. (2000). Morden Analytical Chemistry. The McGraw-Hill Companies

2. Skoog and West, (1978). Introduction to Geology, Vol 1. London: McMillan.
3. Wills, B.A, (1980). Mineral Processing Technology. London: Pitman.

TOPIC 18: CONCENTRATOR PLANT CONTROL
Objective:
 Have knowledge of concentrator process parameters
 Knowledge of concentrator plant layout
 Knowledge and understanding of metallurgical accounting
 Knowledge of process calculations
Information:
The main reason for mineral separation/ concentration is to recover valuable minerals. The products of a
concentration process are concentrate, and tailings. The third product called middlings is recycled back into
the process, in some cases after regrinding. All of these products contain both the valuable mineral and
gangue minerals but in varying proportions. Thus it is practically impossible to achieve 100% recovery of
the valuable mineral into the concentrate. Process operators however thrive to monitor and adjust process
parameters to optimum conditions so as to achieve as high recoveries as is economically possible.

18.1Concentrator terminology
Percentage recovery of the valuable mineral/metal is the fraction of valuable mineral/ metal present in the
ore that reports to the concentrate. It is calculated by dividing the amount of mineral/ metal in the
concentrate by the amount of mineral/ metal fed to the concentrator. The purity of the product is called
concentrate grade. It is the percentage (by mass) of a mineral/ metal in the solids. The maximum possible
grade for metals is determined by the chemical composition of the mineral.
Grade and recovery

Grade and recovery are interdependent and inversely proportional to each other. We have noted in earlier
modules that unnecessary overgrinding results in loss of valuable mineral during separation processes.
Whilst more grinding increase liberation and thus improves the grade of the concentrate; it also facilitates
loss of valuable mineral into the tailings as a result of slimes. Hence in a well-run separation unit, there is a
trade-off between grade and recovery. If the grade of a product increases, recovery usually drops. But grade
and recovery can both increase when liberation is improved. By improving liberation, we reduce the
quantity of middlings in which grains of valuable mineral are locked with gangue. In practice, grade and
recovery targets are adjusted to maximize profits.
18.2Process control variables

After liberation of values from gangue the next stage, separation, should produce a saleable product
(concentrate). The quality of the concentrate is indicated by the assay value or grade of the target mineral
or metal. Grade or assay value gives the mass of the wanted mineral or metal in relation to the mass of a
stream. Irrespective of the concentration process used; the main parameters to be monitored are grade and
recovery of the process. To achieve this, unit specific operational parameters should be optimized. These
unit operational parameters are derived from different concentration methods. Common parameters
include:
 Feed rate
 Flow rates of slurries
 Particle size distribution of ground ore
 Slurry density
 Reagent dosages
 Head grade of feed slurry
 Agitation and aeration
 Froth depth
 Water quality
Assay values can also be expressed in grams per tonne (g/t). This is the same as parts per million or can be
obtained by multiplying the grade in percentage by 104.
18.3Mass balances
In order to assess plant performance, and to control the operation using the evaluated results, it is necessary
to account for the products in terms of material and contained component weights. Mass balancing is
particularly important in accounting for valuable mineral or metal distributions, and the two-product
formula is of great use in this respect. If the weights of the feed, concentrate, and tailings are F, C, and T
respectively, and their corresponding assays f, c, and t, then:
Material input = material output

F = C + T ………..(1)
Balancing the valuable mineral/ metal gives:

F𝑓 = C𝑐 + T𝑡 ……..(2)
Making T subject of formula in equation (1) and substituting it in equation (2) we have:
F𝑓 = C𝑐 + 𝑡(F − C)
F(𝑓 − 𝑡) = C(𝑐 − 𝑡)
F (𝑐−𝑡)
= (𝑓−𝑡) …………….(3) This is the ratio of concentration
C
C𝑐×100% (𝑓−𝑡) 𝑐
Plant Recovery = = × 100%
F𝑓 (𝑐−𝑡) 𝑓
𝑐
Enrichment ratio = 𝑓
C (𝑓−𝑡)
Fraction of feed in concentrate = F = also known as MASS PULL
(𝑐−𝑡)
As values of recovery, ratio of concentration and enrichment ratio (c/f ) can be determined from the assay
results alone, the two-product formula method is often used to provide information for plant control,
although this will be retrospective, dependent on the time taken to receive and process the assay results.
Direct control can be achieved by the use of on-stream analysis systems, where values of c, f, and t can be
continuously computed to provide up-to-date values of metallurgical performance. There are many
methods used to account for a plant’s production. Most concentrators produce a metallurgical balance
showing the performance of each shift, the shift results being cumulated over a longer period (daily,
monthly, annually) to show the overall performance. Below is a shift performance table.
18.3.1 Slurry streams

From the grinding stage onwards, most mineral processing operations are carried out on slurry streams, the
water and solids mixture being transported through the circuit via pumps and pipe lines. The volume of the
slurry flowing is of importance as this will affect residence time in unit processes.
Pulp density- This is the weight of the pulp per unit volume. It is usually measured by a density can of
known volume, weighed on a specially graduated balance giving a direct reading of the pulp density.
Density of the pulp can also be expressed in terms of % solids by weight. Knowing the pulp density and the
density of dry solids, % solids can be calculated, taking the density of water to be 1g/cm3.
Let D = pulp density kg⁄m3 S = density of dry solids kg⁄m3

M = mass flow rate kg⁄hr
100S(D−1000)
% solids (𝒙) = D(S−1000)
Volumetric flow rate- is the ratio of volume collected to the time taken. This is important in
calculating residence time;
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
Having measured the volumetric flow rate (F m3/h), the pulp density (D kg/m3) and the density of solids (S
kg/m3), the weight of the slurry can be calculated (FD kg/h), and of more importance the mass flow rate of
dry solids in the slurry, M kg/h;
FDx
Mass flow rate = 100 where F = volumetric flow rate, D = density of solids, x = % solids.
Dilution ratios in mass balancing

Water plays a very important role in mineral processing operations. It is used as a transportation medium
and as the medium in which most of the mineral separations take place. Individual processes require
different optimum water contents, e.g.;
 Ball mills operate between 65 to 70% solids by weight. The discharge may need dilution before
being fed to the hydro cyclones.
 Flotation operations operate between 25 to 40% solids by weight.

 Gravity concentration devices between 55 to 70% solids.
There is need for water conservation and recycling in order to cut costs on fresh water. For optimum
performance there is a water requirement which produces optimum slurry composition in all parts of the
circuit.
Dilution ratio- is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of the solids.
Questions
1. Outline the process control variables in a concentration plant.
2. Explain the relationship between concentrate grade and metal recovery in a concentrator.
3. Define the following terms:
a) Plant recovery
b) Enrichment ratio
c) Mass pull
4. Explain the importance of slurry density in mineral separation processes.
Reference:
Press

TOPIC 19: DEWATERING PLANT PRACTICE
Objectives

 Understand the need for dewatering planning.
 Have knowledge and understanding of dewatering auxiliary equipment
 Have knowledge of concentrate storage facilities
 Understand dewatering plant control equipment
Information
Mineral processing operations use huge volumes of water to facilitate processes of milling, classification,
and concentration. Each unit operation only tolerates a certain degree of dilution. Hence there is need to
adjust percentage solids between unit operations. The act of reducing degree of dilution is called
dewatering. After concentration, both the concentrate and the gangue minerals should be dewatered.
Gangue minerals are dewatered to prepare them for waste disposal as well as to recover and recycle process
water. Water is a scarce resource and need to be conserved. Concentrates need to be dewatered to facilitate
ore handling as well as prepare them for subsequent metal extraction processes. When there is need for
concentrate shipping, moisture levels should be reduced to below 5% for easy handling. Pyrometallurgical
extraction processes require dry concentrates and thus justifies the drying of concentrates. When particle
sizes are relatively large, fine screens are used for dewatering. However for fine particle sizes, thickening
followed by filtration and thermal drying are used.
19.1 Dewatering plant layout

Dewatering plant layout complexity varies depending on the production capacity, degree of dewatering
required and whether the dried concentrates are for export or for use at the same site. Some dewatering
processes are operated continuously while others are batch processes. The major dewatering equipment at a
plant would include:
• Thickeners (settling tanks)
• Cyclones
• Fine screens
• Filtration equipment
• Drying equipment

Auxiliary equipment
The auxiliary equipment found in a dewatering plant include:
 Thickener feed concentrate tank
 Flocculent tank
 Filter feed concentrate tank
 Dryer feed concentrate tank
 Dried concentrate storage silo
 Slurry feed pumps
 Thickener underflow pumps
 Thickener rake drive system
 Filter vacuum/pressure pumps
 Air compressors
19.2Preparing for dewatering

Dewatering units normally operate continuously and connected to the concentration plant, recycled water
circuit, and concentrate storage facility. It is very important to make sure that the dewatering unit does not
disrupt the smooth operation of the other unit operations. Before the dewatering plant is started, there is
need to check for readiness of the concentrates supply side. In fact the thickener feed tank level should
have enough concentrate to operate the thickener for a couple of hours. Downstream storage facilities
should be available to receive the dried concentrate. After all have been checked, the operators need to
check the status of the dewatering equipment as well as the auxiliary equipment. Equipment manuals and
site specific standard operating procedures should be consulted. The starting procedure of a thickener will
normally depend on its status. Startup may occur under two sets of very different circumstances:
a) After a major plant shutdown
b) The initial plant startup when the thickener is completely empty or after a shutdown whereby the
thickener has been left full of pulp, and rakes and underflow pumps have been inoperative (such as
after a power failer).
Empty thickener
In case of the thickener being empty, it must be filled with barren solution or water prior to restarting any
part of the process. No attempt should be made to put pulp into an empty thickener. The underflow lines
must be clean. Follow thickener manual to complete the startup procedure.
Full thickener
If the thickener has been left full of pulp but without operating pumps or rake mechanism, there is a serious
danger of sanding, particularly after a number of hours in operation. If the rakes are in pulp, raise them

slowly out of the pulp to their highest position by the manual lifting device. Check that all associated
equipment is operable, and that the density controller is in manual mode, and that the output is set to 0%.
Follow the manual to complete the startup procedure.
Preparation for thickener startup

The following items must be checked before the associated thickening equipment is started.
1. The thickener should be running on recycle; i.e. underflow pump should be running. If they are not
use an alternative startup procedure.
2. Ensure that all the associated equipment is available to operate.
3. Check that the concentrate feed tank is available to startup.
4. Check the concentrate feed tank level to ensure there is sufficient room for thickener overflow.
5. Check that flocculent stock is adequate for a few hours of running time.
6. Check shutoff valves in air lines to the sampler are open.
7. Ensure that the shutoff valves in the flocculent lines are open.
8. Notify the shift foreman that the thickener is ready to receive feed.
A high torque alarm signal must be investigated immediately. Failure to do so may cause severe and costly damage
to the thickener rake mechanism and drive components causing a lengthy plant shutdown.
19.3Plant control equipment

The main parameter that affects dewatering operation is residence time. This is controlled by controlling pumping
speeds. The control mechanism in a dewatering plant is aided by control devices such as:
 Density meters
 Tank level sensors
 Flow meters
 Pump speed controls
 Rake speed controls
 Variable pump speed facility
 Rake level adjustment facility
 Recycling valves
 Temperature sensors

Questions
1) Why is it important to plan before starting a dewatering plant?

2) Give an outline of the auxiliary equipment found in a dewatering plant.
3) Identify storage facilities in a dewatering plant and explain the need for storage in the plant.
4) Identify dewatering plant control equipment.
Reference:
1. Biswas,A.K.and Davernport, W.G. (1980). The Extractive Metallurgy of Copper. Oxford Prgamon Press

TOPIC 20: CONCENTRATE DEWATERING PROCESSES
Objectives
 Have knowledge and understanding of dewatering processes
 Have knowledge of dewatering equipment
 Understand the mechanisms of dewatering
 Understand dewatering parameters
Information
We have noticed that starting from ore grinding onwards, the successive processes of classification and
concentration are carried out in water. With few exceptions, most mineral separation processes involve the
use of substantial quantities of water and the final concentrate has to be separated from a pulp in which the
water to solids ratio may be high. Water has to be removed from the pulp to get the final product in a
relatively dry form. The removal of water from the pulp is called dewatering. Dewatering is the separation
of pulp into two parts, one is relatively solid-free and the other is relatively liquid-free, with respect to
original pulp. Dewatering, or solid–liquid separation, produces a relatively dry concentrate. Partial
dewatering is also performed at various stages in the treatment, so as to prepare the feed for subsequent
processes (easy ore handling). It also helps in recovering and recycling process water. Gangue minerals are
also dewatered before waste disposal. If the solid particles in the pulp are relatively coarser, screening the
pulp results in removal of water by passing the water through apertures and retaining the solid particles on
the screen. Draining is a fairly effective method to remove water from coarse sands, but if fine sands and
slimes are present, they tend to run off with the water. The pulps containing fine sands and slimes, flotation
pulps for example, are dewatered usually in the following three stages:
 Sedimentation.
 Filtration.
 Thermal drying.
Dewatering in mineral processing is normally a combination of the above methods. The bulk of the water is
first removed by sedimentation, or thickening, which produces a thickened pulp of perhaps 55–65% solids
by weight. Up to 80% of the water can be separated at this stage. Filtration of the thick pulp then produces
a moist filter cake of between 80 and 90% solids, which may require thermal drying to produce a final
product of about 95% solids by weight. Removal of water by drying is the most expensive operation.
Hence as much water as possible should be removed by filtration before thermal drying.
20.1Thickening

Sedimentation/ thickening means gravity settling or subsidence of solids suspended in liquid. This
operation is coupled with continuous overflow of water and withdrawal of partially dewatered solids (thick
pulp) from the bottom. Thickening is an operation of concentrating a relatively dilute slimy pulp into a
thick pulp by allowing solid particles to settle under the influence of gravitational force. It is also
considered as a classification with a difference that in thickening all the solid particles are allowed to settle
whereas in classification only certain solid particles are allowed to settle. Rapid settling of solid particles in
a liquid produces a clarified liquid which can be decanted, leaving thickened slurry, which may require
further dewatering by filtration. Very fine particles, of only a few microns in size settle extremely slowly
by gravity alone, hence thickening operations are very slow and cannot produce clarified liquids. In order
to increase the settling rate, these fine solid particles are agglomerated or flocculated into relatively large
lumps, called flocs, which settle out more rapidly.
20.1.1 Coagulation and flocculation

Flocculation is defined as clustering, or coalescence of fine particles to form floccules or flocs in a liquid
medium. It may be achieved by the addition of certain reagents known as flocculating agents or flocculants
such as lime, starch, glue, gelatine, alum, gypsum, sulphuric acid, copper sulphate etc. to the pulp.
Molecules of the flocculant act as the bridges between separate suspended fine particles and form the flocs.
These flocs settle rapidly leaving the clear liquid at the top. Coagulation on the other hand causes extremely
fine colloidal particles to adhere directly to each other. Coagulants are electrolytes having an opposite
charge to the particles, thus causing charge neutralization when dispersed in the system, allowing the
particles to come into contact and adhere as a result of molecular forces. Inorganic salts have long been
used for this purpose, and as counter ions in aqueous systems are most frequently positively charged, salts
containing highly charged cations, such as Al3+, Fe3+, and Ca2+, are mainly used. Lime, or sulphuric acid,
depending on the surface charge of the particles, can also be used to cause coagulation. Therefore the
optimization of solid–liquid separation processes requires careful control of floc size and structure. The
maximum effect of a flocculant is achieved at an optimum dosage rate and pH; excess polymer can cause
dispersion of the particles due to floc breakdown. Physical factors are also of great importance, growth and
development of the flocs being affected by particle to particle collisions and hydrodynamic interactions.
Coagulants and flocculants are normally made up of stock solutions of about 0.5–1%, which are diluted to
about 0.01% before adding to the slurry. The diluted solution must be added at enough points in the stream
to ensure its contact with every portion of the system. A shower pipe is frequently used for this purpose.
Mild agitation is essential at the addition points, and shortly thereafter, to assist in reagent dispersion in the
process stream. Care should be taken to avoid severe agitation after the flocs have been formed.

