1

ARDUINO CONTROLLED SPIN COATER USING A NOVEL CONTROL

ALGORITHM AND THIN FILM DESIGN
 2

ABSTRACT

Spin-coating is a widely employed technique for the fabrication of thin-film

coatings over large areas with smooth and homogeneous surfaces. In recent years,
research has extended the scope of spin coating by developing methods involving
the interface of the substrate and the deposited solution to obtain self-supported
films, also called freestanding films. Thereby, such structures have been developed
for a wide range of areas. Biomedical applications of spin-coated freestanding
films include wound dressings, drug delivery, and biosensing. These
implementations vary in their reliability, ease-of-use, cost, and versatility. In the
present work, we have designed a low-cost spin coater using the Arduino Uno
board. The advantage of selecting Ardunio is, it has pulse width modulation
(PWM) based pins. Depending on the width of the pulse, the output voltage
changes which will intern changes the speed of the DC motor connected to the
PWM pin. The thickness of deposited film using spin coater depends on RPM and
duration of rotation. The rotation of the substrate during deposition has three stages
a gradual increase in RPM, maintaining constant RPM over a while, and a gradual
decrease in RPM. All these parameters can be controlled by an Arduino board. A
modification in the teaching–learning-based optimization algorithm is considered
where the best learner is considered as a teacher in the learner phase. The ITLBO
is physically implemented with Arduino Uno microcontroller which is presented as
an open source. An Aluminum doped Zinc Oxide film was deposited on glass
substrate using Arduino based spin coater. The electrical energy produced by each
solar panel, energy demand of the load and charge–discharge conditions of the
batteries were monitored through the control system designed for energy flow
control. It was determined which of these three different control algorithms had
the most effective and efficient energy usage.
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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. General

Medical devices are used to monitor, replace or modify physiological

process and are momentous in healthcare technology, enabling millions of patients
worldwide to recover from various diseases, increase quality and expectancy of
life. Medical devices are special products that are directly related to patients’
health & lives. The medical devices market comprises entities such as
organizations, sole proprietorships, and partnerships that manufacture and sell
medical equipment or devices and related services [1]. These medical equipment
devices are used in the diagnosis, treatment, and monitoring of medical conditions.
These medical devices cater to various services like diagnostic devices, diagnostic
imaging equipment, dental equipment and supplies, ophthalmic devices,
cardiovascular devices, surgical equipment, hospital supplies, and other medical
supplies [2].

To prevent losing market share to competitors, today's dynamic external

environment, cutting-edge technologies, and globalization have compelled
business executives to review their market positions. Aside from being a
significant and innovative industry, medical devices are an essential component of
healthcare systems, accounting for the majority of "medical technology" together
with pharmaceuticals. Medical technology advancement has been the primary
 4

driver of advancements in healthcare systems for illness prevention, diagnosis, and

treatment, as well as improving health status and quality of life [3].

1.2. MEDICAL DEVICE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

As a medical device management entails a cycle of actions throughout the

equipment life cycle [4].

1.2.1. Planning and Assessment

The clinical and technical requirements for the proposed devices are the
initial stage in medical device management. It should collect the necessary clinical
requirements from the medical and nursing personnel and the available
environmental conditions from the engineering staff, and the financial resources
from the administration. They will have to work together to determine safety,
operating conditions, and environmental factors, among other things.

1.2.2. Budgeting and Financing

Budget calculations encompass capital budget calculations and recurrent

budget calculations, according : Replacement expenditure requirements; new
purchase expenditure requirements; pre-installation expenditure requirements;
major rehabilitation expenditure requirements; recurring expenditure requirements
for maintenance; recurring expenditure requirements for consumable operating
costs; recurring expenditure requirements for administrative expenses; and
recurring expenditure requirements for ongoing training.

1.2.3. Equipment Selection

Pre-purchase medical device evaluation is the most critical step in the

medical device procurement process, especially when capital investments are
 5

involved. An elimination process, in which certain offers are rejected at each stage,
is the most typical technique to analyze offers. This ensures that decisions are
made based on the best value for money for the entire life-cycle cost, rather than
just the item's purchase price.

1.2.4. Procurement and Logistics

Procurement is mostly an administrative process that involves acquiring the

best possible deal from numerous sources of supply and coordinating the transfer
of equipment to the importing country and final destination. The receiving
processes, which include an acceptance process, then commence. An initial
evaluation and the inclusion of the equipment into the equipment inventory and the
equipment management system are all part of the acceptance procedure. The initial
check guarantees that the equipment arrives intact and in good operating order,
with all essential accessories and instructions.

1.2.5. Installation and Commissioning

The activity of putting a medical gadget into service at the site where it will
be utilized is known as installation. This activity may necessitate a long-term
connection to services (e.g., electrical supply, plumbing, waste disposal). It's
essential to keep track of the outcomes of installation and commissioning tests.
Physical installation, testing and commissioning are the three types of installation
operations. A planned installation and commissioning procedure must be in place,
with a series of tests to be completed to guarantee that the equipment is working
properly. Calibration of equipment at the time of installation is regarded as critical.

1.2.6. Training and Skill Development

 6

Complex vital equipment, such as critical care equipment, requires more

training and skills. Furthermore, obtaining some "initial" training for operator and
maintenance workers on the new machinery is critical. Even if the equipment has
been used before, the employees must be familiar with the latest make and model's
operational requirements. Bloom provides a complete list of equipment
management skills for which training is essential. These skills include equipment
selection, tender writing and adjudication, procurement, equipment operation,
equipment maintenance, and equipment management.

1.2.7. Operation and Safety

Equipment operation entails employing the proper physical techniques to get

the machine to perform. The equipment will be less likely to be damaged if the
staff utilizes it appropriately, and the staff will thus get the best performance out of
it. Equipment attachments and consumables are also necessary because the
equipment will not function without them. A critical management challenge is
ensuring that appropriate equipment accessories and consumables are constantly
available. Equipment can present hazards in general, such as gases, electricity,
radiation, fire, and so on, in addition to each type of equipment having its
particular operating safety difficulties and procedures. By implementing safety
protocols for equipment linked to the use of equipment, how to act around
equipment, and national health and safety at work legislation, management teams
can ensure the safety of patients, staff and visitors. so on, in addition to each type
of equipment having its particular operating safety difficulties and procedures. By
implementing safety protocols for equipment linked to the use of equipment, how
to act around equipment, and national health and safety at work legislation,
management teams can ensure the safety of patients, staff and visitors.
 7

1.2.8. Maintenance and Repair

Maintenance not only improves the safety and performance of medical

devices but also offers significant financial advantages. As a result, Periodic
Preventive Maintenance (PPM) is critical because it allows to reduce the need for
corrective maintenance, catch problems before they become crises, avoid
breakdowns, save money (because PPM is less expensive than repairs after a
breakdown), and ensure that your equipment is fully operational. It is crucial for
officials in charge of medical device management to remember that critical parts,
especially those not available quickly, must be kept in stock.

1.2.9. Decommissioning and Disposal

Decommissioning tries to make the equipment safe and unusable while

causing the least amount of environmental damage possible. Decommission any
equipment that is deemed unfit for utilization. Because every piece of equipment
has a limited lifespan, it must be replaced at some point. If the equipment is not
changed as it reaches the end of its useful life, performance, safety, dependability,
and availability will all suffer [5].

1.3. CHALLENGES OF MEDICALS

These patients usually recover more quickly and are ready for discharge sooner
than those sedated with a midazolam-fentanyl combination. This particular
advantage of propofol sedation may offset some of the costs of reduced efficacy
and longer waiting lists with conscious sedation. Differences in the
pharmacokinetics of propofol compared with midazolam-fentanyl occur in seconds
rather than minutes, resulting in a faster onset of action [6]. As a result, anesthesia
and infusion time is reduced, with significant cost and time savings. Patient
 8

satisfaction with propofol sedation has been described as similar and superior to
conscious sedation. There was no significant association between the method of
sedation and the level of satisfaction with flexible upper gastrointestinal
endoscopy. 104 patients received propofol compared with 137 patients sedated
with pethidine/midazolamine. As expected, patients receiving propofol recovered
faster with a significantly shorter procedure time. GI endoscopy demonstrated a
statistically significant improvement in comfort and sedation score with propofol
compared with midazolam and meperidine [7].

