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Perspective on Cadmium and Lead in Cocoa and Chocolate
Eileen Abt* and Lauren Posnick Robin
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ABSTRACT: Cocoa and chocolate can contain cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) from natural and anthropogenic sources. This
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perspective provides background on the origin, occurrence, and factors affecting Cd and Pb levels in chocolate products as well as
ongoing international efforts to mitigate Cd and Pb in these popular foods, particularly the higher Cd levels observed in some cocoa
and chocolate originating from parts of Latin America. Information on factors contributing to higher Cd levels in Latin America,
including elevated soil Cd, is increasing, but more work is needed to identify successful mitigation methods.
KEYWORDS: cadmium, lead, cocoa, chocolate, mitigation
■ INTRODUCTION
Cocoa and chocolate are products manufactured from dried
and fermented cocoa beans, the seeds of the cacao tree,
Theobroma cacao L. The cacao tree is a perennial that grows in
tropical regions (within 10° North and 10° South of the
equator), primarily in West Africa (e.g., Côte d’Ivoire and
Ghana), Latin America (e.g., Brazil, Ecuador, and Peru), and
Southeast Asia (e.g., Indonesia and Papua New Guinea).
Cocoa beans from West Africa constitute about 75% of the
international cocoa bean supply.1,2 Cocoa production has huge
economic significance, especially in developing countries. In
certain regions of Latin America, cocoa has successfully
replaced coca (the crop used to make cocaine).3
There are four major cocoa cultivars for chocolate
production: Criollo, Forastero, Nacional, and Trinitario.
These cultivars, which grow in various geographic areas, have
cocoa beans with differing flavor profiles. The Forastero
cultivar, which comprises the majority of cocoa beans
produced, is primarily cultivated in West Africa, with some
cultivation in Latin America. The Criollo, Nacional, and
Trinitario cultivars, which grow in Latin America, are known
for their “fine flavor” and make up about 5% of the
international supply of cocoa beans.1,4
Fine flavor cocoas are known for their desirable taste and
color. The fine flavor cocoas are used to produce gourmet dark
chocolate with a higher percent cocoa content, including
single-origin niche products.1,5 Cocoa bean flavor is a key
characteristic of cocoa and chocolate quality and depends
largely upon bean genotype as well as postharvest treatment
and industrial processing.4
There are frequent reports of the detection of the metals
cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) in cocoa and chocolate products.
These metals come from natural and anthropogenic sources in
the environment and from processing. Pb exposure is
associated with various health effects that include neurological
and behavioral effects, hypertension and other cardiovascular
effects, and reduced renal function.6,7 Elevated blood Pb levels
in children can be associated with neurodevelopmental effects.6
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Article Recommendations
The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has
published a guidance document, Guidance for Industry: Lead
in Candy Likely To Be Consumed by Small Children, which
recommends a maximum level (ML) for Pb in candy, including
chocolate candy, of 0.1 mg/kg.8
Long-term dietary exposure to elevated levels of Cd is most
strongly associated with adverse effects on the kidneys in
humans, including decreased kidney function.9,10 In 2013, the
Joint Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)/World
Health Organization (WHO) Expert Committee on Food
Additives (JECFA) assessed Cd in chocolate and cocoa
products (as well as Cd from other foods). JECFA estimated
the potential dietary exposure to Cd from all foods, including
for high consumers of products containing cocoa and its
derivatives, and concluded that, for these high consumers of
cocoa and cocoa products, Cd consumption was 30−69% of
the provisional tolerable monthly intake (PTMI) (25 μg/kg of
body weight) for adults and 96% of the PTMI for children
aged 0.5−12 years. The committee noted that “this total Cd
dietary exposure for high consumers of cocoa and cocoa
products was likely to be overestimated and did not consider it
to be of concern”.11
The FDA estimated dietary exposure of children to Cd and
Pb from 2014 to 2016 based on Cd and Pb concentration data
from the FDA Total Diet Study and food consumption data
from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
and determined that dietary Cd and Pb from all sweets (i.e.,
candy, gelatin, jelly, sugar, and syrup), including chocolate,
comprises 1.2 and 3.5% of total dietary intake, respectively.12
On the basis of this analysis, cocoa and chocolate were not
Special Issue: Highlights of AGFD program at 258th
ACS National Meeting, San Diego
Received: December 30, 2019
Revised: April 15, 2020
Accepted: April 15, 2020
Published: April 15, 2020
https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.9b08295
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Figure 1. Major steps in industrial cocoa and chocolate production.
major sources of Cd and Pb dietary exposure relative to all
foods.
There is considerable interest in understanding and
addressing the presence of Cd and Pb in cocoa and chocolate,
particularly Cd, because Cd levels in cocoa beans from certain
areas of Latin America can be higher than in beans from other
regions worldwide. Chocolate products made from these beans
can exceed existing limits set by various national authorities,
including the European Union, hampering trade. This
perspective provides an overview of cocoa and chocolate
production, reviews factors that influence the levels of Cd and
Pb in cocoa beans and chocolate, and describes ongoing
research to mitigate the presence of these toxic elements.