20.1.2 Thickening operation
Gravity sedimentation or thickening is the most widely applied dewatering technique in mineral processing,
and it is a relatively cheap, high capacity process, which involves very low shear forces, thus providing
good conditions for flocculation of fine particles. The thickener is used to increase the concentration of the
suspension by sedimentation, accompanied by the formation of a clear liquid. In most cases the
concentration of the suspension is high and hindered settling takes place. Thickeners may be batch or
continuous units, and consist of relatively shallow tanks from which the clear liquid is taken off at the top,
and the thickened suspension at the bottom. The clarifier is similar in design, but is less robust, handling
suspensions of much lower solid content than the thickener. The continuous thickener consists of a
cylindrical tank, the diameter ranging from about 2 to 200m in diameter, and of depth 1to7 m. Pulp is fed
into the centre via a feed well placed up to 1m below the surface, in order to cause as little disturbance as
possible. The clarified liquid overflows a peripheral launder, while the solids which settle over the entire
bottom of the tank are withdrawn as a thickened pulp from an outlet at the centre. Within the tank are one
or more rotating radial arms, from each of which are suspended a series of blades, shaped so as to rake the
settled solids towards the central outlet. On most modern thickeners these arms rise automatically if the
torque exceeds a certain value, thus preventing damage due to overloading. The blades also assist the
compaction of the settled particles and produce a thicker underflow than can be achieved by simple
settling. Figure below is a simulation of a thickener.
The solids in the thickener move continuously downwards, and then inwards towards the thickened
underflow outlet, while the liquid moves upwards and radially outwards. In general, there is no region of
constant composition in the thickener. Thickener tanks are constructed of steel, concrete, or a combination
of both, steel being most economical in sizes of less than 25m in diameter. The tank bottom is often flat,
while the mechanism arms are sloped towards the central discharge. With this design, settled solids must
“bed-in” to form a false sloping floor. Steel floors are rarely sloped to conform to the arms because of
expense. Concrete bases and sides become more common in the larger-sized tanks. In many cases the
settled solids, because of particle size, tend to slump and will not form a false bottom. In these cases the
floor should be concrete and poured to match the slope of the arms. Tanks may also be constructed with

sloping concrete floors and steel sides, and earth bottom thickeners are in use, which are generally
considered to be the lowest cost solution for thickener bottom construction. The method of supporting the
mechanism depends primarily on the tank diameter. In relatively small thickeners, of diameter less than
about 45 m, the drive head is usually supported on a superstructure spanning the tank, with the arms being
attached to the drive shaft. Such machines are referred to as bridge or beam thickeners. The underflow is
usually drawn from the apex of a cone located at the centre of the sloping bottom. A common arrangement
for larger thickeners, of up to about 180m in diameter, is to support the drive mechanism on a stationary
steel or concrete centre column. In most cases, the rake arms are attached to a drive cage, surrounding the
central column, which is connected to the drive mechanism. The thickened solids are discharged through an
annular trench encircling the centre column. In all thickeners the speed of the raking mechanism is
normally about 8m per minute at the perimeter, which corresponds to about 10 revolutions per hour for a
15m diameter thickener. The underflow is usually withdrawn from the central discharge by pumping,
although in clarifiers the material may be discharged under the hydrostatic head in the tank. The underflow
is usually collected in a sludge-well in the centre of the tank bottom, from where it is removed via piping
through an underflow tunnel. The underflow lines should be as short and as straight as
possible to reduce the risk of choking, and this can be achieved, with large tanks, by taking them up from
the sludge-well through the centre column to pumps placed on top, or by placing the pumps in the base of
the column and pumping up from the bottom. This has the advantage of dispensing with the expensive
underflow tunnel. The figure below shows a picture of a thickener.

High capacity thickeners
Conventional thickeners suffer from the disadvantage that large floor areas are required, since the
throughput depends above all on the area, while depth is of minor importance. In recent years, machines
known as “high capacity” or “high rate” thickeners have been introduced by various manufacturers. Many
Types exist, and the machines are typified by a reduction in unit area requirement from conventional
installations. They use a combination of agitation and flocculation to increase rate of thickening. High
density thickeners (or high compression thickeners) are an extension of high capacity thickening utilizing a
deeper mud bed to increase capacity and underflow density. High rate rakeless thickeners use a deep tank
and a steep bottom cone to maximize underflow density while eliminating the rake and rake drive. In some
applications underflow with the consistency of paste can be produced from high density and rakeless
thickeners. However for consistent paste underflow several manufacturers offer deep cone thickeners in
applications where surface tailings disposal by wet stacking or underground paste backfill is required. The
tank height to diameter ratio is often 1:1 or greater. The thickeners differ from conventional thickeners in
that:
 They have a deep feed well
 Perform de-aeration of the feed
 Have efficient horizontal feed distribution over entire thickener
 Have controlled bed level
 They always use flocculation
Centrifugal sedimentation
Centrifugal separation can be regarded as an extension of gravity separation, as the settling rates of
particles are increased under the influence of centrifugal force. It can, however, be used to separate
emulsions which are normally stable in a gravity field. Centrifugal separation can be performed either by
hydrocyclones or centrifuges.
20.2Filtration
Filtration is the process of separating solids from liquid by means of a porous medium which retains the
solid but allows the liquid to pass. The conditions under which filtration are carried out are many and
varied and the choice of the most suitable type of equipment will depend on a large number of factors.
Whatever type of equipment is used, a filter cake gradually builds up on the medium and the resistance to
flow progressively increases throughout the operation. Factors affecting the rate of filtration include:
 The pressure drop from the feed to the far side of the filter medium. This is achieved in pressure
filters by applying a positive pressure at the feed end and in vacuum filters by applying a vacuum to
the far side of the medium, the feed side being at atmospheric pressure.
 The area of the filtering surface.

 The viscosity of the filtrate.
 The resistance of the filter cake.
 The resistance of the filter medium and initial layers of cake.
 Thickness of the filter cake
 Pulp temperature
 Size range of the particles
 Degree of flocculation
 Number of pores per unit area of the filter medium
Filtration in mineral processing applications normally follows thickening. The thickened pulp may be fed
to storage agitators from where it is drawn off at uniform rate to the filters. Flocculants are sometimes
added to the agitators in order to aid filtration. Slimes have an adverse effect on filtration, as they tend to
“blind” the filter medium; flocculation reduces this and increases the void spaces between particles, making
filtrate flow easier. The lower molecular weight flocculants tend to be used in filtration, as the flocs formed
by high molecular weight products are relatively large, and entrain water within the structure, increasing
the moisture content of the cake. Other filter aids are used to reduce the liquid surface tension, thus
assisting flow through the medium.
The choice of the filter medium is often the most important consideration in assuring efficient operation of
a filter. Its function is generally to act as a support for the filter cake, while the initial layers of cake provide
the true filter. The filter medium should be selected primarily for its ability to retain solids without
blinding. It should be mechanically strong, corrosion resistant, and offer as little resistance to flow of
filtrate as possible. Relatively coarse materials are normally used and clear filtrate is not obtained until the
initial layers of cake are formed, the initial cloudy filtrate being recycled. Filter media are manufactured
from cotton, wool, linen, jute, nylon, silk, glass fibre, porous carbon, metals, rayon and other synthetics,
and miscellaneous materials such as porous rubber.
20.2.1 Types of filters

Cake filters are the type most frequently used in mineral processing, where the recovery of large amounts
of solids from fairly concentrated slurries is the main requirement. Those where the main requirement is the
removal of small amounts of solid from relatively dilute suspensions are known as screening or
clarification filters. Cake filters may be pressure, vacuum, batch, or continuous types.
A. Pressure filters
Because of the virtual incompressibility of solids, filtration under pressure has certain advantages over
vacuum. Higher flow rates and better washing and drying may result from the higher pressures that can be
used. However, the continuous removal of solids from the pressure-filter chamber can be extremely

difficult and consequently, although continuous pressure filters do exist; the vast majority operates as batch
units. Examples of pressure filters include: the filter presses, and the chamber press.
The plate and frame press

The plate and frame press consists of plates and frames arranged alternatively. The hollow frame is
separated from the plate by a filter cloth. A tight chamber is formed between each pair of plates. Slurry is
introduced to the empty frames of the press through a continuous channel formed by holes in the corners of
the plates and frames. The filtrate passes through the cloth and runs down the grooved surfaces of the plates
and is removed through a continuous channel. The cake remains in the frame and when the frame is full,
the filter cake can be washed, after which the pressure is released and the plates and the frames separated
one by one.
The chamber plate

The chamber plate is similar to the plate and frame type except that the filter element consists solely of the
recessed filter. Individual chambers are formed between successive plates. All chambers are connected by
means of a large hole in the centre of each plate. This type of process is common for treating slurries with a
high solid content. They have an easier quick discharge method, produces a solid cake, which is easy to
handle, and can produce a perfectly clear water. It is simple. Versatile and has a low cost. Its disadvantages
are that it is an intermittent operation and has a high cloth wear rate.
B. Vacuum filters
There are many different types of vacuum filter, but they all incorporate filter media suitably supported on
a drainage system, beneath which the pressure is reduced by connection to a vacuum system. Vacuum
filters may be batch or continuous. An example of a batch vacuum filter is the leaf filter. This has a number
of leaves, each consisting of a metal framework or a grooved plate over which the filter cloth is fixed.
Numerous holes are drilled in the pipe framework, so that when a vacuum is applied, a filter cake builds up
on both sides of the leaf. A number of leaves are generally connected and are first immersed in slurry held
in a filter feed tank and then to a cake-receiving vessel where the cake is removed by replacing the vacuum
by air pressure. Although simple to operate, these filters require considerable floor space and suffer from
the possibility of sections of cake dropping from the leaves during transport from tank to tank. They are
now used only for clarification, i.e. the removal of small amounts of suspended solids from liquors.
Continuous vacuum filters are the most widely used filters in mineral processing applications and fall into
three classes; drums, discs, and horizontal filters.

Rotary drum filter
This is the most widely used type in industry, finding application both where cake washing is required and
where it is unnecessary. The drum is mounted horizontally and is partially submerged in the filter trough,
into which the feed slurry is fed and maintained in suspension by agitators. The periphery of the drum is
divided into compartments, each of which is provided with a number of drain lines, which pass through the
inside of the drum, terminating at one end as a ring of ports which are covered by a rotary valve to which
vacuum is applied.
The filter medium is wrapped tightly around the drum surface which is rotated at low speed, usually in the
range 0.1 to 0.3 revolutions per minute, but up to 3 revolutions per minute for very free-filtering materials.
The normal drum rotation cycle of operations consists of filtration, drying, and discharge, but it is possible
to introduce other operations into the basic cycle, such as cake washing and cloth cleaning. Various
methods are used for discharging the solids from the drum, depending on the material being filtered. They
include:
a) Use of a reversed blast of air, which lifts the cake so that it can be removed by a knife, without the
latter actually, contacting the medium.
b) String discharge, where the filter cake is formed on an open conveyor. The strings are in contact
with the filter cloth in the filtration, washing, and drying zones.
c) Belt discharge, where the filter medium itself leaves the filter and passes over the external roller,
before returning to the drum.
Cake washing is usually carried out by means of sprays or weirs, which cover a fairly limited area at the
top of the drum.
Disc filters
The principle of operation of disc filters is similar to that of rotary drum filters. The solids cake is formed
on both sides of the circular discs, which are connected to the horizontal shaft of the machine. The discs
rotate and lift the cake above the level of the slurry in the trough, whereupon the cake is suction-dried and

is then removed by a pulsating air blow with the assistance of a scraper. The discs can be located along the
shaft at about 30 cm centres and consequently a large filtration area can be accommodated in a small floor
space. Cost per unit area is thus lower than for drum filters, but cake washing is virtually impossible and
the disc filter is not as adaptable as a drum filter.
Horizontal belt filters

The horizontal belt filter consists of an endless perforated rubber drainage deck supporting a separate belt
made from a suitable filter cloth. At the start of the horizontal travel, slurry flows by gravity on to the belt.
Filtration immediately commences, due partly to gravity and partly to the vacuum applied to the suction
boxes which are in contact with the underside of the drainage deck during the course of its travel. The cake
which forms is dewatered, dried by drawing air through it, and then discharged as the belt reverses over a
small diameter roller. If required, one or more washes can be incorporated. The applications for horizontal
belt filters are increasing. They are particularly suited to hydrometallurgical circuits where metal values are
dissolved in alkali or acid.
These values can be recovered from waste solids by filtration of the leached slurry and countercurrent
washing. Large belt filters are in operation on cyanide leached gold ore and acid-leached uranium ore. Belt
filters are also suited for concentrated slurries of fast settling products, where efficient washing is required.
In addition to their low installed capital cost when compared with disc, drum, and press type filters,
relatively low operating costs mean that these filters offer a particularly cost-effective and reliable solution
to filtration problems, especially with low value material such as mine tailings. Work on coal slurries has
shown that horizontal belt vacuum filtration should produce lower cake moistures than those from rotary
vacuum filtration and at a reduced cost per tonne.
20.3Thermal drying
The drying of concentrates prior to shipping is the last operation performed in the mineral processing plant.
It reduces the cost of transport and is usually aimed at reducing the moisture content to about 5% by
weight. Dust losses are often a problem if the moisture content is lower. Since thermal drying is normally
associated with concentrates meant for pyrometallurgical treatment, the theory of drying will be covered in
the pyrometallurgy module.
20.4Filtration parameters
The parameters that affect filtration processes in general include:
 Filter Area- Capacity, which means the rate of solids deposition and the rate of filtration which is
the rate of liquid removal, is directly proportional to the surface area of the filter.
 Cake thickness- The rate of filtration is inversely proportional to the cake thickness. Therefore,

thinner cakes are drier than thicker cakes, all other things being equal, but the capacity is directly
proportional to the cake thickness.
 Viscosity of filtrate- the rate of filtration is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the filtrate. The
viscosity can be decreased, thus increasing the filtration rate by raising the pulp temperature or by
use of low viscosity additives.
 Pulp density- the rate of solids deposition is proportional to the solid concentration. With material,
which is easy to filtrate, it is beneficial to thicken the pulp, but for materials, which is difficult to
filter, e.g. very fine and clay pulp is usually filtered at a lower pulp density in order to obtain the
rate of filtration and so as to obtain dry cakes. Dilute pulps cannot be filtered satisfactory on a
continuous vacuum filter, because the dilute pulp will give inside bridging, which results in
blinding of the cloth before a cake of sufficient thickness can be formed.
 Particle size, shape and distribution- these have a great effect on the filtration rate because the size
and shape determine the specific surfaces of the particles in the cake and also the porosity of the
filter of the cake. The smaller the average particle size, and the lower the sphericity, the larger the
specific surface and the larger the cake resistance. Cake resistance is proportional to the square of
the specific surface area. Fine and clay particles give high resistance and, hence, lower size of the
filtering rates. Size distribution, on the other hand, affects porosity of the filter cake.
 Flocculation- flocculation increases particle size and thus reduces the specific surface and increase
the porosity of the particles. Flocculated cakes have a much larger resistance and reduce the rate of
filtration. They are thick and are much wetter than unflocculated cakes.
 Pressure drop- the rate of filtration is directly proportional to the difference in pressure across the
filter for incompressible cakes. For highly compressible cakes, however, it can be shown that the
rate filtration is independent of the change in pressure.
 Depth of submergence- the greater the filter area in the pulp, the thicker is the cake. However, the
rate of solid deposition decreases rapidly after a short initial period.
Little benefit is obtained from a greater depth of submergence of the filter in the slurry. On the other
hand, the greater the depth of submergence, the less filter area for removal of the filtrate from the
cake and the wetter the cake will be. A thicker cake will also result in increased moisture content.
 Filter speed- the speed of rotation of a continuous vacuum filter is normally adjustable. An
increased speed means increased time available for solid deposition resulting in an increased
capacity, but this reduces the ability of the system to get rid of as much moisture as possible. Thus it
results in a wetter cake. Hence, high speeds are, therefore, preferred for materials, which filter
quickly. For materials, which do not filter easily, low speeds are recommended.
 Filter media- when choosing a filter medium, a decision must be made between a coarse medium
with low resistance giving high rates of filtration, but with less finer particles passing through and a
tightly woven cloth with high resistance, which will give maximum particle retention. Preference is

usually given to cloths of lower resistance, provided that they do not blind. The durability of the
filter cloth is also an important consideration. If a cloth develops a small hole but is otherwise still
capable of a good performance, such holes can be patched up during operations.
 Cloth blinding is caused by fine particles, which are in the pores or by chemical precipitation, in
particular, carbonates and sulphates. Blinding can sometimes be partially dealt with by washing
with dilute acids or by scrubbing to dissolve or loosen some of the blinding solids. Tightly woven
clothes are generally resistant to mechanical blinding. Many types of filter cloth are on the market.
Cloths woven from cotton dick are still the most popular, though synthetic material is increasingly
being used. Filters in leach plants require acid resistant cloths. In selecting the type of cloth, the
application is a critical importance even though the price might be high.
20.5Thickening parameters
Parameters that affect the efficiency of thickening processes include:
 Particle properties which have a bearing on the degree of separation (size, shape, solid density,
surface chemistry)
 Feed flow rate (residence time)
 Feed density
 Underflow density
 Overflow clarity
 Degree of flocculation
 Rake speeds (torque)
 Rake height
 Bed level and mass (pressure)
 Solids settling rate
 Pumping speeds

Questions
1) Explain the need for dewatering in mineral processing plants.