1.4. IMPLANTABLE MEDICAL DEVICES

The Implantable Medical Devices (IMDs) are deeply embedded inside human
body to perform therapeutic tasks like sensing, diagnosing, monitoring, treating
and communicating medical conditions. These devices have eventually become an
indispensable part of international healthcare industry in recent years due to the
amount of flexibility it gives to the healthcare providers in terms of treatment
automation and remote monitoring and to the patient in terms of mobility,
continuous care and cost cutting by shunning the need of hospitalization [8].
Almost every aspect of human health can be monitored by IMDs thus providing
highly accurate diagnostics and life sustaining functionalities. IMDs are being used
for measuring blood pressure, blood-glucose concentration gastric pressure, tissue
bioimpedance. They are also used as electrical stimulators for paralyzed limbs, for
bladder control, for blurred cornea in the eye. Examples of IMDs are implantable
pacemakers, implantable cardiac defibrillators (ICDs), insulin pumps,
neurostimulators, hearing aids, biosensors and automated drug delivery systems
[9].

These devices in the current genre perform following tasks:

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1. Sense – IMDs are capable of collecting a variety of physiological

information from the body which is further used for diagnosis of the medical
condition of a pat.
2. Actuate – IMDs are capable of producing a therapeutic effect in the body
either based on the sensed data or depending on the command it receives
from an external device.
3. Information processing- IMDs may also perform some processing on
collected or communicated information.
4. Communication- IMDs communicate with other IMDs in the IBN and with
external device.

1.4.1. Classification of Implantable Medical Devices

They are broadly categorized as active and passive types. The active IMDs
require power to run and uses wireless interface to communicate with external
devices like a reader or a programmer or base station, and to receive commands or
upgrades to optimize the delivered therapy. In this thesis, we have considered
active devices only. Once these devices are inserted into human body, they remain
in direct contact with the human body and organs for short or extended periods
[10]. Therefore, such devices are subjected to rigorous safety standards in the
interest of the IMD bearing patients. Active IMDs (AIMDs) are typically either
sensors that sense physiological parameters and emit them like patient's ECG,
temperature, blood glucose and oxygen levels as mentioned above; or actuators
that deliver therapies, like cardiac pacing by pacemaker and drug injection by an
insulin pump [11].
 10

Fig.1. Classification of IMDs

Actuators can be further configured by external medical device using wireless

means. These sensors and actuators are often combined into a closed-loop system
performing sensing and actuation without patient intervention (e.g. in ICD) or in an
open-loop system (e.g. in Insulin Pump) wherein actuator receives information
from external device and need human intervention. Biosensors are a special class
of IMDs that collect, process, store and forward health information to a base
station for further processing and analysis. Depending on the ailment, IMDs may
be implanted permanently or temporarily. Permanently implanted IMDs must be
interfaced to external devices periodically for diagnosis, troubleshooting, and
reprogramming, and to retrieve stored parametric and physiological data. Such
external devices are called readers and/or programmers. Temporarily implanted
IMDs either function autonomously or inter-operate through an external controller
[12].

1.4.2. Characteristics of Implantable Medical Devices

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IMDs are unique devices with different characteristics from other wireless devices
[13]. Characteristics of interest for this study are listed in Table 1.1:

Table.1.1. IMD Characteristics

Parameter Value Comments

Frequency Band MICS Band 401- Wavelength of 75 cm

406 MHz

Standard IEEE 802.15.6

Bandwidth 300 KHz Ten channels of 300 kHz

bandwidth each

Data Rate 250 kbps and above

Transmit Power 25 μw Allows compact and

lightweight implantable
device design; reduces
the thermal effects and
interference

Transmission 2-3 meter To reduce thermal effects

Range on the body

Transreceiver MICS Example ZL70101

 12

Power Expense 5mA Kept as low as possible to

increase device lifetime.

Memory 2MB Less as devices are

miniaturized

1.4.3. Applications of Implantable Medical Device Data

IMDs perform therapy delivery, sensing, diagnosing, monitoring, and related

functions, either autonomously or through cooperation from another device.
Transmitted data in medical applications usually contain sensitive information that
is either private or critical for the proper operation of the IMD [14]. In general,
telemetry data include the following:

1. Patient data: It includes quantitative physiometric data that is measured by

an IMD. It also includes non-patient information, such as parametric data
that reports the status and operational characteristics of the IMD and
environmental data that includes information like ambient temperature or
time of day.
2. Commands: They are the instructions, which are issued to control, effect an
operational result, and communicate. Commands can be originated by an
IMD or other external device, and include program or instructional codes
and messages that direct an IMD or other device to operate in a certain
manner.
 13

3. Other Data: The operational parameters of IMD may be given

reprogramming commands. Also, firmware may be given patching
commands. Metadata that is data about data may also be sent by IMD [15].

1.4.4. Security Objectives of Implantable Medical Device

Looking at the criticality of these devices, the key security objectives can be
directly referenced from X.800 which is an international standard by the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU). The security services of X.800 for
interconnection of open systems are categorized as Access Control, Data
Confidentiality and Data Integrity. Authentication service is also included here.
These security services are explained below:

1. Data Confidentiality: Confidentiality refers to the protection of the

exchanged data, identity, and context information from unauthorized
disclosure by eavesdropping on unprotected wireless communication. This
limits the use of data by other external devices or other IMDs.
2. Data and Command Integrity: Integrity service ensures that the exchanged
data is not deleted, replicated to replayed, forged or fabricated. Physiological
data communicated by IMD are vital for diagnosis and decision making and
therefore manipulated data may lead to disastrous consequences.
Unauthorized manipulation of the data during storage or transmit must be
detectable and preventable. Integrity must also be ensured in the commands
issued to the IMDs by healthcare staff as it has the capability of altering the
IMD functionalities.
3. Availability: Ensures that sensed telemetry data and the IMD itself are
available and functioning in the correct manner to provide deemed services
to the patient. IMD especially needs to be protected from battery depletion,
 14

which renders it unusable or from commands which shuts it down. It should

perform the expected life critical functionalities seamlessly. Also in any
condition, access should not be denied to authorized healthcare staff as
access failure may become a life-threatening matter for patients.
4. Authentication: Authentication is the assurance of genuineness of the
communication and communication party. It allows verification of the
identities of peer entity devices that attempt to interface wirelessly before
transmission of the data. It also deals with the authentication of the origin of
the data. It is mandatory to authenticate the devices and users before
granting them access to the IMDs which gives an unprecedented view of the
inner workings of the human body.
5. Access Control: With access control, unauthorized use of a resource is
prevented. Once a device is authorized does not mean that it may send any
command to the IMD. Such flattened communication will increase the risk
of aggravated access either mistakenly or maliciously. The security service
is essential for addressing patient's concerns by actively controlling which
IMD or external device can query and send what commands and under
which circumstances [16].

1.5. OBJECTIVES

 To design and implement a low-cost spin coating unit with precision

control of spin rate and spin time and use it for the preparation of TiO 2
and TiO2: In thin films on glass substrates.
 To study the characteristics of the films by varying the process
parameters and optimize the parameters to obtain quality films and
 To develop a gas sensing setup and use it to study the ethanol gas sensing
characteristics of the prepared thin films.
 15

 To obtain optimum parameters of TiO2 thin film for Dye-Sensitized Solar

Cell.

1.6. THESIS ORGANIZATION

There are 5 chapters in this thesis. The introduction to the thesis will be discussed
in this chapter, followed by literature review and methodology in Chapter 2 and
Chapter 3, respectively. For development of scheme-based control algorithm in
device using this film medical application this thesis, it will be included in Chapter
4. Finally, the thesis draws a conclusion and recommendation for future research in
Chapter 5.
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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, medical device management is analyzed in detail. The chapter

discusses ultra-thin film, LB film, applications, and uses. Research findings are
presented at the end of this chapter, providing insight into bridging the gaps
identified during the literature review.