2) Outline the reason for filtration in mineral processing plants.
3) With the aid of a clearly labeled diagram describe mineral dewatering by a thickener.
4) Compare thickening and classification.
5) Explain the factors that affect the rate of filtration.
6) Describe the operation of the rotary vacuum drum filter.
7) Identify the control parameters for a thickener.
Reference:
1. Biswas, A.K. and Davernport, W.G. (1980). The Extractive Metallurgy of Copper. Oxford Prgamon Press

TOPIC 21: DRYING PROCESSES
Objectives
 Have understanding and knowledge of types of dryers.
 Have understanding and knowledge of drying mechanism.
 Have understanding and knowledge of drying parameters.
 Have understanding and knowledge of drying operations.
Information
The drying of concentrates prior to shipping is the last operation performed in the mineral-processing
plant. It reduces the cost of transport and is usually aimed at reducing the moisture content to about 5% by
weight. Dust losses are often a problem if the moisture content is lower. Wet beneficiation of minerals
necessarily requires removal of large amounts of water, typically contaminated before further processing
of the concentrated ores can be carried out. Often such concentrates are transported over large distances by
ground or sea transport. For economic reasons dewatering and drying are essential unit operations. Drying
is the use of thermal energy to reduce the moisture content of a material through vaporization. Typically,
free moisture is removed, as opposed to bound or crystalline water that often requires higher temperatures
and specific energy input. Since mechanical dewatering generally cannot reduce concentrate moisture
content below 10-20%, drying is frequently required to attain moisture levels that maximize the thermal
efficiency of a downstream process, provide the desired consistency for handling and blending, satisfy
end-user specifications, etc. Available drying systems handle materials ranging from slurries to filter cakes
to free-flowing crushed ores. Many of these systems also dry pyrophoric ores, using controlled gas
composition and temperature to limit the potential for oxidation. Proper system selection must be based on
a thorough understanding of material properties and product requirements. The level of moisture classifies
smelting as either a wet-feed or a dry-feed process. Requirements of the moisture content of feed vary
from process to process. The most demanding processes are flash smelting and the Mitsubishi copper
smelting processes, which require dry concentrates (<0.5% moisture). Reverberatory furnaces can tolerate
a maximum of 7% moisture in the feed. Compared with dry feed, the use of wet feed in copper smelting
has disadvantages, such as increased energy consumption and off-gas flow.

21.1Mechanism of drying
The selection of a dryer is highly dependent on the material’s physical and specific drying characteristics.
Drying is a three-step process:
 First, sensible heat brings the material to the vaporization temperature.
 Secondly, the surface then remains at a constant temperature until the critical moisture point, at
which all its moisture has been removed.
 Final drying occurs at a decreasing rate, as surface temperature increases and internal moisture is
driven to the surface and volatilized. During this stage, materials with high levels of internal
moisture may be subject to high stresses, resulting in structural degradation.
The drying rate curve characterizes a material’s basic drying properties. This is developed by drying a
material at a constant gas temperature and determining the rate of weight loss. The figure below shows
drying curves for oil shale, clay and garnierite ore. The curve does not provide an absolute time
temperature relationship for dryer design, but gives a relative comparison to other materials, so that
required dryer operating conditions can be calculated from experience. The drying rate curve is used to
select dryer operating parameters, rather than dryer type. The physical properties of the dryer feed stream
have the largest impact on dryer selection and design. These include moisture content, disposition of
moisture (surface and internal), particle size distribution, density, particle integrity (i.e. friable),
temperature sensitivity, abrasiveness and corrosivity. Particle size distribution and consistency are used to
define the category of dryers suitable to an application.
21.2Types of dryers
Wet materials come in different physical forms and are required to be dried to different desired specifications. Over
400 different dryer types have been proposed in the technical literature although only about 50 types are commonly
used and readily available from various vendors. No two dryers are identical even when used for drying nominally
the same material. Even minor changes in feed condition and/or product specification may make the two dryers
different in design or in operation or both. Dryers are classified in several ways. The criteria used include:
 According to nature of feed.
 Shape of drying chamber.
 Source of drying energy
 Direct or indirect contact between concentrate and drying media.
 Drier motion.
 Drying technology.
 Drying temperatures.
 Mode of heat transfer.
Conventional dryers used in the mineral processing industry are classified as hearth, shaft, and grate type.
Other types of dryers used less commonly in current practice are the spray, fluid bed, pneumatic or flash
conveyor, drum, stationary- and rotating-tray type, infrared type, and others. The commonly used drying
mediums are hot air, combustion gas, and steams. Emerging drying technologies include; superheated
steam drying, pulse combustion drying, microwave drying, combined grinding and drying, drying with heat
pump and waste heat.

Material properties affecting the choice of dryer
 Material drying properties - drying curve
 Free moisture level - loss at 105°C
 Particle size distribution
 Wet and dry bulk density
 Specific gravity
 Feed flow properties: slurry, sticky sludge, free-flowing, etc.
 Particle degradation issues
 Temperature sensitivity
 Corrosiveness
 Potential emissions requiring control
 Capacity in wet or dry mtph
 Mode of operation - 24 h/d or campaigned
 Product moisture specification
 Fuel type
 Installation area description / limitations
 Operating environment.
21.3Drying equipment
We will describe the operation of a few concentrate dryers.
21.3.1 Rotary dryers

Rotary dryers are the commonest system for mineral processing, since they offer the greatest flexibility in
terms of capacity, retention time, operating temperatures, ease of operation, operational availability, the
ability to process different feeds, handling variations in feed properties, and operating at reduced
throughputs. A single unit can process several thousand tons per day of wet feed. A typical rotary dryer
system includes an unlined carbon steel shell with supports and a drive mechanism. Product purity
requirements or corrosive applications may dictate more robust materials of construction. Hoods at both
ends of the tube accommodate the transfer of solids and gas. Fuel is combusted in a refractory lined
external combustion chamber, and the resulting hot gas (hot air, combustion gases, and flue gases) enters
the tube and flows parallel with the material stream. Material drops off the far end of the tube into a
material handling circuit, and the dryer off-gas is filtered, scrubbed if necessary and then emitted to the

atmosphere. An induced draft fan downstream of the off-gas filter controls the static pressure inside of the
dryer. Material retention time in a rotary dryer typically ranges from 10-60 minutes. Most dryers include a
variable speed drive to permit changes in retention to maximize capacity. Retention time is a function of
material angle of repose, shell diameter, shell length, shell slope, shell speed, gas velocity and the design of
internals. Retention time changes linearly with shell speed changes. The rotary can operate in counter-flow
or parallel-flow mode. Most operate in parallel mode, which permits operation with a high inlet gas
temperature to maximize dryer capacity and efficiency without overheating the solids. The higher
differential gas temperature in the parallel mode equates to lower specific energy consumption per unit of
dry product than counter-flow.
Parallel-flow may be used to dry pyrophoric ores. This requires limiting the oxygen content in the system
to a maximum of 10% through gas injection or flue gas re-circulation. The rate of pyritic sulfur oxidation at
this concentration is significantly retarded. In addition, the particle surface temperature must be limited to
<3OOºC during the falling-rate drying period. The rotary dryer's disadvantages include high price, space
requirements and maintenance costs. These should be weighed against their flexibility and ease of
operation.

Typical design ranges for rotary dryer systems are as follows:
Diameter 6 m maximum
Length equivalent to 5-10 times the diameter
Retention time 15-30 minutes
Exit gas velocity: 3-5 ms-1
Loading 10% of total shell volume
Shell slope 2.4"
Shell peripheral speed 0.1-0.5 ms-1
Inlet temperature approximately 900°C maximum
Outlet temperature 125-150°C
Evaporation load 30- 1 10 kg/h/m3, depending on material properties.
21.3.2 Band/ conveyor dryer

The band dryer, or conveyor dryer, dries a permeable bed of coarse particles or fine particles that have been
pre-formed into large agglomerates such as briquettes or extrusions. It is applied before end use or high-
temperature processing. The feed lies on a perforated belt that travels in a horizontal plane similar to that of
a conventional belt conveyor. The belt sits inside a chamber supplied with hot gas that circulates around
and through the bed of static material. The drying chamber is usually divided into cells, with gas
recirculation to control the drying temperature profile. The last cells are often used for ambient air cooling.
The most common configuration includes a single conveyor dryer. Multiple conveyors (in a multi-stage
dryer) may be used in a vertical configuration when the material is very heat- sensitive, to improve
efficiency and/or capacity. The dryer’s gentle handling virtually eliminates degradation of even the most
friable materials. The most critical part of the operation is the delivery of material to the belt in a manner
that establishes a uniform bed depth to promote even air distribution and drying. Breaking devices may be
employed at one or more locations along the belt to provide some degree of material agitation and mixing.

The typical ranges for band dryer design and operating parameters are as follows:
Belt width 0.5-3.0 m

Belt velocity 0.001-0.02 ms-1
Drying temperature 100-200°C.
Belt length no typical range
Bed depth on belt 20-150 mm (typically <40-60 mm)
Superficial velocity through bed 0.5-2.0 ms-1
21.3.3 Spray dryers

The spray dryer is the most effective for drying pumpable slurries. The feed is atomized to produce fine
droplets of uniform size characterized by a high surface area (35,000- 3 10,000 m2/m3 slurry), resulting in
almost instantaneous drying that achieves very low moisture levels without particle overheating due to the
high rate of evaporation. For slurries with multiple components, of spray drying is effective at fixing
particles that are homogeneous in composition. The primary components include an atomizer, drying
chamber and product collection circuit. The most common configuration introduces the atomized slurry
into the top of the vessel. Hot gas also enters the top of the vessel, flows down and sweeps the dried
particles out the bottom to the product collection device. This figure below illustrates concurrent flow, but
flow may also be countercurrent or mixed. Three methods of slurry atomization are utilized: single fluid
nozzle, pneumatic nozzle and centrifugal discs. The single fluid nozzle is generally used to produce fine
droplets, with the droplet size being a function of pressure drop across the nozzle. The pneumatic nozzle
offers more flexibility in terms of droplet size, with size being a function of nozzle velocity and slurry
properties. This design can also produce the smallest droplet size of the three nozzle options. The
centrifugal disc is the most widely applied method of atomization due to its simplicity, ease of operation,
ability to handle abrasive slurries, rare occurrence of blockages, and atomization is not as sensitive to slurry
properties. Slurry is dropped onto a disc rotating with a linear speed of 90-210 ms-1, and droplet size may
be controlled by adjusting disc speed. A larger diameter drying vessel is required when the centrifugal disc
is utilized in order to accommodate the wider spray pattern.

Typical spray dryer design and operating parameters include:
Inlet gas temperature 93-760°C

Pneumatic nozzle 0-415 kPa
Single fluid nozzle 2,000-27,000 kPa
Centrifugal disc 0 kPa
Retention time 3-30 seconds.
Evaporative loading up to 7,000 kg/h
21.4Plant layout
Drying plant units normally consist of feed storage facilities, feed conveying mechanism, feeders, drying facility,
drying medium generation unit, cooling facility, and concentrate storage. Specifically:
 Concentrate feed silo
 Conveyor belts
 Chutes
 Feeders
 Dryer
 Steam generators, flue gas capture, etc.
 Cooling chamber
 Final concentrate storage silo.
21.5Drying parameters
These vary from dryer to dryer. The main parameter of interest is that of product moisture content. All the
other operational parameters revolve around achieving the desired moisture content. Each drying method
has specific dryer control variables which should be monitored and adjusted as per manual.
Questions
1) What are the reasons for drying mineral concentrates?
2) Explain the stages of drying (drying mechanism).
3) Identify the criteria used for classifying dryers.
4) Outline the material properties used in choosing a dryer.
5) Describe the drying process using:
a) Rotary dryer
b) Band dryer
c) Spray dryer.
Reference:
1. Andrew L. Mular et al. (2002). Mineral Processing Plant Design, Practice, and Control; vol 1 & 2. Society
for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc.
2. Mujumdar, A. S. et al.(2010) 'Dewatering and Drying in Mineral Processing Industry: Potential for
Innovation', Drying Technology, 28: 7, 834 — 842
3. S.L Chen and H. Mansikkaviita. The Beneficial Effects of Feeding Dry Copper Concentrate to Smelting
Furnaces and Development of the Dryers. South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Johannesburg.
4. Mathew. J. King et al, (2011). Extractive Metallurgy of Copper. Elsevier, Britain.

TOPIC 22: CHARGE PREPARATION PROCESSES
Objectives

 Have understanding the processes performed on concentrates in preparation for smelting.
 Have understanding and knowledge of blending of concentrates.
 Have understanding and knowledge of agglomeration of concentrates.
 Have understanding and knowledge of roasting of concentrates.
 Have knowledge of the need for fluxing charge before smelting.
Information
Charge to a smelting furnace has to be prepared to suit the requirements of the smelter. The preparation
process will depend on several factors including: particle size, chemical formula, concentrate grade, type of
smelting etc. The main processes include: blending, agglomeration, roasting, and fluxing. Each smelter has
its own requirements such that not all of the above processes are carried out at one plant. The chemistry of
the smelting process will determine which preparatory process to be carried out.
22.1Agglomeration
Agglomeration is a method of bringing the fine particles of ore together and agglomerates them into lumps
of suitable size and strength. Agglomeration is essential before feeding the ore into a metallurgical furnace
as it requires ore at coarser sizes to have sufficient porosity of the ore bed in order to complete necessary
reduction reactions for extraction of metal. In present day smelting technology, very fine material is
undesirable in the smelting furnaces especially in iron smelting. Modem high performance furnaces require
physical and metallurgical preparation of the burden. Formerly agglomeration was used in a purely
physical way, as a process of size enlargement aimed at improving the permeability of the furnace burden.
On the other hand, the requirements for physical and chemical quality of the furnace burden have become
more stringent, and mining companies that supply ore to several ironworks (as the large ones generally do)
now prepare a variety of concentrate or fine ore qualities from the same or similar crude ores. As a rule,
blast-furnace burden contains lump ore, or agglomerates.

22.2 Agglomeration methods
There are three methods being utilized in the mineral processing industry. These include; briquetting,
sintering and Pelletizing. Briquetting consists of pressing of ore fines, with or without a binder, into a
block or briquette of some suitable size and shape, and then subjecting it to a hardening process. Fines of
coal, iron ore, chrome ore, etc. can be made into reasonably strong briquettes. Sintering is a process of
heating a mass of fine particles to the stage of incipient fusion for agglomerating them into lumps. Iron ore
fines are sintered before feeding to a Blast furnace. Pelletization consists of rolling of moist iron ore fines
into balls, drying, preheating and firing to produce hardened balls which are an excellent feed for a blast
furnace. There are exceptions, such as pellets made at ironworks from mixed ore, or sinter made from a
single ore or concentrate quality where an ironworks uses ore from a single deposit. Blast furnaces are also
sometimes operated with lump ore alone, sinter alone, or pellets alone. Sponge iron plants are generally
fed with a single iron source. Pellets are also nearly always made from one well-defined ore or
concentrate, whereas sinter is produced from predesigned mixtures of ores and additives. Equipment used
for sintering is a sintering machine; pellets are made in a pelletizer, while briquettes are made by a
briquetting machine. The main agglomeration parameters are particle size, physical and mechanical
strength, chemical composition, porosity, permeability, reducibility, and thermal stability.
22.2.1 Pelletizing
For pelletizing, the fines are moisturized and made to rotate in a drum or disc with or without the use of a
binder to produce spherical balls. The moist balls (green pellets) are hardened to impart strength by firing at
temperatures above 1000°C. The advantage of pelletizing over sintering is that the pellets have much
higher strength and more uniform size. The general layout of pelletizing plants consists of raw material
preparation (mixing), hardening and strengthening units. The proportioning of various constituents in the
mix and the control of the feed to the pelletizer is achieved by incorporating metering devices like table
feeder, screw feeder, belt feeder etc., to the raw material bins. Green pellets formation can be done in either
a drum or disc pelletizer. The main critical properties of green pellets are: drop strength, compression
strength, and moisture content. Factors influencing green pellets formation include:
 Feed particle size
 Moisture content
 Addition of binders
 Water spray system
 Disc inclination
 Disc rotating speed
 Disc diameter
Hardening of green pellets is achieved by heating in a hardening kiln which could be a vertical shaft,

horizontal travelling grate, or grate kiln system
22.2.2 Sintering
In sintering the agglomeration is achieved by surface fusion as a result of burning of a solid fuel (coke
fines) added to the charge mix. The general plant layout may be divided into: proportioning of raw
materials, mixing, loading of mix onto the strand, ignition, sintering, sinter treatment, and waste gas
system.
Raw materials
The raw materials used are as follows:
 Ore fines- normally <12mm
 Fuel, normally 3mm coke breeze;
 Furnace flue and fines produced in sintering
 Flux, limestone and/ or dolomite of < 3mm
The raw materials may be blended by laying them down and reclaiming them from beds outside the sinter
plant, or the individual components may be stored separately and conveyed separate bunkers in the sinter
plant. From these bunkers the various materials are withdrawn via feeders, and collected on a gathering
belt.
Mixing
The proportionate raw materials are next mixed and moistened. This is usually done by passing them
through a drum filled with paddles, water being added to impart permeability to the mixed materials. After
this mixing, the moist mix may be rolled in a drum pelletizer to give increased permeability.
Loading
The mix is now ready to be loaded on to the strand. The aim is to lay down the material evenly across the
width of the strand with the minimum compacting. This can be achieved by using devices like swinging
sprout, a roll feeder, vibrating feeder etc. in some cases a thin layer of inert material, such as sized sinter, is
first laid on the grate bars and the sinter mix is loaded on top of this hearth layer. Immediately after
loading, the surface of the mix is leveled by passing it under a plate, the ‘cut-off-plate’, which is set so as to
give the desired thickness of mix on the strand. Normally this is between 100 and 450mm.
Igniting
The mix is ignited by means of gas or oil burners. Normally the burners are set in a brick-lined hood which

covers a length of strand, but vertical burners which impinge directly on to the mix are sometimes used.
Sintering
Air being sucked through the bed into wind boxes situated under the grate. The grate consists of a number
of individual pallets. These pallets travel forward on wheels running on a track beside the strand, and the
system is sealed as far as possible against leakage of air in at the grate edge, The strand moves forward.at
about 3 meters per minute so that the mix takes about 15 minutes to travel from the igniter to the end of the
strand. During this time the combustion zone travels through the bed, the strand speed normally being
adjusted so that combustion of the fuel at the bottom of the bed is complete just before the sinter reaches
the end of the strand.
Sinter treatment
At this point the finished sinter is tipped from the strand as the pallets turn for their journey back to the
loading end. The sinter falls on to a crash deck and the large lumps are broken up by toothed wheels. The
discharged sinter is hot, but varying in temperature according to its previous position in the bed; the sinter
from the top of the bed has already been cooled to ambient temperature, whereas that from the bottom of
the bed is over 1000°C. From the crash deck the sinter moves to a vibrating screen, normally set at about 9
mm. The under size, the return fines goes back to join the stream of raw materials and the oversize goes
forward to the sinter cooler.
22.2.3 Briquetting
Where availability of binder is not a limitation, the briquetting is always preferred, since it does not call for
fine grinding of raw materials as in case of pelletizing and high temperature treatment as in case of
sintering. In case of high pressure briquetting operation, even the binders are not used.
Process
Basically, the process involves passing of finely divided material through the nip of the rolls under
sufficient pressure to overcome the internal molecular forces and form a dense, cohesive compact.
Agglomeration using double roll equipment is a compaction process, and terms "briquetting" and
"compacting" are somewhat interchangeable. The term briquetting is normally used for predetermined
shape of agglomerates. Compacting is most often used for the production of agglomerates in the form of
flat or corrugated sheet.
Equipment
Roll type briquetting machines are capable of forming different sizes and shapes (pillow, egg, semi
spherical and bar shaped). The shape of briquettes is obtained by the desired shape of grooves made on the

periphery of rolls. Many materials can be compacted by pressure alone. However, in some instances
binders are used to lower the pressure required for compacting, thereby increasing production for
economical operation. The most commonly used binder is water, although many other raw materials as
well as heat may be used. The other common binder in case of the Ferro alloy industry are; bentonite,
dextrine, molasses, tamrind seed powder, etc. The layout of a briquetting plant consists of bins or feeders,
mixer for homogenizing the raw materials, briquetting press and sometimes a drying unit.
22.3 Roasting
Roasting may be used to prepare sulfide concentrates for subsequent pyrometallurgical or
hydrometallurgical operation. For pyrometallurgical processing, the purpose of roasting is to decrease the
sulfur content to an optimum level for smelting smelting. In many modern processes, however, roasting is
not a separate step, but is combined with matte smelting. For hydrometallurgical extraction, roasting forms
compounds that can be leached out. The roasting process, which produces the so-called calcines, has
several effects:
 Drying the concentrates
 Oxidizing a part of the iron present
 Controlling the sulfur content
 Partially removing volatile impurities, especially arsenic
 Preheating the calcined feed with added fluxes, chiefly silica and limestone.
Roasting for purposes of sulphur removal is an oxidizing roast. It involves blowing in oxygen to oxidize
sulphur and remove it as sulphur dioxide gas.
Types of roasting
There are several important roasting methods; all involve oxidation at an elevated temperature, generally
between 500 and 850°C.
 Partial (oxidizing) roasting is the conventional way of extracting copper from sulfide concentrates. At
800 to 85°C, the degree of roasting is determined by controlling the access of air. A predetermined
amount of sulfur is removed and only part of the iron sulfide is oxidized. The copper sulfide is
relatively unchanged. These conditions are important for the formation of a suitable matte.
 Total, or dead, roasting is occasionally used for complete oxidation of all sulfides for a subsequent
reduction process or for special hydrometallurgical operations.
 Sulfating roasting is carried out at 550 to 565°C to form sulfates. This method yields calcines well-
suited for hydrometallurgical treatment.
 Chloridizing roasting involves sulfating roasting with addition of sodium chloride. The temperature
should not exceed 600°C to avoid loss of copper (I) chloride.
 Chloridizing volatilization involves heating to ca. l200°C in the presence of calcium chloride so that

various metal chlorides and other volatile compounds can be separated.
Factors affecting roasting

 Time (duration)
 Availability of oxygen or air
 Temperature
 Physical condition of the ore
 Nature of the mechanical device used
Duration of roasting process varies greatly:
 Blast roasting is done in a mere flash of time
 Hearth roasting takes hour.
 Heap roasting months
 Weather roasting year
Roasting practice
Criteria of choosing a roasting process:

A. Required physical condition of product
 Blast furnace- coarse and cellular feed
 Reverberatory furnace or retort- fines
 Leaching- porous
B. Required chemical composition of the product.
 Lead should be totally free from Sulphur before smelting it in BF.
 For Zn total Sulphur content should be removed.
 In Cu the Sulphur content should not be totally removed it should be present in excess amount so as
to produce a matte which is mainly the mixture of iron sulphide and copper sulphide of desire
grade.
 Formation of zinc ferrite should be avoided when zinc is extracted by leaching because it is difficult
to leach the ferrite.
22.3.1 Roasting equipment

Roasting equipment include: multiple hearth roaster, fluidized bed roaster, flash roaster, and sinter roasting.
Multiple hearth roaster

Consists of circular bricks superimposed on each other. The entire structure is enclosed in a circular brick
lined steel shell. Rabbles are attached to arms. Arms are attached to rotating central shaft. Ore is fed at the

top. Oxygen is blown at bottom. Due to the countercurrent flow of gas and feed, roosting occurs and the
roasted products are collected at bottom of roaster. The roasting process is slow and the Sulphur gases
evolved when a sulphide is roasted are unsuitable for the production of sulphuric acid because they do not
contain sufficient SO2 and SO3.
Fluidized bed roaster

The ore particles are roasted while suspended in air. Here gas is passed at high velocity through a bed of
solid ore particle (small and preferable regular in size over the range of 0.005-0.05 cm in diameter). The
behavior of bed depends upon velocity of the gas. Fluidized bed roasting is autogenous so its efficiency is
more.
Sintering roast
This is just the sintering of sulphide ores. Sulphur is automatically oxidized during sintering. The sintering
process is dealt with in the agglomeration section.
22.4 Blending
Many at times, smelters receive feed concentrates from different sources and thus having different
properties. The main parameter of interest is metal grade. Other parameters include particle size
distribution mechanical strength and mineralogy. This feed from different sources is mixed at pre-
calculated ratios to achieve the feed grade required by the smelter. The reasons for blending include:
 Creating a uniform feed to the furnace.
 Promoting a smooth running of the furnace by maintaining operational parameters constant.
 Utilizing low grade ores which would be uneconomic to process on their own
 Simplifies burden calculations by using a uniform feed quality.
Blending operations are normally carried out on the blending bed. The process utilizes stacking and
reclaiming systems to mix ores in different proportions to achieve the required feed grade.

Questions
1) Explain the need for agglomeration of mineral ores and concentrates.
2) Identify the agglomeration methods used in the mineral processing industry.
3) Describe the pelletization process in a disc pelletizer.
4) Outline the factors affecting the quality of green pellets.
5) Describe the sintering process from feed preparation to product treatment.
6) Explain the reasons for roasting mineral concentrates.
7) Outline the reasons for blending of mineral concentrates.
8) Describe the roasting process in a:
a) Multiple hearth roaster.
b) Fluid bed roaster.
Reference:
1. Biswas,A.K.and Davernport, W.G. (1980) The Extractive Metallurgy of Copper Oxford Prgamon
Press
2. Fatbi Habashi, (1997). Handbook of extractive Metallurgy. Wiley- VCH. New York
3. Tomas Havlik. (2008) hydrometallurgy, Principles and Applications. Cambridge International Science
Publishing Limited. England.
5. P.V.T. Rao. Agglomeration and pre-reduction of ores. R&D Division, TATA Steel.

TOPIC 23: METAL SMELTING PROCESSES
Objectives

 Have understanding and knowledge of types of smelting.
 Have understanding and knowledge of smelting furnaces.
 Have understanding and knowledge of smelting processes.
Information
Smelting is a process of melting and separation of the charge into two or more immiscible liquid layers,
which may be slag, matte, speiss or metal. There are two types of smelting depending on the type of
reactions taking place in the furnace. These are reduction smelting and matte smelting. The reduction
smelting process involves the reduction of oxide ores of metals with carbon in the presence of a flux.
Mineral + reducing agent + flux = metal + slag + gases
The matte smelting process involves the fusion of sulfide sources of metals with a flux without the use of
any reducing agent.
Mineral + flux = matte + slag + gases
Smelting furnaces include:

 Blast furnace.
 Reverberatory furnace.
 Electric arc furnace.
 Flash smelting furnaces.
Fluxes
Fluxes are additives into the furnace charge to form a slag of low viscosity with the mineral impurities and
also reduce the melting temperature of the minerals. Fluxing materials can be classified into basic and
acidic. A basic slag requires an acidic flux (e.g. limestone), while an acidic slag requires a basic flux (e.g.
silica). The choice of a flux depends on:
 Chemical nature of the gangue material.
 Properties desired in the slag as density and viscosity.

Slags
A solution of molten oxides is called “Slag”. The purpose of slag in metal extraction and refining is to
collect all the “gangue” waste products in the form of oxides (or sulphide in small quantities) and eliminate
the impurities into a separate phase. Thus refining reactions are often studied in terms of the relevant
“metal-slag equilibrium”. The thermodynamics of the refining behavior of a slag phase with respect to a
liquid metal is a function of temperature and of the composition of the two phases. Slag plays a very
important role in steelmaking to the extent that it is said that “take care of slag and metal will take care of
itself”. Slag is a generic name and in steelmaking it is mostly a solution of oxides and sulphides in the
molten state and the multi-crystalline phases in the solid state. Slag is formed during refining of hot metal
in which Si oxidizes to SiO2, Mn to MnO, Fe to FeO, and P to P2O5, and addition of oxides such as CaO,
MgO, iron oxide, and others. The addition of oxides is done to obtain desired physico-chemical properties
of slag like melting point, basicity, viscosity etc. All these oxides float on the surface of the molten metal.
Synthetic slag is also used to absorb inclusions to produce clean steel for certain applications. The role of
the slag is to:
 It acts as a sink for impurities during refining of metal.
 It controls oxidizing and reducing potential during refining through FeO content. Higher FeO
makes the slag oxidizing and lower FeO reducing.
 It prevents passage of nitrogen and hydrogen from atmosphere to the molten steel.
 It absorbs oxide/sulphide inclusions.
 It acts as a thermal barrier to prevent heat transfer from molten steel to the surrounding.
 It protects metal against re-oxidation.
 It emulsifies hot metal and promotes carbon oxidation.
 In electric melting, slag prevents the radiation of heat of arc to the wails of the furnace and roof.
The above functions require that slag should possess certain physical (density, melting point, viscosity) and
chemical properties (basicity, oxidation potential). Both physical and chemical properties are controlled by
composition and structure of slag. In smelting, slag is predominantly a mixture of oxides with small
amounts of sulphides and phosphides.
23.1Reduction smelting: The iron making blast furnace

The reduction of iron oxides in the blast furnace is a well-known process. The overall reaction is as
follows:
Iron ore + limestone + coke + hot oxygen enriched air blast = pig iron (liquid) + slag (liquid) + waste gas
From the equation above, the feed to the blast furnace consist of iron ore, limestone, coke, and hot oxygen
blast. Limestone is used as a flux, oxygen is used to produce reducing gases in the furnace. The functions

of coke in the iron making blast furnace are:
 Acts as a fuel to provide the energy required for the smelting
 Acts as a reducing agent; first as direct carbon reduction, and second by producing carbon
monoxide gas which performs indirect reduction of iron oxides.
Feed material is fed from the top of

the furnace. Oxygen is fed at the
bottom of the furnace in the tuyeres
zone. The oxygen reacts with coke to
produce carbon monoxide gas which
reduces iron oxides. Reduced iron
settles in the hearth bottom where it is
tapped while the slag settles on top of
the molten metal. It is also tapped
through the slag tap hole.
Flue gases exit the furnace at the top

of the furnace. The blast furnace plant
layout is shown on the figure below. It
consists of a feeding conveyor, oxygen
The control variables in the smelting process: supply facility, slag and molten metal.
 Smelting temperature. storage, and off-gas cleaning section.
 Gas pressure.
 Quality of pig iron and slag.
 Slag viscosity
 Feeding rate