2.1. INTRODUCTION

In nature, a hierarchical organization assures that a required property of a material

is realized with a minimum of constituents and a minimum of complexity through
processes of evolutionary selection. In the living world functional entities exist on
any length scaleranging from atoms to whole organisms, complex properties of
biological materials. such as cellular life emerging at the upper end of the
nanoscale. Chemistry, Physics and Materials Science are increasingly approaching
maturity on the molecular and macroscopic length scales, shifting importance
toward new nanoscale materials and nano-organized systems. It is about over 20
years since layer-by-layer assembly was introduced as yet another method to
functionalize surfaces and to fabricate thin films. Starting with simple bola-shaped
amphiphiles and it was quickly extended to simple polyelectrolytes, and functional
macromolecules including proteins or DNA. Eventually, in 1994, biological
nanoparticles and inorganic nanoparticles, including magnetic and gold
nanoparticles, were added to the list of possible multilayer film constituents.
 17

Eslamian et al., [17] have presented a concise critical review and research
directions on most thin film devices, including thin film transistors, data storage
memory, solar cells, organic light-emitting diodes, thermoelectric devices, smart
materials, sensors, and actuators. The thin film devices may consist of organic,
inorganic, and composite thin layers, and share similar functionality, properties,
and fabrication routes.

Zheng et al., [18] haver analyzed an internal charging using the energy generated
by the physiological environment or natural body activity. To harvest
biomechanical energy efficiently, piezoelectric and triboelectric energy harvesters
with sophisticated structural and material design have been developed.

2.2. INTERNATIONAL LEVEL RESEARCH ACTIVITIES on ULTRA

THIN FILM of BIOMATERIALS

Thin films of organic and inorganic materials are now being extensively studied by
the researchers around the world for their possible application in modern
technology. There are several research groups throughout the world working on
various aspects of thin films prepared by LB and LbL technique. Lot of research
are going based on ultra thin films. The Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) technique offers
the possibilities of a highly ordered mono and multilayer and realizes that the
construction of molecular architectures which allow the study of physical
phenomenon on a molecular scale. Thin films prepared by different processes have
shown remarkable capability for the immobilization of proteins and cells and
subsequent application in biocatalysis, drug delivery, and tissue engineering etc.
Many schemes have been developed where LB and LbL films can be utilized in
conjunction with more conventional microfabrication technique to extend the
 18

capability of microelectronic devices, as constituents of various chemical sensors,

tranducers and also for numerous biological, technical applications.

2.2.1. LB films of bio-active molecules as bio membrane

Various research were going on to check the feasibility to mimic LB films as

biological membrane.It is observed that there are similarities between naturally
occurring biological membrane and LB films. Recent research in this field also
suggests the important implication of application such as separation, dialysis,
reverse osmosis etc. The use of liposomes, in Langmuir monolayer and Langmuir-
Blodgett (LB) films as biomembrane models has become popular in view of the
complexcity of in vivo system. Langmuir and Langmuir- Blodgett films of
Chitosan and phospholipids have been investigated as cell membrane model. A
glycolipid containing biomimetic membrane prepared by LB technique was
reported. A model membrane system was developed with supported Langmuir –
Blodgett (LB) technique by using lipid-lipid and lipid-protein interaction.

Guo et al., [19] have implemented a current status of OTFT technologies ranging
from material, device, process, and integration, to design and system applications,
and clarifies the real challenges behind to be addressed.

Cheng et al., [20] have investigated a strategy for obtaining highly stretchable thin-
film electrodes. Applications of stretchable thin-film electrodes fabricated via these
strategies are described. Some perspectives and challenges in this field are also put
forward.

2.2.2. Biomedical application of ultra thin film of bioactive molecule

The design of advanced, nanostructured materials at the molecular level is of

tremendous interest for the scientific and engineering communities because of the
 19

broad application of these materials in the biomedical field. The applications of

Layer-by-Layer and Langmuir – Blodgett technique in biomimetics, biosensors,
drug delivery, protein and cell adhesion, mediation of cellular functions, and
implantable materials are addressed.

2.2.3. Thin film used as biosensors

Biosensor converts a biological response into an electrical signal. Biosensors is

used in biological molecules mainly enzyme, lipid, membrane etc. Currently
preparation of thinfilm biosensors is one of the most active research areas in the
LbL field. Different types of proteins, and even inorganic or organic colloids, can
be incorporated into multilayer films and then used as biosensors. Enzyme films as
biosensors, is of two types viz oxyreductase biosensors and nonoxyreductase
biosensors. Almost all types of oxyreductases, including glucose oxidase, glucose
dehydrogenase, lactate oxidase, soybean peroxidase, pyruvate oxidase, horseradish
peroxidase, fructose dehydrogenase, polyphenol oxidase, choline oxidase,
cholesterol oxidase, uricase, xanthine oxidase, cytochrome P450 monooxygenases,
manganese peroxidase, and lignin peroxidise have been immobilized to form
biosensors.

An immunosensor by embedding antiimmunoglobulin G (anti-IgG)

monoclonal antibodies into LPL films. The distinct advantages of immunosensors
prepared by LbL methods include low nonspecific background reactivity, high
sensitivity, and good response linearity over a large range of antigen
concentrations are revealed. DNA sensors are used to detect chemical toxicity.

An enzymatic glucose sensor based on hybrid organic-inorganic Langmuir-

Blodgett films has been developed. In this sensor glucose oxidase (GOx) can be
immobilized in hybrid LB films consisting of octadecyl trimethy ammonium
 20

(ODTA) and nano-sized prusian blue (PB) clusters. These ODTA/PB/GOx LB

films showed a glucose sensing action at a very low operating system.

Fei et al., [21] have presented a fabrication and novel applications. Various
fabrication techniques used to synthesize AlN films are discussed, along with their
growth mechanisms and crystal structure. The physical properties of AlN films are
summarized, including their mechanical and electrical properties (in particular the
piezoelectric behavior)

Holländer et al., [22] have implemented a fabricate drug-containing T-shaped

prototypes of intrauterine system (IUS) with the drug incorporated within the entire
backbone of the medical device using 3-dimensional (3D) printing technique,
based on fused deposition modeling (FDM™). Indomethacin was used as a model
drug to prepare drug-loaded poly(ε-caprolactone)–based filaments with 3 different
drug contents, namely 5%, 15%, and 30%, by hot-melt extrusion.

2.3. THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS

Solar energy is a rather democratic resource of renewable energy available

to all countries and regions, literally for free. Conversion of solar energy directly to
electricity through the photovoltaic (PV) effect is the ideal way of utilization of
this abundant energy. The conventional use of solar energy for power generation
via the solar thermal (concentrated solar power) is less efficient given that the solar
energy is first converted to heat for steam generation in a boiler and then electricity
is generated in a thermodynamic cycle, which is restricted by the second law of
thermodynamics. A PV SC works based on the absorption of light, excitation of
electrons in a semiconductor, generation of electron–hole pairs, separation of
charge carriers of opposite types, and collection of charge carriers at opposite
electrodes.
 21

Therefore, a SC is composed of an active layer or light absorber, as the heart

of the SC, and several buffer layers to control the selective direction of flow of the
charges, all sandwiched between two electrodes. The first-generation PV SCs are
based on crystalline silicon, which comprises rather thick (several hundreds of
micrometer) silicon films, due to the limited absorption coefficient of silicon. To
save on the materials and fabrication costs, reduce the module weight, and improve
the module flexibility, the second-generation SCs, based on inorganic
semiconductor thin film concept, have been developed. Cadmium telluride (CdTe),
CIGS and other chalcopyrites, copper zinc tin sulfide (CZTS) and other kesterites,
and amorphous silicon (a-Si) are of second generation of SCs. In the
aforementioned inorganic thin film semiconductors, few nanometers up to few
micrometers of the light absorber are sufficient to absorb a large portion of the
sunlight. Commercialized inorganic thin film SCs are usually deposited from the
vapor phase; however, in an attempt to reduce the cost, research is being
undertaken to fabricate such SCs using solution-processed methods. The third
generation of SCs, also called emerging SCs, is still in the category of thin film
SCs, but most of the layers of such SCs are processed in solution and deposited
using a casting method. These include organic (polymeric) [3], dyesensitized,
perovskite, and quantum dot SCs.