23.2Matte smelting
In matte smelting, the sulphide ore is fused with a flux to produce a molten mixture of sulphides known as
matte. The gangue materials pass off into the slag, which is immiscible with the matte, i.e., it forms a
separate layer. Some Sulphur is lost in the furnace gases as SO2 or SO3. In this sense for a sulphide ore,
matte smelting is a thermal concentrating process. A matte is a metallic sulphide solution that contains
minor amounts of oxygen and, sometimes, some metals too. A matte exhibits a high electrical conductivity
comparable with that of a metal and has a density in between the density of the metal and that of the slag.
Mattes, in general, are insoluble in the metal and slag phases. Thus, in some processes three distinct layers,
namely, slag, matte, and metals are produced. Matte smelting, which is usually carried out in a
reverberatory furnace, follows a roasting operation. Roasting first reduces the sulphide content of an ore in
such a manner that subsequent smelting with a suitable flux produces a matte of the required grade. It
should be noted that roasting brings about only the partial oxidation mainly of FeS and FeS2 to FeO, which
would pass off into the slag phase. Matte smelting is adopted in the extraction of copper, nickel, and,
sometimes, antimony. The common ores of these metals contain sulphide minerals including FeS. During
roasting, prior to matte smelting, the sulphides of iron are oxidized more easily than those of copper and
nickel. The oxidation of say, Cu2S or Ni3S2 can be avoided by controlling the oxidation of the ore so as to
produce only FeO and not Fe2O3 and Fe3O4. This is necessary because the higher oxides of iron do not pass
off into the slag easily and are thus difficult to remove. Copper is subsequently recovered from the matte by
a process known as ‘converting’ in converters.
23.2.1 Converting
The purpose of converting is to remove iron ore, Sulphur and other impurities from the matte. For the
process, the molten matte produced as a result of smelting, is fed into the side blown converter which is a
cylindrical vessel with a capacity of 100-200 tons of matte. A typical vessel is 4m in diameter and 9m in
length and lined with a layer of chrome-magnetite refractory. Inside the converter the atmosphere is highly
oxidizing. Air or oxygen enriched air (up to a maximum limit of 32 vol % oxygen in the blast) is injected
into the molten bath through tuyeres. The products of converting process are slag and metal.
The copper converting process takes place in two stages. The first stage is the slag forming stage in which
air is blow to oxidize iron and part of sulphur. This oxidation produces a slag. The slag is skimmed off
(removed), new charge is added and the process repeated. After three or four times of slag forming, the
converter is now full of impure copper. The second stage is started which is the copper forming stage.
Oxygen is blown to remove the remaining sulphur to produce blister copper, also known as white metal.
The metal is taped off at the end of the blowing cycle and the process is started again. Converting is a batch
process.

23.2.2 Flash smelting furnaces
Generally flash smelting is done for the concentrates of nickel sulphide and copper sulphide. This process
combines the process of flash roasting and smelting. The flash smelting roaster consists of a reaction
chamber in which flash roasting is carried out and a settling chamber (or smelting chamber) in which the
roasted products, which is obtained from the reaction chamber, are smelted in order to separate slag from
the metal. In this smelting process, enriched preheated air or pure oxygen is usually used instead of air to
increase the combustion rate and to maintain autogenous smelting. The gases coming out of the furnace is
rich in SO2 or SO3 which is further used for the manufacturing of sulphuric acid. Flash smelting accounts
for around half of all Cu matte smelting. It entails blowing oxygen, air, dried Cu-Fe-S concentrate, silica
flux, and recycled materials into a 1250 °C hearth furnace. Once in the hot furnace, the sulfide mineral
particles of the concentrate react rapidly with the O2 of the blast. This results in controlled oxidation of the
concentrate’s Fe and S, a large evolution of heat and melting of the solids. The process is continuous.
When extensive oxygen enrichment of the blast is practiced, it is nearly auto-thermal. The goals of flash
smelting are to produce:
 Molten matte at constant composition and temperature for feeding to converters.
 Slag which, when treated for Cu recovery, contains only a tiny fraction of the Cu input to the flash
furnace.
 Off gas strong enough in SO2 for its efficient capture as sulfuric acid.
There are three main flash smelting furnaces: the Autotec, Mitshubishi, and the INCO flash smelting furnaces.

A. The Autotec flash smelting furnace
Outotec flash furnaces vary considerably in size and shape (Table 6.1). However, they all have five main features:
 Concentrate burners (usually one, but a few have four), which combine dry particulate feed with
O2-bearing blast and blow them downward into the furnace.
 A reaction shaft where most of the reaction between O2 and Cu-Fe-S feed particles takes place.
 A settler where molten matte and slag droplets collect and form separate layers.
 Water-cooled copper block tap holes for removing molten matte and slag.
 An uptake for removing hot SO2-bearing off gas.
Auxiliary equipment- Concentrate blending equipment, Solids feed dryer, Flash furnace feed bins and feed
system, Oxygen plant, Blast preheater, Heat recovery boiler, Dust recovery and recycle system, Gas
cleaning system, Sulfuric acid plant, Secondary gas collection and treatment system, and Cu-from-slag
recovery system.
Startup shutdown
Operation of an Outotec flash furnace is begun by heating the furnace to its operating temperature with
hydrocarbon burners or hot air blowers. The heating is carried out gently and evenly over a week or two to
prevent uneven expansion and spalling of the refractories. Adjustable springs attached to fixed-position I-
beams keep the walls and hearth under constant pressure during the heating. During initial heat-up, paper is
inserted between newly laid hearth bricks to burn out and compensate for brick expansion. Concentrate
feeding is begun as soon as the furnace is at its target temperature. Full production is attained in a day or
so. Shutdown consists of:
 Overheating the furnace for 7 to 10 days to melt solid buildups

 Starting hydrocarbon burners

 Stopping the concentrate burner
 Draining the furnace with hydrocarbon burners on
 Turning off the hydrocarbon burners
 Turning off the cooling water
 Allowing the furnace to cool at its natural rate.
Steady-state operation of a flash furnace entails:
 Feeding solids and blast at a constant rate.
 Drawing SO2-rich gas from the gas uptake at a constant rate.
 Tapping matte from the furnace on a scheduled basis or as needed by the converter(s).
 Tapping slag from the furnace on a scheduled basis or when it reaches a prescribed level in the
furnace.
Smelting control
The Outotec flash furnace operator must smelt concentrate at a steady, specified rate, while:
 Producing matte of specified Cu grade
 Producing slag of specified SiO2 content
 Producing slag at specified temperature
 Maintaining a protective coating of magnetite-rich slag on the furnace interior
B. INCO Flash smelting

Inco flash smelting blows industrial oxygen, dried Cu-Fe-S concentrate, SiO2 flux, and recycle materials horizontally
into a hot (w1250 °C) furnace.
The matte is tapped into ladles and sent to converting. The slag is tapped into ladles and sent to stockpile, with or
without Cu-from-slag removal. The off gas is water-quenched, cleaned of dust, and sent to a sulfuric acid plant. The
Inco flash furnace is also used to recover Cu from molten recycle converter slag. The slag is poured into the furnace
via a steel chute and water-cooled door.

The Inco flash furnace is made of high-quality MgO and MgO-Cr2O3 brick. Its main components are:
 Concentrate burners, two at each end of the furnace
 End- and sidewall water-cooled copper cooling jackets
 A central off gas uptake
 Sidewall tap holes for removing matte
 An end wall tap hole for removing slag
 An end wall chute for charging molten converter slag
Auxiliary equipment include: Oxygen plant, Concentrate blending system, and Solids feed dryer.
The Inco flash furnace uses industrial oxygen (no air) to smelt Cu-Fe-S and Ni-Cu-Co-Fe-S concentrates. It
produces high Cu and high Ni-Cu-Co mattes. It introduces dry feed and industrial oxygen through four
horizontal burners and removes SO2 off gas through a central gas uptake. The off gas is water-quenched
and sent to a sulfuric acid plant to capture its SO2. Very little nitrogen enters the Inco furnace, so its blast
and off gas handling systems are small. Also, the strong off gas is ideal for SO2 capture. Inco flash furnace
slag can contain less than 1% Cu, which can be discarded without Cu-recovery treatment. This gives it a
cost advantage over most other modern smelting techniques. If desired, converter slag can also be recycled
through the furnace for Cu recovery. However, this procedure upsets an otherwise steady process.
Questions:
1) Identify the two types of metal smelting giving raw materials and products.
2) Identify the four main smelting furnaces.
3) What are the functions of fluxes in metal smelting processes?
4) Explain the functions of slags in smelting processes.
5) Describe the iron making process in the blast furnace.
6) What are the functions of coke in the iron making blast furnace?
7) Describe the AUTOTEC flash smelting process.
8) What are the control variable in a matte smelting process?

Reference:
Press
5. P.V.T. Rao. Agglomeration and pre-reduction of ores. R&D Division, TATA Steel.

TOPIC 24: ELECTRICAL AND FIRE REFINING
Objectives
 Have understanding and knowledge of metal fire refining.
 Have knowledge and understanding of metal electro-refining.
Information
The products of matte and reduction smelting are mixtures of impure metals. These products have to be
refined to produce pure metals or useful alloys. There are two methods for refining impure metal ingots:
fire reefing, and electro-refining. Fire refining involves blowing in oxygen to oxidize impurity elements in
converters, and fire refining furnaces. Electro-refining is performed in electrical furnaces.
24.1Fire refining
Virtually all the molten copper produced by smelting/converting is subsequently electro-refined. It must,
therefore, be suitable for casting into thin, strong, smooth anodes for interleaving with cathodes in electro-
refining cells. This requires that the copper be fire refined to remove most of its sulfur and oxygen.
Dissolved sulfur and oxygen combine during solidification to form bubbles (blisters) of SO2 in newly cast
anodes, making them weak and bumpy. Fire refining removes sulfur and oxygen from liquid blister copper
by (a) air oxidation removal of sulfur as SO2(g), and (b) hydrocarbon reduction removal of oxygen as
CO(g) and H2O(g). Pig iron is also refined in steel making vessels, which is also a fire reefing process.
Copper fire refining is mostly carried out in rotary refining furnaces resembling Peirce-Smith converters or,
less often, in hearth furnaces. It is carried out at about 1200 °C, which provides enough superheat for
subsequent casting of anodes. The furnaces are heated by combusting hydrocarbon fuel throughout the
process.
24.1.1 Rotary furnace refining

Air and hydrocarbon flow rates into refining furnaces are slow, to provide precise control of copper
composition. Only two tuyeres are used. Refining a 250 tonne charge of blister copper (0.03% S) takes up
to 3 hours; 1 hour for air injection (S removal) and, 2 h for hydrocarbon injection (O removal). High-sulfur
copper from direct-to-copper smelting and continuous converting takes up to 5 hours. A typical sequence in
rotary furnace refining is:

 Molten copper is delivered by crane and ladle from converters to the anode furnace until 200 or 300
tonnes are accumulated.
 The accumulated charge is then desulfurized by blowing air into the molten copper.
 The copper is deoxidized by blowing gaseous or liquid hydrocarbons into the molten copper bath.
Hydrocarbon blowing is terminated when the oxygen concentration has been lowered tow0.16% O, as
detected with disposable solid electrolyte probes or by examination of copper test blocks. Copper with this
oxygen content sets flat when it is cast into anodes.
24.1.2 Hearth Furnace Refining

Although the rotary furnace dominates copper fire refining in primary smelters, secondary (scrap) smelters
tend to use hearth-refining furnaces. They are better for melting scrap and other solid inputs. Sulfur is
removed by reaction of the copper solids with an oxidizing flame above the bath and by injecting air
through submerged tip steel lances. Deoxidation is also done by injecting hydrocarbons or hydrocarbons
plus steam through these steel lances. Some anode furnaces inject nitrogen into the molten copper through
small holes in porous ceramic plugs in the bottom of the furnace. The injected nitrogen stirs the molten
copper and gives it uniform composition and temperature during fire refining and anode casting. This
homogenization:
 Minimizes solid slag buildups in otherwise cool parts of the anode furnace, and
 Produces uniform anode composition throughout an entire cast of anodes.
The universal choice for removing S from copper is air. Many different hydrocarbons are used for O
removal, but natural gas, oil, liquid petroleum gas, and propane/butane are favored. Gas and liquid
hydrocarbons are injected into the copper through the same tuyeres used for air injection. Natural gas is
blown in directly (sometimes with steam). Liquid petroleum gas, propane and butane are blown in after
vaporization. Oil is atomized and blown in with steam.
24.1.3 Casting anodes

The final product of fire refining is molten copper, ready for casting as anodes. Virtually all copper anodes
are cast in open anode-shaped impressions on the top of flat copper molds. Sixteen to 32 such molds are
placed on a large horizontal rotating wheel. The wheel is rotated to bring a mold under the copper stream
from the anode furnace, where it rests while the anode is being poured. When the anode impression is full,
the wheel is rotated to bring a new mold into casting position and so on. Spillage of copper between the
molds during rotation is avoided by placing one or two tiltable ladles between the refining furnace and
casting wheel. Most casting wheels operate automatically, but with devoted human supervision. The newly
poured anodes are cooled by spraying water on the tops and bottoms of the molds while the wheel rotates
They are stripped from their molds (usually by an automatic raising pin and lifting machine) after a 270

rotation. The empty molds are then sprayed with a barite-water wash (30 vol.-% barite, 70% water) to
prevent sticking of the next anode. The limitation for casting rate is the rate at which heat can be extracted
from the solidifying/cooling anodes. The flow of copper from the refining furnace is adjusted to match the
casting rate by rotating the tap hole up or down (rotary furnace) or by blocking or opening a tapping-notch
(hearth furnace). New anode casting installations cast their anodes in pairs to speed up casting rates.
Anode casting wheel
The molds into which anodes are cast are always copper. In all cases the anode molds are perfectly leveled
on the casting wheel, to ensure that the anode faces are exactly parallel. The most important aspect of
anode casting, besides flat surfaces, is uniformity of thickness. This uniformity ensures that all the anodes
in an electro-refining cell reach the end of their useful life at the same time. Automatic control of the mass
of each pour of copper (i.e. the mass and thickness of each anode) is now used in most plants. The usual
practice is to sense the mass of metal poured from a tiltable ladle, using load cells in the ladle supports as
sensors.
Anode preparation
Anode flatness, uniformity, and verticality are critical in obtaining good electro-refinery performance. For
this reason, most refineries treat their anodes in an automated anode preparation machine to improve
flatness and verticality. The machine:
 Weighs the anodes and directs underweight and overweight anodes to re-melting.
 Straightens the lugs and machines a knife edge on each lug (for vertical hanging).
 Presses the anodes flat with a full body press.

 Loads the anodes in a spaced rack for dropping into an electro-refining cell.
Inclusion of these anode preparation steps has resulted in increased refining rates and current efficiencies,
improved cathode purities, and decreased electro-refining energy consumption.
24.2Electro-refining
Almost all copper is treated by an electrolytic process during its production from ore. It is either electro-
refined from impure copper anodes or electrowon from leach/solvent extraction solutions. Considerable
copper scrap is also electro-refined. Electro-refining entails (a) electrochemically dissolving copper from
impure copper anodes into an electrolyte containing CuSO4 and H2SO4, and (b) selectively electroplating
pure copper from this electrolyte without the anode impurities. It produces copper essentially free of
impurities, and separates valuable impurities such as gold and silver from copper for recovery as
byproducts. An electrical potential is applied between a copper anode and a metal cathode in an electrolyte
containing CuSO4 and H2SO4. The following processes occur:
a) Copper is electrochemically dissolved from the anode into the electrolyte, producing copper cations
plus electrons.
b) The electrons produced by Reaction above, are conducted toward the cathode through the external
circuit and power supply.
c) The Cu2+ cations in the electrolyte migrate to the cathode by convection and diffusion.
d) The electrons and Cu2þ ions recombine at the cathode surface to form copper metal (without the
anode impurities).
The impurities in the anodes either do not dissolve or are not plated at the cathodes, so the purity of the
copper plated onto the cathodes is much higher than that of the anode starting material. The principal
impurities in copper anodes are Ag, As, Au, Bi, Co, Fe, Ni, O, Pb, S, Sb, Se,and Te. They must be
prevented from entering the cathode copper. Their behavior is governed by their position in the
electrochemical series. At the anode, elements with less positive reduction potentials than Cu dissolve
under the applied potential, while elements with more positive reduction potentials remain in solid form. At
the cathode, elements with more positive reduction potentials deposit preferentially, while elements with
more negative potentials remain in solution.

Industrial electro-refining uses large (≈ 1𝑚 × 1𝑚), thin (40 − 50𝑚𝑚40) copper anodes and thin (1-10
mm) cathodes interleaved approximately 50 mm apart in a cell filled with electrolyte. The anodes in the
cell are all at the same potential: the cathodes are all at another, lower potential. DC Power is provided by a
rectifier. Anodes and cathodes are evenly spaced along the cell to ensure an even distribution of current to
all electrodes. The process is continuous except when electrodes are loaded or unloaded from the cells.
Electrolyte containing CuSO4 and H2SO4 continuously enters at the bottom end of each cell. It leaves the
cells (slightly less pure) by continuously overflowing the other end of the cell into an electrolyte collection

system. Anodes continuously dissolve and pure copper continuously plates on the cathodes.
24.2.1 Cathodes
Modern refineries use stainless steel blanks as the starting cathode. This is a sheet of stainless steel welded
to copper support bars. Copper is electrodeposited onto these cathodes for 7 to 10 days. The copper-plated
cathodes are then removed from the cell and replaced with fresh stainless steel blanks. The copper-plated
cathodes are washed with hot-water sprays and the copper deposits (50 to 80 kg on each side of the blank)
are machine-stripped from the stainless steel. These are packed, strapped, and sent to market or to melting
and casting. Stripped stainless steel blanks are carefully washed and returned to the refining cells. It may be
necessary to polish the stainless steel surface to maintain its smoothness and avoid plated copper from
sticking onto rough patches. Avoid plated copper from sticking onto rough patches. The stainless steel
blanks are usually flat, cold- and bright-rolled 316L stainless steel, ~3 mm thick. Electrodeposited copper
attaches quite firmly to this surface so that it does not accidentally detach during refining. The vertical
edges of the blanks are covered with long, tight-fitting polymer edge strips. These strips prevent copper
from depositing completely around the cathode and allow removal of the electro-refined copper plates from
the stainless steel. The bottoms of the stainless steel blanks are given a sharp-edged V groove to allow easy
detachment of the plated copper from this region of the blank. Older refineries use thin copper starter sheet
cathodes, hung by starter sheet loops on copper support bars. These are thin sheets of copper that have been
plated onto titanium or stainless steel, stripped, flattened, and then hanger bars are attached. These cathodes
have higher mechanical stresses than stainless steel blanks and have a tendency to warp. They are often
embossed to improve rigidity. They often need to be removed after about two days of plating to be
straightened in presses and then returned to the cells. Use of these cathodes therefore makes refinery
management more difficult. They also short-circuit more frequently, which reduces cathode quality.
24.2.2 Cells
Industrial refining cells are typically 3 to 6 m long. They are wide and deep enough (~1.1 m x 1.3 m) to
accommodate the anodes and cathodes with 0.1 to 0.2 m underneath. Electrodes and the cell floor to
minimize contamination of the cathode from slimes that fall to the base of the cell. Each cell typically
contains 30 to 60 anode-cathode pairs connected in parallel. Modern cells are made of pre-cast polymer
concrete. Polymer concrete cells are usually cast with built-in structural supports, electrolyte distributors,
drains, etc. These are advantageous for fitting them into the tank house infrastructure. Older cells are made
of concrete, with a flexible polyvinyl chloride or lead lining. These older cells are gradually being replaced
with unlined polymer concrete cells.
24.2.3 Electrical components

The cells are connected electrically in series to form sections of 20 to 40 cells. Each section can be
electrically isolated for inserting and removing anodes and cathodes and for cleaning and maintenance. The

number of cells in each section is chosen to maximize the efficiency of these operations.
The electrical connection between cells is made by connecting the cathodes of one cell to the anodes of the
adjacent cell and so on. The connection is made by seating the cathodes of one cell and the anodes of the
next cell on a common copper distributor bar or busbar. Considerable attention is paid to making good
contacts between the anodes, cathodes, and distributor bar. Good contacts minimize energy loss and ensure
uniform current distribution to all anodes and cathodes. Electro-refining requires direct voltage and current.
These are obtained by converting commercial alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) at the
refinery. Silicon controlled rectifiers are used.
24.3 Quality control

The principal technical objective of the refinery is to produce high-purity cathode copper. Other important
objectives are to produce this pure copper rapidly and with a minimum consumption of energy and
manpower. The rest of this chapter discusses these goals and how they are attained. The main factors
influencing the purity of cathode copper are:
 The physical arrangement of the anodes and cathodes in the electrolytic cells;
 Chemical conditions, particularly electrolyte composition, clarity, leveling and grain-refining agent
concentrations, temperature, and circulation rate;
 Electrical conditions, particularly current density;
 Thorough washing of cathodes after electro-refining and their removal from the cells

Questions
1) Define fire refining.
2) Explain the need for fire refining.
3) Describe the rotary furnace fire refining process.
4) Describe the hearth furnace fire refining process.
5) Describe the Anode preparation process for electro-refining.
6) Define electro-refining.
7) Describe the electro-refining process of copper.
8) Identify the factors affecting cathode quality in electro-refining.
Reference:
Prgamon Press
3. Tomas Havlik. (2008) hydrometallurgy, Principles and Applications. Cambridge International
Science Publishing Limited. England.

TOPIC 25: LEACHING
Objectives
 Have understanding and knowledge of leaching reagents and their properties.
 Have understanding and knowledge of leaching methods.
 Have understanding and knowledge of reaction kinetics.
 Have understanding and knowledge of leaching parameters.
Information
Two fundamentally different types of chemical reactions occur in extractive metallurgy and, accordingly,
the technology is divided into two distinct branches (hydrometallurgy and pyrometallurgy).
Hydrometallurgy is the field of extractive metallurgy involving the use of aqueous chemistry for the
recovery of metals from ores, concentrates and recycled or residual materials. The extractions involve the
interaction of the solid phase and an aqueous phase in order to selectively dissolve the valuable metal. A
third branch of extractive metallurgy is also recognized i.e. electrometallurgy. This includes processes in
which electrochemical reactions are specifically promoted and controlled by the passage of an electric
current through a metal-bearing liquid. If the liquid is a water solution, the process is hydrometallurgical
in nature. If the liquid is a molten salt, the operation being conducted at a high temperature, then it is
essentially pyrometallurgical in nature. Pyrometallurgy involves use of elevated temperatures to promote
metal extraction reactions. This topic will introduce the principles of hydrometallurgy and discuss
leaching processes. Hydrometallurgy is unique in its application to low-grade ores, which cannot be
beneficiated economically. Whether a metal is extracted in a water environment or at high temperatures is,
in principle, immaterial. Each extractive situation must be assessed on its own merits by the consideration
of such factors as capital, operating costs and the environmental impact of the two different options that
are available. The more general characteristics of hydrometallurgy, which differ from pyrometallurgy, are
parameters such as low operating temperatures, low reaction rates, more environmental friendly, larger
plant size for a given throughput of material, low unit costs and selective chemical reactions.
25.1Basic principles of hydrometallurgy

When the chemical processing of metals is conducted in an aqueous environment, the technology
employed is termed hydrometallurgy, which involves three distinct stages:

 The metal of interest must first be transferred from the solid feed material (ores, concentrates, etc.)
into an aqueous solution.
 The condition of this metal-bearing solution (or solutions formed from it) must then be concentrated
and purified.
 The metal must then be recovered from the purified solution in the solid state
The transfer of the targeted metal from the solid feed material into an aqueous solution is accomplished by
leaching. The dissolution of the solid material is more selective than the conventional smelting process, and
the metal bearing components dissolve, while the other components do not. A subsequent separation of the
solution from the unaffected solids will then result in a separation of the metal from the unwanted
components in the feed material. The solution from a leaching process invariably contains impurities that
need to be removed or reduced to as low as possible levels. In some cases, the concentration of the metal of
interest is too low, and some form of concentration needs to be applied before the metal can be extracted
economically. The hydrometallurgical unit operations are summarized in the table below.
UNIT OPERATION DESCRIPTION

Feed preparation/ pre- This is necessary to render valuable mineral accessible to solvent and
treatment chemically capable of being dissolved in it. May include the following
categories;
a) Physical means: comminution, concentration etc.
b) Chemical methods: roasting and smelting of concentrates before
leaching e.g. sulphating roasting
Leaching/ Dissolution Selective dissolution of the required metal from the host solid ore/
concentrate using a leaching reagent in solution.
Solid-Liquid separation Done by filtration, thickening/clarification, counter current decantation
(CCD) etc.
Solution purification/ The objective is to lower impurities in solution to avoid contamination of
enrichment the end product using either of the following methods:
a) Solvent extraction (SX)
b) Ion exchange (IX)
c) Carbon adsorption
Metal recovery Producing a pure metal using either of the following methods or in
combination:
a) Cementation
b) Precipitation
c) Electrowinning
d) Electrorefining
The difficulty of finding leaching reactions that will achieve, at reasonable cost, the rapid transfer of a
metal from a mineral into an aqueous solution is the greatest factor limiting the more widespread utilization
of hydrometallurgical techniques. However, if suitable leaching reactions can be found, a wide range of
water-based reactions can subsequently be exploited, and flexible processing options become available.

The chemical environment in the solution can be accurately controlled to the extent that even only slight
differences in the properties of similar metals can be exploited to allow their separation.
25.2Leaching
Leaching is a primary extractive operation in hydrometallurgical processing, by which a metal of interest is
transferred from naturally occurring minerals into an aqueous solution. In essence, it involves the selective
dissolution of valuable minerals, where the ore, concentrate or matte is brought into contact with an active
chemical solution known as a leach solution. The transfer of a metal from the ore to the leach solution
constitutes a transfer from a solid to a liquid phase. Because the dissolution is selective, most of the
unwanted components in the ore are unaffected by the leaching process and remain in the solid state.
Consequently, the metal is separated when the solids are separated from the solution after the leaching
process has been completed, and the solution that is produced is termed a pregnant solution or leach liquor.
The solid product is termed the residue or tailings. Furthermore, it is important that in the solution the
waste minerals and compounds being rejected by the leaching reaction should have a solubility low enough
to yield an acceptable separation of valuable and waste minerals during the leach, and to obtain a leach
solution of acceptable purity for subsequent metal recovery.
For the efficient leaching of metal from the metal-bearing species in an ore, use has to be made of an
appropriate water based chemical reaction that will yield a water soluble metallic species. The
thermodynamic characteristics of the reaction system will indicate the maximum possible extent to which
the value bearing mineral can be converted to a soluble species, as well as the solubility of that species in
the aqueous solution. The degree to which such a transfer can be achieved is determined by the rate at
which the reaction proceeds. The following mechanisms, determining the overall leaching rate, are
involved in a single stage leaching process.
 The reagents must diffuse to the mineral surface.

 Reagents must adsorb on the surface.
 Chemical reaction must take place on the surface.
 Reaction products must desorb from the surface.
 Reaction products must diffuse from the surface vicinity to the bulk of the solution.
The rate of the slowest of these mechanisms controls the overall rate of the leaching process. Therefore,
any effort to increase the rate at which one of these mechanisms occurs will be successful only if that step
is rate-controlling. The viability of a leaching process is influenced by the following factors:
 The degree of dissolution that can be achieved.

 The selectivity of the leaching reactions.

 The cost of the leach solution.
 The capital cost of the leach equipment
All those factors are generally controlled by the choice of the leaching reagent selected. It should have the
qualities that promote the above mentioned factors.
25.2.1 Lixiviant/ leachant/ leaching reagent

Leaching reagents could be acids, bases, or salts. The choice of the leaching reagent depends on the
following factors.
 Rate of reaction- must dissolve the mineral fast enough and the degree off dissolution achieved high
enough to reduce metal losses into the gangue minerals.
 Selectivity- all ores contain a variety of minerals, other than those in which the metal of interest
occurs. Inevitably, some of these will be attacked by the leach solution with the result that
unwanted species are taken up in the leach liquor. The selectivity of the leaching reactions
determines the degree to which this happens and, consequently, the purity of the metal-bearing
solution that is produced by the leach. Reagent losses are also minimized.
 Cheap and readily available in large quantities- The cost of the leaching process is determined by
the unit costs of the various reagents and the quantities used.
 Ability to be regenerated/ recycled- this further reduces reagent costs.
 Mineralogy and chemical composition of ore- affect the selectivity and degree of dissolution.
Factors affecting selectivity of a lixiviant

 Concentration- Excess lixiviant concentration would dissolve other minerals. For example in the
leaching of copper oxide ores, acidity should be controlled to avoid dissolution of undesirable
minerals.
 Temperature- Sometimes little effect on leaching efficiency but an increase in temperature can
increase impurity levels. Cooling may be necessary to optimize temperature. For copper oxide ore
an average temperature of 29.5ºC is used.
 Residence time/contact time- extended contact time between the solvent and ore may result in a
high dissolution of impurities. In sulphuric acid leaching of copper oxide mineral, copper mineral
dissolves first. Continued contact result in iron and aluminium minerals dissolving as feldspars and
sericites slowly breaking down under the acid. Therefore, minimum contact time resulting in
maximum copper recovery and minimum impurity contamination should be selected.
25.2.2 Leaching parameters

Thermodynamic and kinetic factors of a leaching process are evaluated through laboratory experiments to

optimize the process parameters. The main control variables in any leaching process are outline herein.
They include: ore particle size/ surface area, reagent concentration, concentration oxygen and other gases,
temperature, pressure, rate of agitation/ stirring, pulp density/ viscosity, stability of product, and pH.
 Particle size- The ore/ concentrate particles must be small enough for the valuable metals they contain,
to be exposed physically to the leach solution, and it does not matter if the mineral is not completely
liberated. What is of importance is the degree of exposure of the mineral to ensure complete leaching of
a mineral grain in an ore. The degree of exposure influences the rate at which leaching proceeds.
 Generally the rate of leaching increases with decreasing particle size. Economic limit is usually defined
as the point at which the cost of grinding is not covered by greater extraction or increased extraction is
countered by increased reagent consumption.
 Reagent concentration- operator controlled variable. Optimization of reagent dosage and strength is
important in minimizing consumption and maximize extraction, principally because reagent costs form
the bulky of leaching costs. The rate of leaching generally increases with increasing concentration of
the leaching agent and optimum dosages are experimentally determined for each particular ore.
 Oxygen and other gases- May be involved in the leaching reaction. Solubility of gases markedly
dependent on temperature. Oxygen at 25ºC and 1atmosphere is 8.26mg/l while for pure oxygen at the
same conditions is 40.3mg/l. Both values decrease with an increase in temperature. In agitation
leaching compressed air is used to increase oxygen concentration. Pressurized air is used in the
oxidative leaching of NiSO4.
 Temperature- increases leaching rates e.g. oxidative leaching of nickel sulphides concentrates. An
increase in temperature results in a decrease of viscosity and an increase on the kinetic energy of
reacting species.
 Effect of pressure- Effects of pressure applies where a gas is involved in the reaction e.g. cyanide
leaching of gold. In compressed air agitation, the transfer of oxygen from air into solution is
maximized.
 Agitation/stirring rates- agitation increases rate of reaction. A limiting point is often realized in
diffusion controlled processes. In most cases, stirring rate must be sufficient to prevent settling
(siltation) and a stirring rate that maximizes dissolution must be used.
 Pulp density- lower pulp density results in high kinetics because mass transfer is easy, resulting in
homogeneous mixing and saving agitation energy. High pulp densities mean low quantities of solution
and high concentrations exist, causing the equilibrium to shift and reaction rates will decrease. Pulp
density to be used depend on; particle size of feed, thickening capacity, dilutions, type of ore,
availability of lixiviant, type of lixiviant and desired buildup of metal in solution.
 Product of leaching- The product must be stable. Products may revert back to the original form or may
further react with reagents. Some products may form a coating or insulating film on the mineral surface.
This prevents movement of reactants and products to and from the surface.