Ibrahim et al., [23] have presented a structural and mechanical features of aerosol
delivery devices with respect to mechanisms of aerosol generation, their use with
different formulations, and their advantages and limitations.

Zhao et al., [24] modifications of sterilization on the transparency, yellow index,

dimensional stability and mechanical properties of commercial biodegradable poly
(lactic acid) (PLA), poly(butylenes adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) and their
blends
 22

2.4. THIN FILM THERMOELECTRIC DEVICES

In thermodynamics, a heat engine is a device which works between a heat source

and a heat sink, and generates mechanical work and electricity (e.g., as in a thermal
power plant). A heat pump is the opposite, in that it receives mechanical work to
pump heat from a low-temperature reservoir to a high-temperature reservoir (for
refrigeration/cooling or heating purposes). Thermoelectric devices are the solid-
state version of heat pump and heat engine, operating based on the thermoelectric
or the Seebeck–Peltier effect. In the heat pump mode (Peltier effect), when an
electric current is driven through a circuit containing two dissimilar materials
(ideally an n-type and a p-type semiconductor to boost the effect), heat is absorbed
at one junction (the cold side) and released at the other junction (the hot side). This
effect results in heat transfer from the cold side to the hot side, thus the device can
be used for cooling electronic circuits. In the power generation mode (Seebeck
effect), similar to heat engine in thermodynamics, a temperature difference
between the hot and the cold sides of the device creates a voltage between the two
legs of the device. Therefore, a thermoelectric device may function as either
cooling/heating or power generation. In other words, thermoelectric devices
directly convert heat transfer to electricity and vice versa.

Quan et al., [25] have investigated a single-pathway-harvested STENG arrays, the

I SC, durability, and stability of the bidirectional-harvested DTENG can be
dramatically improved by a 4 3 1 array connected in parallel because of the
improved device configuration, stickiness, and abrasion by adhering Ti buffer
layers.
 23

Zhu et al., [26] have analyzed a realize precise and high-throughput rare cell
separation. The PIMJ sorter was fabricated by assembling laser-patterned polymer-
film layers of different thicknesses.

2.5. THIN FILM GAS and BIOSENSORS

Sensors or detectors are devices used to detect and measure the intensity of foreign
species, such as toxic or flammable gases in the workplace, exhaled gases in
human breath for disease diagnosis, e.g., formaldehyde, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, nitric oxide, volatile organic
gases, also humidity, ultraviolet or infrared light, stress and strain, biological
species, etc. The sensors operate based on responding to the analyte by generating
a signal amenable to further processing. The sensing nature may be physical, such
as in surface wave acoustic, optical, and infrared sensors, or chemical, such as that
in the so-called chemiresistors. Thin films have large surface areas making them
one of the best geometries for sensing purposes. A chemiresistor is a material that
changes its electrical resistance in response to changes in the nearby chemical
environment. For detection of various gases and pollutants or biomaterials in a
solution, a specific type of sensor structure and material may be more suitable.
Typical chemical sensing materials include metal oxide semiconductors,
conducting polymers, and emerging materials, such as graphene and carbon
nanotubes, as well as composite materials. Most chemical gas sensing materials are
based on metal oxides, such as MoO3, SnO2, WO3, and ZnO, which work based
on the following proposed mechanism : In air, typically, oxygen molecules are
adsorbed on the surface of the metal oxide, capturing its free electrons. Therefore,
this trapping of negative charges of oxygen of the metal oxide causes increased
resistance.
 24

Andrade et al., [27] have implemented a the absorber layer in solar cells, high
efficient devices should be fabricated with relative low cost technologies. Despite
these properties, low efficiency SnS-based solar cells have been reported up to
now.

Van Den Brand et al., [228] have investigated a devices to be very thin, flexible
and sometimes even stretchable. An overview of recent technology developments
in this domain and concrete application examples will be discussed.

2.6. THIN FILM SMART MATERIALS AND ACTUATORS

A smart material has the intrinsic capability of responding to external stimuli, such
as stress, temperature, moisture, pH, and electric or magnetic fields, in a
predictable and controllable manner, in an appropriate time, and ideally returns to
its original shape, as soon as the stimuli are removed. SMMs and
electromechanical materials (e.g., piezoelectric ceramics) are examples of smart
materials, widely used as physical sensors and actuators. These materials can be
integrated with conventional silicon-based micro-electro-mechanical systems
(MEMS) and other thin film mechanical devices to develop new applications. The
SMMs can generate motion or store energy desirable for various applications, such
as automotive, aerospace, robotics, and biomedical. SMMs are usually in the form
of shape memory alloys (SMAs), such as copper– aluminum–nickel and nickel–
titanium alloys in the bulk form, but alternative materials, such as ceramics and
polymers, and alternative shapes, such as thin films and fibers, are emerging.
SMMs may be patterned by lithography on deposited thin films and used in
MEMS, as various types of actuators and sensors, such as micro-switches, micro-
relays, micro-pumps, micro-valves, micro-grippers, and micro-positioners. Shape
memory polymers (SMPs) are emerging SMMs, which are soft, organic, and
 25

biodegradable, and suitable for biomedical, textile, and surface patterning, to name
a few.

Huang et al., [29] have presented a radical advance in consumer products, such as
wearable electronics, healthcare devices, artificial intelligence, electric vehicles,
smart household, and space satellites, etc.

Ali et al., [30] have analyzed a PEHs and associated biomedical devices. The
materials and fabrication processes needed for the development of PEHs are also
discussed along with their biomedical applications (e.g., cardiac pacemaker, active
pressure sensors, direct stimulation of tissue, and living cells).

In this chapter, review emphasizes the current development and applications of

PZT-based thin films, lead-free piezoelectric thin films, piezo-polymer PVDF thin
films, and cellulose-based electro-active paper (EAPap). A comprehensive survey
of the enhanced piezoelectric response, advances in integration, applications as
piezoelectric sensors, actuators, resonators, energy harvesters, and other novel
devices, has been presented. Progress in thin-film growth takes advantage of the
distinctive characteristics of thin-film piezoelectrics.
 26

CHAPTER 3

DESIGN and DEVELOPMENT of ELECTRICAL DEVICE

APPLYING THIN FILM

3.1.SPIN COATING PROCESS

Spin coating is one of important process in semiconductor manufacturing

process. During spin coating process, coating material on the substrate thins by
convective outflow driven by centrifugal force. Spin coating is a batch process.
The coating material will drops on the surface of substrate either in stationary or
spinning at low speed. The substrate will be spin and accelerated to specific speed.
During spinning process, the coating material will fling off to the corner of
substrate. If the coating material not fully cover the substrate during spinning
process, more coating material can be drop on the surface. Majority coating
 27

material is dried by airflow when spinning [31]. The coating material is undergoing
evaporation although the spinning process stopped. If the topography of substrate
is not uniform, diffusion driven convection can redistribute the non-volatile solids
over the topographical features. A process in which solution is spread evenly over
a surface using centripetal force when the disk is rotating. Spin Coating will result
in a relatively uniform thin film of a specific thickness. Spin Coating is an
important way of creating thin films in the microelectronics industry where we
need thin films coating. Spin Coating was first used to apply coatings of paints and
pitch around seventy years ago. In 1958 Adel et al., developed the first spin
coating model. This model has been used as a basis for future more specific or
complicated models [32]. In figure 3.1. shows that has been Process of Spin
Coating presented.

Fig 3.1. Process of Spin Coating

 28

The thickness of thin film depend on the spinning rate greatly. When
spinning rate increases, the thickness of thin film will be decreased. The thickness
of thin film and spinning rate is generally given by,

1
t= 1
ω2 (3.1)

t- thickness of film layer

ω - Spinning rate

The applications of spin coating can be used to coat glass slide until big product
such as solar panel. The material of coating substrate can be insulator, organic
semiconductors, metal, nano-material and so on [33]. In conclusion, spin coating is
one of best method to coat thin film on the substrate. It is easy to set up and
flexible in controlling thickness of thin film.

3.1.1.DESIGN OF MODIFIED SPIN COATING DEVICE

Generally thickness of thin film is depends on speed of the spinning device,

viscosity of solution, spinning time, annealing temperature and rate of evaporation.
Research have been always done with the parameters speed, time and solutions
viscosity. In this rate of evaporation is also another important factor for thin film
coating. If the speed of motor and viscosity of solution is in good condition but rate
of evaporation decreased which gives rough surface and increase in film thickness.
So to increase the evaporation rate, the annealing process is also combined with the
spin coater along with the heating unit. This dryer can produce a thin film of
sunlight resistance without interfering with time. The moisture in the drum is also
removed by a vacuum pump [34].

3.1.2.Spin Coating Unit

 29

The spin coatings unit should always be handed directives for said spin rate and
spinning time. A keypad is implemented to allow the same. The keypad's
information is taken by a CPU, which in turn controls the motor. The brushless
spin coating unit spins at a high speed, but immediate motor transmission of the
turn bar counter is undesirable because the vehicle's vibrations would indeed be
connected to the change table as well as to the revolving substrate [35]. The motor
is hooked to a platter configuration to alleviate this problem and provide durability.
In figure 3.2. shows that has been Spin Coating Unit Process presented.

Fig 3.2. Spin Coating Unit Process

The pulse width modulation (PWM) approach is being used to change the
motor's speed. A dc motor was utilized since ac motors are sluggish to maintain
momentum. A L293-based shifting circuit is used to operate the motor. The
 30

bowler's real control is built on an ARM Processor LPC 11U24. The necessary
operating systems have been created and are detailed in the previous chapters [36].

3.1.3.Block diagram description of the spin coater

The mechanical and electronic parts with a control system were the three
principal components in the construction of the spin coater. The mechanical part
involved the support structure of the system while the electronic part consists of
using a DC electric motor (24V) coupled with its driver. The purpose of the control
system is to drive the device; its main component is a microcontroller ATM 328.
The power supply was realized through a linear configuration to deliver a regulated
DC 24 V used for spinning the motor [37]. For the speed measurement, we have
used an IR sensor acts as an input for ATM 328 microcontroller to calculate the
speed (rpm) that will be indicated with a LCD display programmed with Arduino
platform. In figure 3.3. shows that has been Block diagram of the realized spin
coating machine presented.
 31

Fig 3.3. Block diagram of the realized spin coating machine

3.1.4.Construction of the spin coater system

The conception of the spin coater is constructed with high speed DC motor,
motor driver, spinning disk, substrate holder Infra-Red (IR) sensor, control system
and user interface programmed with Lab VIEW. The user interface communicates
with Arduino card and allows a selection of speed and duration of the spinning
with push button switches [38]. The control system is responsible for maintaining
constant speeds and spin duration according to user selection. It is developed with
Arduino to drive the device by using an open loop control algorithm in order to
regulate the speeding spin. It receives data from the user interface, processes the
data and sends it to the DC motor. The speed of the motor is controlled by varying
the duty cycle (Į) according to the pulse width modulation technique (PWM) of the
Arduino microcontroller on the range of 0-255 corresponding to a maximum spin
rotation of 3500 rpm. In order to view the selected parameters, programmable
Arduino card is coupled with a liquid crystal display (16x2 LCD), it is capable to
 32

display any character with ASCII values ranging from 0 to 255. A circuit shield
achieves the connection between the Arduino and DC motor [39].

In our case, we used a 3500 rpm DC motor coupled with an integrated

circuit L293B- from SGS-Thomson Microelectronics. This device is a monolithic
integrated characterized by a high voltage and high current designed for driving
inductive loads, DC and stepping motors. In order to regulate speed values of the
motor with PWM output of the Arduino platform, we have used an IR sensor as a
tachometer to measure the output in rpm. This sensor is designed to detect the
changing of the black and white face of the object that covered the motor axis [40].
In figure 3.4. shows that has been Organization chart of the spin coating setup
presented.
 33

Fig 3.4. Organization chart of the spin coating setup.

3.2. ARDUINO UNO

 34

Arduino UNO (Arduino, Italy) Arduino UNO is a microcontroller based on

ATmega328. For analog inputs, there are 6 very useful analog pins and for digital:
It consists of 14 digital I / O pins where the number of PWM pins is 6. In figure
3.5. shows that has been Arduino UNO board presented.

Fig 3.5. The Arduino UNO board

The stand for our device, a microcontroller needed to read data from our sensors
and we work with Arduino because it is easy to utilize and has a dynamic
community with lots of free codes and help to find when wanted. In this project,
we worked with the Arduino Uno board based on the 8- bitmica328p
microcontroller. The panel has an internal clock frequency of 16 MHz and memory
of 32 KB ashes and a number of analog and digital screws. It operates at a voltage
of 5 volts and is easier to operate via USB, which also provides a serial line for
communication and programming from a computer [41]. The Arduino
Microcontroller Components is shown in Table 3.1.
 35

Table.3.1.Arduino Microcontroller Components

Name Pin Description

Serial Output(TX) -

Serial Input(RX) -

Digital input/output pins(2-13) The input/output voltage to the Arduino

Uno board when it is using an external
power source

GND Ground pin for digital

AREF pin reference voltage for the analog inputs.

Used with analog reference

Reset button Move this line low to reset the

microcontroller, and use to add a reset
button to shields which block the one on
the board

ICSP for AT mega 16U2 -

USP plug -

AT mega 16U2 microcontroller Memory

Voltage Regulator Regulate the voltage to 5V

External power supply plug Can supply voltage through it by the

power jack

IOREF pin Provides the voltage reference with

which the microcontroller operates

Reset pin Bring this line low to reset the

microcontroller

3.3V pin 3.3 V supply generated by the board

 36

regulator. Maximum current on the

board 50 mA

5V pin The outputs 5V on the board

GND Ground pins for analog

Voltage in pin The VIN pin of board (7-12V) supply

voltage via 5V or 3.3V

Analog inputs pins(0-5) Read the analog data

AT mega 328 microcontroller Memory has 32KB

ICSP for AT mega 328 -

TX, RX Led -

Power LED indicator -

On-Board LED -

ICSP for AT mega 16U2 -

In the final product, the ATmega328p processor was used, which was
flashed using an Arduino boot loader and an internal 8MHz oscillator rather than
the entire motherboard, make the device smaller and easier to handle. For most
programming and testing, the UNO board was used [42].

3.2.1. Arduino board types

Types of Arduino boards from functional point of view, can be divided to

general purpose boards with GPIO (General Purpose Input Output) and fixed
purpose boards that are called “shields” in Arduino terminology, with purpose to
add specific required functionality which general purpose boards do not have.
Shield examples are LAN adapters (Ethernet and Wi-Fi), GSM, relays for
switching of power lines, driving of electric motors, LCD displays and other.
While control of actuators frequently requires some shield, sensors can be in most
cases directly attached to GPIO pins, requiring only adequate software [43].
 37

General purpose boards can be divided to boards with single processor

which are microcontroller based performing mainly data acquisition and control
tasks, and two processor boards which besides microcontroller poses additional
processor that provides lite Linux based platform for additional data processing
tasks usually performed on a PC platform, like web user interface, permanent data
storage, data retrieval and similar [44].

3.2.2. Typical configurations

General configuration template for remote experiment implemented with Arduino

boards in most cases include:

 General purpose board for data acquisition and device control.

 Sensors and actuators in experimental setup.
 Eventual shield for driving actuators in experimental setup.
 Shield or other general purpose board for LAN.
 Server providing web access.

Dual processor boards with Linux platform usually provide both LAN access and
web server thus replacing PC based servers. On the other hand, board with a LAN
shield can communicate with existing PC platform based server that can also
provide services for remote experiment, or it can be directly accessed by remote
user. general architecture template for remote web experiments implemented with
interconnected Arduino boards and other devices used for experimental setup [45].

Not all connections as it depends on requirements of the particular

experiment. Yellow boxes are numbered from 1 to 6 for easier reference. The
central part of general purpose board (GPB) whose analog and digital inputs are
connected to sensors of experimental setup circuits directly with wires, which is
named as “wired” connection. Digital outputs can be connected directly or via
appropriate shield for experimental setup actuators if required. Boards are
connected with shields mainly via SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) [46].