 pH- some leaching reactions are affected by changes in pH.
25.2.3 Leaching methods
Heap Leaching
Method used for low grade ores. The ore is broken and piled into relatively small heaps on impervious
ground (prepared pads). Ore can be crushed if necessary say to D80 – 200mm. The solution with leaching
reagent is sprinkled on top of the heap in case of gold ores. The lixiviant percolates into the ore and
dissolution occurs. The pregnant solution is collected in collecting ponds through pipes. Recovery rates are
around 50% in several months.
Dump leaching
Applied mainly to mine waste and low grade copper ores. At a large scale and often consist of stripped
material adjacent to main ore body of value minerals. Leach solution fed periodically by sprays over the
dumps or through perforated pipes into the material. Recovery is 50% in one to two years.
Agitation leaching
Also called slime leaching is carried out on finely ground ore (< 0.5mm usually 70-100μm) in steel tanks or
Pachuca tanks. Agitation is by mechanical impellers or compressed air and it minimizes the diffusion-layer
thickness and also maximizes gas-liquid interfacial area in gaseous reactants. Recovery is greater than 90%
in 4 to 8 hours.
Percolation leaching
Also known as vat leaching or sand leaching is used for relatively low grade ores of coarse particle size
≈10mm (sandy or porous ore). The method not well suited for material which tends to pack into impervious
masses. Material to be leached is placed into large false bottomed tanks or vats which are lined with lead or
asphalt to resist corrosion. The false bottom is covered with a filter medium and solution is added at the top
of the tank and allowed to percolate through the ore. A counter current system is generated by
configuration of the tanks. After contacting for a certain time, the solution is drained and fresh solution
added. First a weak solution of solvent and finally leaching with a stronger solution being used. After
leaching cycle is complete, tailings are removed and tanks emptied. Can be batch or continuous and
recovery is 80% in one week.
In-situ leaching
In-situ leaching is also referred to as solution mining or in-place leaching. It involves leaching of mineral
deposit within the earth’s crust without prior removal. Low grade ores remaining within worked-out mines
are leached to recover metals directly from ore bodies within the ground where convectional mining

techniques would be uneconomical e.g. mine water for leaching CuSO4. The lixiviant is injected through a
perforated injection well into the ore body which is shattered to facilitate lixiviant penetration during
leaching of valuable minerals. A pump installed underground facilitates the recovery of pregnant solution
from the collection well to the processing plant for further treatment.
25.3Concentration terminology
1. W/W weight % solution- Is concentration expressed as % of solute in a given mass of solution. 10%
NaOH means 10gNaOH in 90g of water.
2. W/V weight/volume- Concentration as grams of solute per 100ml of solution. 5% AgNO3 is prepared
by dissolving 5g AgNO3 in water to give 100ml volume of solution.
3. V/V volume %- liquids dissolve in liquids. A concentration of 70% means mixing 70ml of reagent with
solvent and making up to the total volume of 100ml.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
4. Parts per million (ppm)- This is determined as follows; 𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 106
5. Molarity(M)- This refers to the number of moles per litre of solution (mol/l)

Questions
1) Define hydrometallurgy and give an outline of the unit operations in hydrometallurgy.
2) Define leaching and identify factors that influence the viability of a leaching process.
3) Explain the factors that affect the choice of a leaching reagent.
4) Explain the factors affecting the selectivity of a leaching reagent.
5) Explain the leaching process parameters.
6) Describe the following leaching methods:
a) Heap leaching
b) Vat leaching
c) Agitation leaching
Reference
Press

TOPIC 26: SOLUTION PURIFICATION AND ENRICHMENT
Objectives
 Have understanding of the need for pregnant leach solution purification.
 Have understanding and knowledge of solution purification processes.
Information
Leaching processes are rarely completely selective. Pregnant Leach solutions contain impurities and often
purification prior to recovery of the sought metal is done. The role of solution purification is to:
 Removal of impurities.
 Upgrading or enrichment of solutions.
 To have a small volume of solution for subsequent processes. This would mean a saving in energy
and also less metal losses
The techniques used for solution purification include:
 Solvent extraction/ liquid-liquid extraction
 Ion exchange utilizing solid resins
 Adsorption processes using activated carbon
26.1Solvent extraction
Solvent extraction is also known as liquid-liquid extraction. In extractive metallurgy, solvent extraction
consists of contacting an organic solvent with an aqueous solution containing desired metal constituent.
This is a separation process that takes advantage of the relative solubility of solutes in immiscible solvents.
The solute dissolves more readily and becomes concentrated in the solvent in which it has a higher
solubility. A solute will distribute itself between two immiscible solvents until at equilibrium where the
ratio of activities of the two liquids is constant at any given temperature. The process involves two main
operations i.e. extraction and stripping. Hydrometallurgical processes are concerned with total
concentration of a particular metal in each phase, thus a more meaningful expression becomes the
distribution ratio. This is the distribution coefficient which determines the ratio of solute concentration in
each solvent.
Extraction
Involves agitation of the aqueous phase with the organic solvent. The two immiscible solids are allowed to
separate and the aqueous phase is discarded or recycled. The process utilizes the fact that the two phases are
immiscible, therefore after agitation the two will separate and the barren aqueous discarded or recycled.

Stripping
The loaded organic phase is agitated with a small volume of suitable solution and the stripped solvent is
recycled.
Definition of terms
Extractant- this is the reagent/ solvent that is used to extract the valuable mineral or ions from the feed, i.e.
it is the organic phase.
Extract- it is the loaded organic phase exiting after the extraction step containing the desired product.
Barren solution- is solution containing very little or no valuable mineral ions
Raffinate- the exiting stream that has been depleted of the desired metal ions. This is the discard solution.
Feed- Pregnant leach solution (PLS) i.e. the liquid containing the solute to be extracted in the extraction
process.
General scheme in Solvent Extraction

The general scheme of the solvent extraction process is shown in the figure below. It consists of three
stages: extraction, stripping, and precipitation.
26.1.1 Extraction reagents

An ideal extractant should fulfill the following properties:
a) Good selectivity.
b) High extraction capacity.
c) Easily stripped.
d) Separate easily from water i.e. it should have; appreciable difference in density, low viscosity, and
high surface tension.
e) Stable during storage or when in contact with acids or bases i.e. does not hydrolyze during
extraction or stripping.
f) Cheap and readily available.
They are classified into three broad groups; Acidic (extract metals in cationic form), Basic (extract metals
in anionic form), and Neutral (extract metals such as solvent or addition compounds).

Acidic extracting agents
Contains hydrogen atoms that can be ionized and replaced by metal cations e.g. Dialkaline phosphoric acid.
Equilibrium exists between the metal ion complex and the metal ions. Low pH favors the metal ion; high
pH favors the metal ion complex. Stripping is effected by introducing low pH system into the loaded phase.
Other examples are the organic sulphonic acids or aliphatic mono carboxylic acid.
Basic extracting agents

Extractants are primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary amines. Basic extracting agents extract anions
only; hence metal ion to be extracted must exist at least in partially ionic form. These unlike acidic agents,
do not form covalent bonds with metal anion. The extracted compound is effectively an ionic salt consisting
of the metal anion complex and the organic cation e.g. extraction of uranium from a uranyl sulphate
solution using a tertiary amine extracting agent.
Neutral Extracting Agents

These are non-ionic. Metal extraction is effected by the transfer of complete metal salt into the organic
phase in the form of solutes or addition compounds. The extracting agents in this compound in normally
covalently bonded in the metal ion in the salt.
Stripping
Stripping from basic reagents can be achieved using near neutral solutions or alkaline solutions which
convert the extracting agent to the free base form. Uranium can be stripped in neutral solutions using a
chloride salt solution. This stabilizes both the anion and the cation (the organic soluble salt).
26.2Ion exchange processes

Ion exchange is a reversible process in which a dissolved ion species is taken up by a solid in a
stoichiometric manner. There is reversible interchange of ions between an insoluble solid phase (ion
exchanger) and a solution phase. It is a reversible chemical reaction where an ion from solution is
exchanged for similarly charged ion attached to an immobile solid particle. Ion exchangers can be naturally
occurring (inorganic) or synthetic which are based on the condensation polymerization of phenols with
formaldehyde. The ion exchange process proceeds in two stages namely: sorption and elution.
Sorption
Involves passing the solution containing the valuable mineral through a resin bed/ resin column containing
the ion exchange. The value metal ions transfer from the aqueous phase to the organic phase i.e. the resin
phase. Bed or resin saturation is detected by the appearance of the value metal in the effluent, pumping
must then be stopped. The process is operated on a batch scale.

Elution
Involves washing of the resin (saturated) with suitable aqueous solution to remove ions of the sought for
metal into solution.
Ion exchange is carried out under equilibrium conditions. A given solution volume is shaken with weight of
resin, till equilibrium is reached. In this case uptake of value metal species on the resins is characterized by
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛
the distribution factor, D, Where D = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The higher the value of D, the greater the affinity of resin for metal ion than its solubility in aqueous form.
26.2.1 Ion exchanger

Ion exchangers are solid materials which are able to sorb negative or positive charged ions from an
electrolyte solution and release an equivalent amount of other ions of equal charge sign to the solution. The
exchanger is a framework or matrix which carries a positive or negative charge compensated by counter
ions of opposite charge. Counter ions have the same charge as those on the value metal. Counter ions are
mobile and replaceable. Positively charged matrix- anion-exchanger and negatively charged matrix- cation-
exchanger. The sponge model of an ion exchanger compares the ion exchangers to a sponge with counter
ions floating in pores. The sponge immersion in a solution releases the counter ions into solution to preserve
or for charge balance in the sponge. A stoichiometric number of ions from the solution occupy the pores.
Typical reactions are shown below.

26.2.2 Classification or types of ion exchange resins
A. Strong acid cation exchange resin

 They are so named because their chemical behavior is similar to that of a strong acid.
 The resins are highly ionized in both acid and the salt form e.g. R-SO3H and R-SO3Na.
 They ionize in the whole pH range i.e. 0 to 14.
 Regeneration requires a strong acid e.g. purification of water/ deionization of water where
replacement of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions with Na+ ions occurs.
B. Weak acid cation resin

 Functional group is carboxylic group.
 These resins behave similarly to weak organic acids that are weakly dissociated.
 At a pH less than 6, there is negligible ionization energy capacity hence a decrease in exchange
capacity.
 Regeneration requires a weak acid because of the affinity of H+ ions.
 Degree of dissociation of a weak resin is strongly influenced by solution pH.
C. Strong base anion resin

 Functional group is quaternary ammonium groups e.g. N (CH3)3OH.
 Like strong acid resin, strong base resin is also highly ionized in the whole pH range.
 Not affected by changes in pH.
 These resins can be used in the hydroxide for example in water deionization.
 For regeneration they require strong bases like NaOH.
D. Weak base anion resin

 These resins are like weak acid resins in that the degree of ionization is strongly influenced by pH.
 The exchange capacity decreases with an increase in pH.
 Functional group is alkaline ammonium species.
 Regeneration requires a weak base like ammonium hydroxide.
 The weak base resins can be used to sorb strong acid. In waste water treatment, strong acid resin
used to remove ions and then a weak base resin is used to neutralize the strong acid.
Characteristics of ion exchange resins (IER)

Main properties that govern the resin performance are;
 Selectivity coefficient.
 Separation factor.
 Ion exchange isotherm.
 Ion exchange capacity.
 Break through capacity
26.2.3 Operational Techniques

Ion exchange operations are either in Batch method, Column method (Fixed bed and moving bed), or Fluid
bed method.
1. Batch Method
 This is the simplest but also most inefficient method.
 The resin and solution are mixed until equilibrium is attained.
 There is use of filtration method to separate the eluate and the gangue.
 The method is useful when;
 The equilibrium is favourable.
 The reaction goes to completion
2. Column Method
a) Fixed Bed Resin
 Is the most widely used method, either downward or upward solution flow through the bed.
 Column is considered as a large number of batch operations in series.
 Can be used in series or as a single unit.
 For a single unit the column is run to break even.
 Series operation is a possibility of fully utilizing the resin total capacity.
 Saturation occurs at a head/ lead column before breakthrough occurs in the tail column.
b) Moving Bed (Counter – Flow System)

These are single column systems where complex regeneration is not necessary, a downward flow

adsorption and up flow elution technique provides high adsorption efficiency and low chemical
costs. Methods using this technique include:
 Packed Bed.
 Buried Collector.
 Pressed Bed
Methods are primarily used for water treatment. Application in Hydrometallurgy limited to waste solution
and metal recovery.
Advantages
 The whole column is active.
 Less resin consumption.
 Smaller sized equipment.
 Low or less chemicals consumption
3. Fluid Bed Continuous System

 There is a series of Batch Ion Exchange vessels.
 Resin and solution agitated together until equilibrium, contacting continuously until the solution is
barren.
 Resin can also be moved counter – currently, i.e. for truly continuous systems.
Advantages
 Fluidized bed means no problems presented by dirty or slimes; this is the basis for resin in pulp
which is used extensively in uranium processing.
 Resin in pulp is adapted for the treatment of ores where filtration or clarification gives problems.
Hence considerable savings in capital cost on filters and thickeners.

26.3Carbon Adsorption
The chemistry of carbon adsorption is complex and researchers are yet to conclude on the most accepted
theories. However, apart from the difference in adsorption mechanism, the behavior of activated carbon is
much the same as that of ion exchange resins. The process involves adsorption and elution and is mainly
used in gold leaching processes. The only difference is that; with gold extraction the carbon may be
incorporated in the leaching vessels or after solid-liquid separation. The two applications are called Carbon-
In- Leach (CIL) and Carbon-In- Pulp (CIP) respectively. The adsorption of gold cyanide onto activated
carbon is reversible. Thus, equilibrium exists between the gold in solution and the gold loaded on the
carbon. Factors which affect the rate of gold adsorption and those which affect the equilibrium loading of
gold are shown in the table below.
Factor Effect of increasing the factor

On rate On equilibrium loading of gold
pH Slight decrease Decrease
Ionic strength Slight decrease Increase
Free cyanide Slight decrease Decrease
Temperature Slight decrease Decrease
Base metals Decrease Decrease
Carbon particle size Decrease None
Mixing intensity Increase None
Pulp density Decrease None
Certain materials poison activated carbon for gold adsorption. Calcium carbonate can form in the pores and
is detrimental to adsorption, but is removed by acid-washing. Organic materials (e.g., machine lubricants,
detergents, flotation reagents) also poison carbon to some extent, but are removed during reactivation.
Lower adsorption efficiencies are attained when a pulp containing calcine, shale, or clay is used, since these
finely divided minerals can block the pores. Copper can decrease efficiency of adsorption by competing
with gold for adsorption sites, particularly at low concentrations of cyanide.

Questions
1) Explain the need for pregnant leach solution purification.
2) Describe the solvent extraction process as applied to metal solution purification.
3) Identify properties of an ideal solvent.
4) Describe the ion exchange process as applied to metal extraction.
5) Classify ion exchange resins according to acidity.
6) Outline the properties that affect the performance of ion exchange resins.
7) Identify factors that affect the rate of gold adsorption and equilibrium gold loading on activated
carbon.
8) Explain carbon fouling/ poisoning.
9) Differentiate between Carbon In Leach (CIL) and Carbon In Pulp (CIP).
Reference:
Press

TOPIC 27: METAL RECOVERY PROCESSES
Objectives
 Have understanding and knowledge of metal recovery processes from purified leach solutions.
Information
The last stage in hydrometallurgical extraction is recovery of the sought for metal from purified metal
solutions. After purification processes (solvent extraction, ion exchange resins, and carbon adsorption) the
desired metal are in an upgraded solution. Recovery methods include; precipitation, cementation,
electrowinning, and electrorefining.
27.1Precipitation
Precipitation is the formation from solution of a solid product as the result of dilution or of addition of a
reagent to the solution. Selective precipitation can be achieved by pH control. The objective is separation
and/recovery of metals. There are two forms of precipitation: chemical precipitation, and reductive
precipitation. The precipitate should possess the following properties;
 Should be coarse
 Dense
 Filterable (filtration to separate)
 Easily washed and handled
27.1.1 Chemical precipitation

Chemical precipitation reactions do not involve electron transfer. Examples of such equations include:
Ammonium ions are used to precipitate platinum, while hydroxide ions are used to precipitate iron.
Precipitation of metal sulphides can be done using hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gas. The reaction is governed
by temperature and pH. Selective precipitation is achieved by appropriate adjustment of pH. Higher
temperatures and pressure offer higher rates of precipitation. The overall reaction can be written as:
𝑀2+ + 𝐻2𝑆=𝑀𝑆 + 2𝐻+

Sherritt-Gordon Ammonia Leach Process
Process is used for the separation of base metals. Treatment of Ni rich concentrates makes use of 𝐻2𝑆 to
completely remove 𝐶𝑢 from leach solutions. Later, after reductive precipitation of most of the 𝑁𝑖 by
hydrogen gas, 𝐶𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑖 remaining are extracted from solution as sulphides. The flow diagram is given
below.
Precipitation of Metal Hydroxides - Sparing soluble hydroxides can be formed by hydrolysis (water
addition) of metal ions. Thermodynamic tendency of precipitation can be determined using 𝐾𝑠𝑝 values of
metal ion concentration. pH above which hydrolysis occurs can be determined. Strong alkali reagents e.g.
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 not suitable as precipitation agents for (𝑂𝐻). pH control important in precipitation, can be achieved
by the use of buffers or suitable metal oxide, hydroxide or carbonate. Iron is often an impurity in leach
solutions. It is mainly present as 𝐹𝑒3+or 𝐹𝑒2+. Hydrolysis of 𝐹𝑒3+ is favorable under acidic conditions ≈𝑝𝐻 3
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑒2+ 𝑝𝐻 8. Selective hydrolysis of certain metals can be done, in acidic conditions, in the presence of
𝐹𝑒2+. 𝐹𝑒3+can be precipitated in the presence of other metal ions. In 𝑁𝑖 extraction, 𝐹𝑒 is oxidized to 𝐹𝑒3+
and 𝑁𝑖 (𝑂𝐻)2 is the hydrolyzing agent. Reaction is;
2𝐹𝑒3++3𝑁𝑖 (𝑂𝐻)2=2𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)3+3𝑁𝑖2+
- 𝑁𝑖 (𝑂𝐻)2 has the advantage of not introducing foreign ions since Ni2+ already present.
27.1.1 Reductive precipitation

Process essentially electrochemical in nature. Thermodynamic data can be used to compute potential of
metal to be reduced from solution and to choose suitable reducing agent. There are two forms of reductive
precipitation: using a metal (cementation), and using a gas.
27.1.2 Cementation
Is the reductive precipitation of a metal from solution using another metal as the precipitant e.g. 𝐶𝑢 can be
extracted from solution using 𝐹𝑒.
𝐹𝑒+𝐶𝑢2+=𝐹𝑒2++𝐶𝑢
In the electrowinning of 𝑁𝑖, 𝐶𝑢2+ may be removed from 𝑁𝑖 anolyte solutions by cementation with 𝑁𝑖
powder. 𝐶𝑢2++ 𝑁𝑖=𝐶𝑢+𝑁𝑖2+
27.2Electro-metallurgy
Electrometallurgy refers to the electrolytic processes used to recover and purify metals. It includes;
Electrowinning, and Electrorefining.
Electrolysis
Is chemical change brought about by an electric current. It results in reactions like; deposition of metals and
evolution of gases. Most metals receive electrolytic treatment during their production, either electrowinning
from leach or solvent extraction solutions, or electrorefining from impure anodes.
Industrial Electrolysis
Utilizes two separate and equivalent chemical reactions i.e., cathodic reduction and anodic oxidation.
Electrode Reactions
Processes occurring at the electrodes in an electrolyte under the influence of an electric current.
A. Cathodic reactions
Species with the most positive potential are reduced.
a) Metal deposition; Mz+ + ze = M(s)
b) Hydrogen evolution; 2H+ + 2e = H2(g)
c) Reduction reactions; M3+ + e = M2+
B. Anodic reactions
Species with the most negative potentials are oxidized. These reactions will depend on the type of anode.
a) Metal dissolution; M(s) = Mn+(aq) + ne
b) Oxygen evolution; 2H2O = O2(g) + 4H+ + 4e
c) Oxidation reaction; M2+ = M3+ + e

27.2.1 Electrowinning
Is an electrolytic extraction process in which the cathodic reduction is used to recover the sought metal
from the electrolyte which is derived from a leaching process. Anodes used in the electrolytic cells are
usually inert and generally support a gaseous evolution reaction. In aqueous electrowinning processes the
anodic reaction is usually oxygen evolution; 2H2O = 4H+ + O2 + 4e
Although in chloride electrolytes, chlorine will usually be evolved; 2Cl- = Cl2 + 2e
It is desirable that anodes used in aqueous electrowinning be completely insoluble, any dissolution is likely
to produce metal ions which may be reduced cathodically or may form precipitates which contaminates the
depositing metal. In fused salt electrowinning, the electrolyte and anode composition determines the anodic
reaction. In magnesium extraction, chlorine is evolved but for aluminium a mixture of carbon monoxide
and carbon dioxide. Cathodes used in aqueous electrowinning are thin sheets of the same metal as that
being deposited or you can have stainless steel or titanium sheets.
27.2.2 Electro-refining
In an electrolytic refining process, the cathodic reaction is the reverse of the anodic reaction; hence there is
no net cell reaction. The impure metal constitute the anode material and dissolves;
M = Mz+ + ze
At the cathode, metal ions are reduced from solution and deposited;
Mz+ + ze = M
Anode impurities which have potential more positive than the working anode potential remain insoluble
and form a residue (anode slime). Metals with more negative potential will dissolve anodically with the
major metal. Electrolytic refining is a two stage purification process in which the elements more noble than
the metal being refined remain insoluble at the anode and elements less noble dissolves but do not deposit
at the cathode. Therefore the depositing metal is thus purified.
27.3Electrodes in electro-winning
There are two types of electrodes; anodes and cathodes.
Anodes
These operate at positive potential and must be completely insoluble/ inert. Any dissolution will likely
produce metal ions which may be reduced cathodically or may form precipitates which contaminate the
depositing metal. Examples include:
 Pb alloys containing between 5 and 10% antimony. Deficiencies are that it exhibits some anodic
corrosion characteristics and can result in a degree of cathodic contamination by deposition
 0.06% Ca-Pb alloy- more soluble and is used with solvent extraction copper electrowinning processes.
 Ag-Pb alloys containing up to 0.75% Ag and is used in Zn electrowinning processes.
 Titanium based anodes. These provide good physical mechanical properties in terms of lower mass per
energy consumption and in most cases are used as platinised titanium.
 Carbon anodes- exclusively used in electrowinning with fused salt electrolytes e.g. electrolysis of brine.
Cathodes
These are used in the form of thin sheets of the metal that is being deposited and are normally called starter
sheets. Starter sheets are prepared in special separate electrolytic cells where the metal is deposited on
cathode blanks in which the thin electrodeposited sheets can be readily stripped. The blank surface (cathode
blanks) may be wetted with a parting agent to promote stripping of the starter sheets where stripping can be
manual or by use of automatic stripping machines. Cathode dimensions are approximately 950 x 950mm.
Electrolyte
It is a substance that undergoes partial or complete dissociation into ions in solution and thus acts as a
conductor of electricity. Electrolytes are second-class conductors after metals. During electrolysis, direct
current passes into solution through the anode, and leaves through the cathode. The transfer of electric
current through the electrolyte is characterized by motion of charges i.e. anions and cations.
Catholyte
Is defined as the electrolyte surrounding the cathode which is being depleted.
Anolyte
Is defined as the electrolyte surrounding the anode which is being enriched with metal ions.
Electrolyte quality
 Composition e.g. CuSO4 g/L, Acid e.g. H2SO4 g/L
 Impurities -reduce the solubility of the salts or electrolytes. Can precipitate As, Ag Sb using
chlorine ions. These impurities can also add to the resistance of the electrolyte.
 Operating temperature- need a high enough temperature to maintain the solubility of the electrolyte
and mobility of ions.

 Circulation and agitation maintains continuous mixing of the electrolyte and minimize
concentration polarization. Flow may be top bottom or bottom top pumping.
Electrolytic cells and electrode configurations͢

Cells are precast, reinforced concrete tanks lined with Pb or thermoplastic PVC or HD polythene. In each
cell cathodes are arranged alternately with anodes. The cathodes are electrically connected in parallel as
one (also anodes). The electrolytic cells are connected in series.
27.4 Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis

Laws give the relationship between the amount of material liberated or deposited at an electrode and
amount of electrical energy that is passed to the electrolyte.
First Law
States that amount of any substance that is liberated or deposited at an electrode during electrolysis is
proportional to electrical energy passed through the electrolyte.
Mathematically;
𝐴𝐼𝑡
𝑊= ; Where F=Faraday’s constant, A= Relative mass, n= electron equivalent, W= mass or amount of
𝑛𝐹
substance liberated or deposited, t= time (seconds).
Second Law
When same amount of electricity is passed through different electrolytes, the amount of different
substances deposited or liberated are proportional to the equivalent weight of the substances.
Current Density
The operation of an electrolytic plant depends more on the current density than on the total current, so
current is often referred to in terms of current per unit area of the cathode surface. The current density (𝑖) is
a measure of intensity of current at the surface of the electrode.

𝐼
𝑖=𝐴
Where; 𝑖- current density

A- measurable geometric area
I- current
Current Efficiency (C.E)

C.E of an electrode process is the ratio of the actual extent of the electrode reaction to that expected
theoretically. More importantly for electrowinning processes the cathodic current efficiency is defined as
the ratio of the mass of metal actually deposited to the theoretical mass that could be deposited in
accordance to Faraday’s laws.
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
% C.E = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 100
27.5 Optimization aspects
Operating temperature
High temperature (50 to 70ºC) via steam-heating, to maximize conductivity and solubility of the metal salt
e.g. CuSO4. The cell inlet and outlet temperature have a negative temperature differential of 5ºC.
Temperature increases are limited by;
 Electrolyte evaporation leading to unhealthy acidic mists.
 Increased wear of construction materials.
 Increased grain size of cathode deposits creates roughness.
Organic additives(Surfactants)
The Purpose of additives is to;
 Hinder wild growth
 Brighten and smoothen cathode deposits.
Otherwise deposits would be soft, coarse-grained, crystalline or nodular, with a high susceptibility to
entrainment of electrolytes and anode residues. The additives used include;
 Weak solution of bone glue; 1-10ppm in electrolyte at 0.01-0.05kg/tone.
 Thiourea.
 Petroleum liquours.
 Flocculants.
Electrolyte conductivity
The specific conductivity of typical electrolytes is; k = 0.6 – 0.7 Ω-1m-1 . The electrolyte itself has a
resistance and this causes a voltage drop (ohm’s law). The power consumed is dissipated as heat.

Impurities
Their concentration should be kept low to avoid decreasing the solubility of the metal salt. Sources of
impurity include; anodic dissolution of non-noble metals and construction materials.
Electrolyte composition
Concentration control is critical for salt solubility, pH, conductivity, cathode deposit and preferential
deposition
27.1Auxiliary Equipment
 Circulation equipment- The circulation equipment includes: Pumps, pipes, delivery pipes, header
tanks, collecting and converting solutions, tank for slimes and reserve electrolyte.
 Heating equipment- This include: Heaters, and steam handlers.
 Valves
 Powered equipment- Overhead cranes, washing machines.
 Ventilation equipment- Blowers, fans.
 Transformers with rectifiers.
27.7 Plant operation

Routines include;
 Removing cathodes.
 Stripping cathodes.
 Replacing cathodes with starter sheets.
 Placing new anodes.
 Regular inspections for accretion and short circuits.
 Cleaning out anode slimes that collected at the base of the electrolytic tank.
Control measures
 Production rate.
 Specific energy consumption
 Electrolyte conditions (purity, temperature, circulation rate).
 Cathode current efficiency (C.C.E).
 Cathode current density.
 Electrode spacing.
 Short circuit prevention

Electrolyte handling
Resistance of electrolyte has to be as low as possible, this can be attained by several means i.e.;
 Keeping ionic strength as high as possible, this reduces the chance of other dissolved metals co-
depositing at the cathode.
 Keep acid concentration at some level. Note that acid is generated in the reactions.
 Heat electrolyte to maintain optimum temperature.
 Control the corrosion at anode especially in electrowinning.
 Control impurity levels via periodical bleeding or alternatively incorporating a solution cleaning circuit.
Cathodes deposits
Typical qualities; a. Dense and tightly coherent, b. Coarse loose crystals, c. Fine metallic powder.
Factors affecting cathode quality

 Nature of the underlying metal.
 Electrolyte composition.
 Electrolyte temperature.
 Thickness of deposits formed
Sources of impurities
 From leaching stages.
 Some are naturally occurring impurities and not removed during leaching.
 Some originate from electrode materials.

Questions
1) Describe metal recovery by precipitation.
2) Explain the term Cementation.
3) Differentiate between electro-winning and electro-refining.
4) Identify factors affecting electrolyte quality in electro-winning.
5) Define current efficiency.
6) Explain electro-winning optimization aspects.
7) Identify equipment in electro-refining plants.
8) Identify electro-refining control parameters.
9) Identify factors affecting cathode quality.
Reference:
Prgamon Press
3. Tomas Havlik. (2008) hydrometallurgy, Principles and Applications. Cambridge International
Science Publishing Limited. England.

Introduction To Extractive Metallurgy

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Introduction To Extractive Metallurgy

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INTRODUCTION TO EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY

PREPARED BY: ENGINEER. A. RUNGANI

Compiled by: Eng. A. Rungani rungani@yahoo.co.uk +263778817943 Page 1

Compiled by: Eng. A. Rungani rungani@yahoo.co.uk +263778817943 Page 2

Compiled by: Eng. A. Rungani rungani@yahoo.co.uk +263778817943 Page 3

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO MINERAL PROCESSING .................................................................................. 5

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The purpose of this information sheet is to give information so as to:

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The unit operations are clearly shown on the diagram below.

1.2 The objective of mineral processing

1.3 Economic advantages of mineral processing

1.4 Minerals and ores

 Ore- a mixture of minerals (one or more) which can be economically exploited.

1.5 Classification of minerals

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1. What is mineral processing?

2. What is the main objective of mineral processing?

3. What are the economic benefits of mineral processing?

4. Define the terms: mineral, ore, and deposit?

Give one example of mineral in each of the four classes.

types, giving one example of mineral in each class.

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The purpose of this information sheet is to give information so as to:

 Understand the role of transport systems in mineral processing operations

 Understand the types of transportation, storage and ore feeding equipment

 Have knowledge and understanding of different ore feeders

2.1 Ore storage

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2.2 Ore feeding

2.3 Ore washing

2.4 Removal of harmful materials

2.5 Methods of removing harmful materials

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equipment or accessories that are used.

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The purpose of this information sheet is to give information so as to:

 Have knowledge of crushing plant start-up procedures

 Understand the crushing mechanisms of common crushing machines

 Understand crushing plant accessory equipment

 Understand crushing plant pre-start safety procedures

3.1 Theories of comminution

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Limitations of the comminution laws

3.2 Up and downstream problems

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3.3 Crushing plant equipment/ machines

 Rough ore conveyor belts

 Rough ore conveyor magnet

 Vibrating grizzly screen

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 Grizzly undersize chute

 Mill rod charging trolley

3.4 Crushing plant layout

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Line flow sheet

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3.5.1 Jaw crusher

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3.5.2 Gyratory crusher

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