Web access for a remote user can be provided in various ways. A shield
board for LAN with Ethernet or Wi-Fi can be used, providing also a simple web
server which can be directly accessed by remote user. Better solution is to use a
separate web server with software client in order to provide better web interface for
 38

user, and to use simple web server obtained by shield just for data transfer. In that
case, remote user directly connects to web server hosted by Linux server on dual
processor board or some existing server on PC platform. User requests are then
transferred to software client which requests data from Arduino board with LAN
shield, and directs obtained data via main server to remote users. The other
possibility is to connect by wired serial communication with GPB that controls the
experiment, and to provide web access for GPB. Wired serial communication
between two boards can be serial (UART) or TWI (Two Wire Interface) AKA I2C
[47].

3.2.3.Input Data

Table 3.2. Initial Data

Materials Ratings

Spinning speed 800 rpm (max)

Motor rating 220 V

Mode Programmable
Human Interface

Speed controller used SSR

Spin plate 6 mm

Material Acrylic

Size of pipette 0.5 mm

3.3.MODELLING METHOD
 39

A system modeling method based on the concept of input and output

identification of a system. In general, engineers can conduct system identification
by directly applying a step signal as an input of the system, and its response in the
scheme of an open-loop arrangement. However, dynamic identification that
involves random signals when generating input data is preferable than direct
identification. The created signals enable the identification process to consider
noise because its value varies with a specific frequency. Dynamic identification in
this study uses multi-level periodic perturbation signals as the input signals for the
system [48].

3.3.1. Input-output data sets generation

The first stage in modeling of a spin coater's rotational speed is determining the
input and output data sets. Several multi-level periodic perturbation signals
(MLPPS) are prepared as input in the form of a PWM signal before it is used by
the Arduino microcontroller to drive the DC motor. The motor's rotational speed
detected by the rotary encoder sensor is utilized to obtain the real-time system
response. Real-time system response for each input signal is managed as the
corresponding output signal pair. Thus, there are four data sets, each containing
input and output signal pairs, as depicted [49].

The input signal has a period Δt of 3 seconds, which is determined based on

the settling time of the system defined from a given step input. With 15 times
repetitions, the time spent for an input signal is 45 seconds. The PWM value that
can be implemented into the spin coater system is limited from 0 to 255 because
the signal used to drive a DC motor is an 8-bit PWM signal. In figure 3.6. shows
that has input-output data sets generation presented.
 40

Fig 3.6. input-output data sets generation

3.3.2. Estimation of the Mathematical Model

Mathematical model estimation for the spin coater system was conducted
using four generated data sets. Transfer function and state-space structures are
utilized in this study since these structures have been considered by several studies
for a system with DC motor as the actuator. Four structures were built to express
the system's model utilizing each data set; they are continuous transfer function,
discrete transfer function, continuous state-space, and discrete statespace. Hence,
there are sixteen candidates of models obtained from the estimation stage [50].

Model structures was arranged based on the differential equations of DC

motor. It was started from physical equations for mechanical and electrical parts of
DC motor, as listed in Eq. (3.2) and (3.3), respectively, with K is motor torque and
electromotive force constant, i(t)is armature current, b is motor viscous friction
constant, ω(t)is rotational speed of DC motor, J is moment of inertia of the rotor,
V(t) represents voltage source, L is electric inductance, and R is electric resistance.

dω(t )
Ki(t )−bω( t)= J
dt (3.2)

di( t )
v ( t)− kω( t )= L + Ri(t )
dt (3.3)
 41

d [ ω(t ) ¿ ] ¿
¿ ¿
dt ¿ (3.4)

y = [1 0] ¿ [ ω(t) ¿] ¿ ¿
¿
From Eq. (3.2) and (3.3), we can obtain general state-space model of DC motor
with ω(t) as the output and V(t) as the input, as written in Eq. (3.4). Thus, it can be
converted into discrete form with respect to Eq. (3.5), as shown in Eq. (3.6), with T
represents sampling time and k ∈ Z+. Eq. (3.2) and (3.3) can be transformed into
mathematical model in the form of continuous transfer function as presented in Eq.
(3.7). Utilizing forward rule method, Eq. (3.7) can be restructured into Eq. (3.8)
that explains transfer function of DC motor in a discrete domain [51]. Those four
model structures of DC motor as shown in Eq. (3.4)-(3.8) are considered general
equations for estimation process model conducted in this work.

−b k
[
A=¿ J J ¿ ¿ ¿¿ ]
¿ (3.5)

[ ω ( (k + 1 ) T ) ¿ ] ¿ ¿ ¿
¿ (3.6)

y=[ 0 1 ] ¿ [
ω( kT ) ¿ ] ¿
¿
¿
K
ω( s ) LJ
=
V ( s)
(
s2 + Lb+
RJ
LJ)s+ Rb +
K2
KJ (3.7)
 42

K
ω( s ) LJ
=
V ( s)
( ) ( )( )
2
1 RJ 1 K2
z− + Lb+ z− + Rb +
T LJ T LJ (3.8)

3.3.3. Evaluation of the Obtained Models

Each candidate obtained from the previous step was validated with all predefined
input-output pairs derived from a real-time measurement. Each validation resulted
in fitness percentage that indicates the closeness of performances between obtained
models and the physical system. Eq. (3.9) shows how the percentage value was
obtained, where p̂ is the model output signal, p is the physical output, and p̅ is its
mean. The higher the fitness value, the closer the candidate model to the real
system.

% fitness=100׿¿ (3.9)
n
1
MSE= ∑ ¿ ¿ ¿
n i =1 (3.10)

For every structure, a candidate with the best fitness percentage mean is
considered as the most appropriate candidate. Thus, four best candidates from four
model structures are then evaluated by comparing one to another through the value
of mean squared error (MSE). Eq. (3.10) explains how the MSE value is obtained,
with n represents the number of data for the output signal. The smaller the mean
squared error, the better the candidate model resembles the system's dynamic
behavior. The chosen model is the candidate with the lowest MSE value [52].

3.4.TEMPERATURE SENSOR WITH ARDUINO

 43

Potential transformer is used to measure the voltage and it is placed in

parallel to the load. This transformer is acting like voltage sensor. Primary side
voltage of P.T is 220V and secondary side voltage is 6V.Using bridge rectifier DB
107 AC voltages is converter into DC voltage and attached to the analog pin of
microcontroller. Variable resistor is used for calibration purposes. Real time
picture and voltage sensing circuit [53]. In figure 3.7. shows that has been Voltage
Sensing Circuit presented.

Fig 3.7. Voltage Sensing Circuit

Purpose of relay is to disconnect the load in abnormal condition. The relay

circuit is connected to Arduino Board with using of opto-coupler (pc817). Opto-
coupler is used for the isolation purpose and it protects the microcontroller from
high voltage spikes. In the relay circuit a transistor (945) is used to operate the
relay. As the Arduino output pin become high, the relay circuit will operate and
trips the load. Real time picture and relay circuit [54]. In figure 3.8. shows that has
been Temperature sensor interfacing with Arduino presented.
 44

Fig 3.8. Temperature sensor interfacing with Arduino

Thermistor is inexpensive and easily-obtainable temperature sensors. it is

very easy to use and adaptable. Circuits with thermistor can have reasonable output
voltages not the mVoutputs thermocouples have. Because of these qualities
thermistor are widely used for simple temperature measurements. Thermistors are
not used for high temperatures. Resistor of 10 k-ohms is used to linearize the
output of thermistor [55].

3.5. ARDUINO PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

Code :

void setup() {

// set pin 13 as an output

pinMode(13, OUTPUT);
 45

void loop() {

// turn the LED on

digitalWrite(13, HIGH);

// wait for a second

delay(1000);

// turn the LED off

digitalWrite(13, LOW);

// wait for a second

delay(1000);

The setup() function is called once at the beginning of the program. It sets
pin 13 as an output, which means it can control an LED. The loop() function is
called repeatedly after the setup() function has finished. In essence, it turns the
LED on by setting pin 13 to HIGH, waits for a second using the delay() function,
turns the LED off by setting pin 13 to LOW, and then waits for another second.
This causes the LED to blink on and off every second [56].

3.6.CONCLUSION

Design the system that contains of many sensor using Arduino such as
smoke detector, temperature sensor, and photoresistor sensor. This control
 46

reinterpreted many features to the home make it the ideal home that most
companies aspics to design, which is more secure and energy efficient to be the
home of future.

The brief conclusion is described as follow. The lesson plan which used in
three meetings was constructed to have the characteristic of Arduino. Even the step
of introducing YWRobot and Arduino Uno in the first meeting is missed, but the
rest of the learning activity which started in three lesson plans were conducted
adequately in the class. In addition, thermistor implementation was conducted in
only three meetings and discontinuously. Therefore, science, technology,
engineering, and technology literacy regarding electricity topic are emphasized less
optimally.
 47

CHAPTER 4

Development of Thin Film Using Arduino Uno Controller with Optimization

Algorithm in Medical Application

Discovering and optimizing commercially viable materials for clean energy

applications typically takes more than a decade. Self-driving laboratories that
iteratively design, execute, and learn from materials science experiments in a fully
autonomous loop present an opportunity to accelerate this research process. The
applicability in real samples was performed by studying the glucose in the
presence of fetal bovine serum. Most commonly found interfering agents were
used for interference studies, which confirmed the capacitive nano-sensor
specificity. This chapter presents an improved teaching– learning-based
optimization algorithm (ITLBO) for designing and implementing the dye
sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) module. The proposed algorithm is based on a
population-based optimization algorithm to design a thin films controller based on
Arduino microcontroller. A modification in the teaching–learning-based
optimization algorithm is considered where the best learner is considered as a
teacher in the learner phase. The ITLBO algorithm is physically implemented with
Arduino Uno microcontroller which is presented as an open source.

4.1. DESIGN OF THIN FILM

The comer stone of thin-film TECs is the performance of TE thin films, as the
enhancement of the properties of this thin film is an essential condition for the
fabrication of thin-film TECs. Furthermore, it has also been predicted to have a
higher ZT value compared with conventional bulk materials. For a specific TEC,
 48

the maximum coefficient of performance ( COP max ) acquired by an optimized current

value ( I η ) can be approximately given by :

TH
√1+ ZT −
TC TC
COPmax = .
T H −T C √1+ ZT +1 (4.1)

Where T C is the cold side temperature of the TEC and T H is the hot side
temperature, and ZT is the dimensionless figure of merit, as defined in Eqn (4.2):

2
S σT
ZT =
k (4.2)

Where S is Seebeck coefficient, σ is electrical conductivity, T is absolute

temperature and k is thermal conductivity. Equation (1) shows that the COPmax rise

as the ZT rises. Furthermore the ideal cannot COP is reached when ZT is infinite.

Consequently, pursuing higher ZT value is crucial method to improve TECs. With

regard to TE thin films, the quantum-well structure enhances ZT by changing the
electronic density of state [30]. Moreover the size effect also enhances phonon
scattering at interfaces of the thin film and leads to the reduction of thermal
conductivity and eventually improves ZT of the materials. Nevertheless, since the
measurement of thermal conductivity in cross-plane direction is still in question, it
is hard to obtain the accurate ZT value. Consequently, the Seebeck coefficient,
electrical conductivity and power factor are usually comprehensively used to
evaluate the performance of TE thin films.

Since TECs are mainly used at room temperature, (Bi,Sb) 2 (Te,Se)3 solid solution
materials, the best TE materials at room temperature, have drawn great attentions.
For now, to acquire high performance (Bi,Sb)2 (Te,Se)3 based thin films, many
 49

fabrication methods, such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), PVD and electro-
deposition, have been investigated.

4.1.1. Chemical vapor deposited thin films

CVD is a deposition method that has been widely used in the production of thin
films in semiconductor industry. This method uses one or several volatile
precursors to react on the surface of the substrate to form thin films. For the
deposition of TE thin films, metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD),
which has the advantage in producing complex multilayer structures, has been
intensively studied [40].

4.1.2. Physical vapor deposited thin films

The most usually used PVD methods are vacuum evaporation and sputtering.
Vacuum evaporation is a low-cost and technically mature method, and has been
extensively used in microelectronics process. In terms of TE thin films, vacuum
evaporation has been applied to deposit bismuth telluride-based compounds with
different shapes. More exactly, by controlling the deposition rate, the degree of
super saturation can be controlled. Low super saturation leads to the flake growing
of the thin films, whilst medium super saturation results in the growth of nano-
wires, and high super saturation makes films grow into multi-layers.

4.1.3. Electrodeposited thin films

Electrodeposition is a process based on electrolysis principle to deposit thin

films or coatings. It is an industrially promising method in producing TE thin
films, as it is able to deposit thin films with high deposition rate and low cost at
near room temperature with controllable morphologies and crystal structures. For
now, it has been widely investigated to make bismuth telluride based thin films by
 50

electrodeposition. For instance, Kim and Oh manufactured the electrodeposited

thermopiles made by Bi-Te and Sb-Te films with 2μm in thickness and 50μm in
width. After that, they electrodeposited 242 pairs of Bi 2Te3 and Sb2Te3 thin-film
legs and connected them to form a TE device [55]. The SEM pictures of the
electrodeposited thin-film legs has been shown in figure 4.1 and 4.2 respectively.

Fig. 4.1. Schematic diagram of the effect of argon pressure in the

deposition of Sb2Te3 film. (a) Under low Ar pressure condition, (b) under
high Ar pressure condition
 51

Fig. 4.2. Schematic diagrams of the growth mechanism of Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3

thin films

4.1.4. Thin Film Characterization

To study the speed and acceleration effects on the Pt thin films distribution, a
camera from (Huawei Honor 10i) with resolution of (24 megapixels) was used to
capture the thin film photographs. The distribution of the prepared thin film was
simulated using Origin program. FESEM measurements were performed by using
a FEI Nova NanoSEM 450 to verify the structure morphology of Pt thin films. UV-
Vis device (EMC-LAB VIS-1100 Spectrophotometer) was utilized to investigate
the optical transmittance of the prepared samples [41]. The transmittance was
measured at wavelength of 550 nm hence it considered the suitable wavelength for
testing the transparency of CE of dye sensitized solar cells (DSSCs).

4.2. PROPOSED ITLBO CONTROL ALGORITHM BASED DYE

SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS

The closed loop improvement of solar tracker blocks diagram is described in

Figure 4.3. The main aim is to get the largest perpendicularity between the incident
sun rays and the panel photovoltaic surface. Controller feedback is depending on
platform of Arduino and the sensors are depending on LDR sensors and
operational amplifier. The comparator input is the output intensity and LDR
sensors are received the amplified and feedback generated error voltage which is
variance between North-South and East-West response sensors and this leads to
imbalance case. These radiation variations with activity of two-by-two effect on
the comparator and make it sense, actuator linear being extended rod or back move
to get maximum performance in movement elevation or allows the driver is turning
by means of servo motor for effectiveness improving in movement of azimuth. The
 52

controller makes panel of photovoltaic and radiation solar monitored by sending

differential signal when occurs the difference that allows change in position of
solar panel until obtained zero error voltage practically. All data pair (elevation and
azimuth) apprehend and stored by platform of Arduino and after that being
explicated, it activities motors movement.

Figure 4.3. Block diagram of proposed closed loop dye sensitized solar cells-
based control algorithm

4.2.1. The proposed improved teaching–learning-based optimization

algorithm

The drawbacks of the conventional TLBO algorithm can be summarized as

follows: (i) It is based on the fact that a learner improves his performances and
results either via the teacher in classroom or via the interaction with other learners.
This process requires more efforts from the teacher to improve the learners’ results,
and this may cause slow convergence rate in an optimization problem; (ii) it is not
compatible with what happens in real classroom as the conventional TLBO
neglects the new knowledge which the learners gain during the tutorial hours
 53

through the discussions between the teacher and other learners especially the first
student who is the second best one after the teacher. Also in the learner phase, the
teacher does not exist with the learners and the learning process occurs via the
interaction between the learners. The effect of the teacher is neglected, but in the
traditional teaching–learning process, the teacher effect appears on the first learner
more than other learners [29].

To overcome these drawbacks, the proposed modifications are based on

adding a new factor to represent the effect of the first learner discussion with
teacher in the teacher phase and considering that this learner acts as a teacher in the
learner phase to help in producing a fast response. The implementation steps of the
proposed ITLBO are shown in the flowchart in Fig. 7 where the algorithm starts
with random learners and then determines the teacher based on determining the
best value of fitness function and starting updating the learners marks according to
the following updating equations:

In the teacher phase,

X new ; i= F∗ X old ; i +diff mean

i (4.3)

Ti
F=
Where besti

In learner phase by selecting two random learners (Xi) and (Xj)

If f(Xi)>f(Xj)

X new ; i = X old ;i +r i∗( X i + X j )+ω∗(best−X j ) (4.4)

else

X new ; i = X old ;i +r i∗( X j− X i ) +ω (best−X i )

(4.5)
 54

end

where ω is the weight value to indicate the effect of teacher in the learners.

Fig. 4.3. Proposed ITLBO implementation steps

4.4. COMPUTATIONAL PINHOLE SPECTRAL IMAGING

 55

Furthermore, we demonstrated spectral imaging using the MTF filter array. As

shown in Fig. 4.4(a), the pinhole imaging system was constructed by combining a
pinhole (Edmund optics), whose aperture diameter is 150 μm, with the
monochrome CMOS image camera [22]. Te MTF filter array was placed in front
of the pinhole. A single filter was adjusted to the pinhole to allow an incident
image to pass through the filter and pinhole, and the filtered image was measured
by the CMOS image sensor.

Figure 4.4. Computational pinhole spectral imaging. (a) Schematic of pinhole

imaging; Te MTF flter array is placed in front of the pinhole camera. A single
flter is adjusted to the pinhole and the fltered image is acquired. By changing
flters, 36 fltered images are obtained. (b) 36 fltered images of 8×8 LED matrix
showing the number “8”. Te upper part consists of green LEDs and the lower
part consists of red LEDs. (c) Point-wise spectral reconstruction: a pixel of a
green LED block and a red LED block which are denoted in (b). Solid light
gray lines represent error between reconstructed and reference. (d)
 56

Monochrome image of reference and reconstructed monochrome images at

571, 600 and 638 nm, respectively

By changing flters using a linear translation stage (Newport), 36 fltered images are
obtained. Bi-Color 8×8 LED matrix (Adafruit) was used to generate a target. We
made a small display by connecting the LED matrix to an Arduino Uno (Arduino)
and by controlling the color of the 64 blocks. Te number “8” was represented by
the LED cube. Te upper blocks consist of green LEDs, and the lower blocks
consist of red LEDs. Figure 4.4(b) shows a stack of the fltered 36 sub-images. A
1280×1024 size image was reduced to a sub-image size of 350×300 by discarding
unnecessary pixels. Tus, a data cube with 350×300×36 in size was obtained.
Spectral reconstruction was performed for each pixel, and the data cube was
restored with a size of 350×300×350. It took~1.8 h to reconstruct the data cube. As
shown in Fig. 6c, the reference spectra measured by the grating-based spectrometer
are shown in solid black lines. As denoted pixels in Fig. 6b, the reconstructed
spectra of a pixel in the green LED block and a pixel in the red LED block are
represented in Fig. 4.4(c) as green circles and red circles, respectively. Te RMSE
was calculated afer normalizing reference spectra and reconstructed spectra. Te
green LED with an FWHM of 15 nm was reconstructed with an RMSE of 0.0315.
Te red LED with an FWHM of 20 nm was reconstructed with an RMSE of 0.0370.
Figure 4.4(d) shows the monochrome image of reference and reconstructed
monochrome images at 571, 600, and 638 nm. Te pinhole imaging system also
measured the monochrome image of reference without the MTF flter array. Since
the spectral component of the red LED does not exist at 571 nm, only the upper
blocks of the number “8” are shown in the reconstructed monochrome image at
571 nm. On the other hand, only the lower blocks of the number “8” are shown in
the reconstructed monochrome image at 638 nm, where the spectral component of
 57

the green LED does not exist. Finally, nothing is displayed in the reconstructed
monochrome image at 600 nm, where spectral components of the green and red
LED do not exist. Preparing samples that coated by manufactured device are
shown in figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5. Prepared Samples with different thicknesses: a) 85 nm b)105 nm

c)150nm
 58

Fig. 4.6. a GUI of Arduino software with TLBO MPPT code. b Arduino Uno
board

Fig 4.7. ITLBO circuit diagram and its output display

Figure 4.6 shows the Arduino Uno board and its interface, and Fig. 4.7 shows the
circuit diagram of simulation setup of ITLBO algorithm.

4.5. CONCLUSION

A low-cost spin coater machine was successfully fabricated for depositing thin
films of polymers, metals, inorganic, or even organic materials. The manufactured
vacuum holder substrate provided a free dimension substrate with good adhesion at
high-speed rotation. The rotation speed and acceleration of the spin coater machine
play an important role to determine the shape, thickness and quality of the prepared
thin films. The optimum conditions were determined to produce a homogeneous
platinum thin film. The present study highlighted the fabrication of simple, low
cost and accurate technique to prepare thin films. Here, smart optimization of PV
panel output using a ITLBO based solar system. The application of ITLBO is to
ensure that DC motors only move the panel when the irradiance level is below the
assigned number to generate enough electricity.
 59

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

5.1. CONCLUSION

Spin-coating is a simple, time-efficient, and cost-effective technique to produce

well-defined polymer thin films. As a coating technique, it has been around for
almost a century. Yet, spin coated FS films have only been developed in the past
ten years due to the development of methods to detach the nano-to micro thick film
from the substrate, such as the sacrificial layer method and the supporting film
method. Due to its irreplaceable application in thermal management of
microelectronics, the thin-film TEC has aroused widely interests.

In this work, spin coater with thin film designed via Arduino board based on
improved teaching–learning-based optimization algorithm (ITLBO) was developed
and implemented. A modification was introduced in the learner phase by adding
the effect of an alternative teacher that is the best student as well as the effect of his
discussions with the teacher in the teacher phase so as to improve the performance
of a conventional TLBO algorithm. Important parameters and nonideal effects in
thin film coolers have been discussed through experimental and simulation results.
A three-dimensional finite element simulation has been developed and used to
determine the dominating nonideal mechanisms for thin film coolers and the
impact of changing device characteristics. A one-dimensional simulation was also
developed using three-dimensional spreading resistance values obtained from the
three-dimensional model. Contact resistance, finite thermal resistance of substrate
 60

and heat sink, and heat generation in wire bonds have all been identified as
limitations in thin film cooler performance. The speed in the range 2000-3500 rpm
was monitored and controlled by the microcontroller ATM 328. Uniform films
with various thicknesses have been successfully prepared and tested. The strong
dependence of the thin film thickness versus the spin speed was shown. The
uniform and homogenous TiO2 films were used as photoanode in dye sensitized
solar cells. The main advantages of these instruments are their low cost and
uniform prepared films. This system can be improved by automating the injection
system through a LabVIEW graphical interface. It can be preprogrammed to
deposit a multiple number of layers, with a control of the dispensed solvent
volume, and the substrate spin rate of each step. This system will offer the
opportunity to fabricate polymer-clay nanocomposites, with a high structure order.

5.2. Scope for the future work

 The most important challenge to fabricate novel thermoelectric micro-scale

devices is reliable deposition of high-quality thermoelectric materials on a
variety of substrates. Further research is necessary to optimize the co-
evaporation conditions for binary and especially ternary (Bi,Sb)Te based TE
film for specific device structure. Since the grain size of ternary thin film is
smaller than that of binary TE films, the effect of post-deposition annealing
to improve the power factor of (BiSb)2Te3 should be investigated.
 Further improvement in the cell performance can be achieved by tailoring
the optoelectronic and electrical characteristics of the absorber material
(ICIS) of the photoelectrode as required for optimum solar energy capture
and conversion.
 61

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