■ COCOA AND CHOCOLATE PRODUCTION
The primary steps of cocoa and chocolate production are
shown in Figure 1. After harvesting and removal from pods, the
pulp- or mucilage-covered cocoa beans are fermented and
dried prior to processing.1 Fermentation, a 3−5 day process, is
responsible in part for producing the flavor notes in chocolate.
During processing, the cocoa beans are cleaned by various
means, including sieving, aspiration, and magnets to remove
dust, stones, and pieces of metal or other debris. Subsequently,
shells are removed, and beans are broken (winnowing) into
smaller fragments known as cocoa nibs. Beans and nibs are
roasted to develop their flavors and then ground and heated to
produce cocoa liquor.13
Cocoa liquor is an intermediate product, which is
subsequently processed into a non-fat component, cocoa
solids, and a fat component, cocoa butter.13 Various portions
of cocoa liquor, cocoa solids, and cocoa butter are combined
with other ingredients, for example, sugar, vanilla, and milk, to
make finished chocolate products. Processors may combine
different sources and amounts of these raw materials to
produce the finished product.1 Some producers identify the
percent cocoa on the label of chocolate products. The percent
cocoa on a label can indicate either non-fat cocoa solids or
total (i.e., fat and non-fat) cocoa solids. The fact that percent
cocoa labeling may refer to either non-fat or total cocoa solids
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is an important factor to consider when evaluating Cd and Pb
levels in retail products in relation to labeled percent cocoa.
Data on cocoa bean processing indicate that Cd partitions
mainly into the non-fat cocoa solids, while Pb partitions into
both the non-fat and fat cocoa solids, with a smaller percentage
(10−15%) partitioning into the fat solids (cocoa butter).14
While both Cd and Pb levels are higher in dark chocolate than
milk chocolate, because dark chocolate contains more non-fat
cocoa solids, Cd concentrations are more strongly correlated
with non-fat cocoa solids than Pb concentrations, as a result of
the partitioning of Cd primarily into these non-fat cocoa solids.
■ OCCURRENCE OF CD AND PB IN COCOA AND
CHOCOLATEINFLUENCE OF PERCENT COCOA
AND GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN
Two well-documented factors influencing Cd and Pb in cocoa
and chocolate are the percent cocoa content of the product
and the origin of the cocoa beans. A number of studies have
demonstrated a moderate to strong correlation between Cd
and Pb levels and percent cocoa.15−18 For example, Villa et al.
analyzed Cd and Pb in Brazilian chocolate and observed
correlations between Cd and Pb levels and percent cocoa, with
R2 values of 0.907 and 0.955, respectively.17 Abt et al.
examined 126 cocoa and chocolate product samples from
Africa, Latin America, and unidentified origins and found
Spearman correlations between percent cocoa content (on the
basis of product label) and Cd and Pb to be 0.71 and 0.52,
respectively.15 Similarly, other published literature has reported
higher levels of Cd and Pb in dark chocolate than milk
chocolate, which is attributed to the higher percent cocoa
solids in dark chocolate.15,17,19
Geographic origin has also been shown to influence Cd and
Pb levels in cocoa and chocolate. Table 1 summarizes findings
from studies that examined both Cd and Pb levels in cocoa and
chocolate, including information on the geographic origin of
cocoa beans.
In general, cocoa and chocolate from Latin America (with
the exception of Brazil) have higher Cd levels than products
from Africa, while Cd levels in products from Asia tend to fall
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Table 1. Summary of Selected Studies Examining Cd and Pb Concentrations in Cocoa and Chocolate Products Including
Information on the Geographic Origina
mean ± standard deviation (n), unless otherwise noted
Cd (μg/kg) Pb (μg/kg)
study product type Africa Asia Latin America Africa Asia Latin America
Abt et al.15 milk chocolate 42.3 ± 24.9 97.0 ± 96.4 11.0 ± 8.9 13.9 ± 19.4
(n = 7) (n = 12) (n = 7) (n = 12)
dark chocolate 105.4 ± 107.3 424.7 ± 292.4 27.2 ± 13.7 24.9 ± 25.7
(n = 8) (n = 26) (n = 8) (n = 26)
cocoa nibs 621.2 ± 384.6 3.6 ± 4.2
(n = 7) (n = 7)
cocoa powder 122.7 ± 196.2 1349.8 ± 919.7 61.9 ± 51.4 170.1 ± 121.7
(n = 6) (n = 13) (n = 6) (n = 13)
Abt et al.22 milk chocolate 151.4 ± 195.6 20.1 ± 7.7
(n = 6) (n = 6)
dark chocolate 164.4 ± 141.7 24.2 ± 14.7
(n = 10) (n = 10)
cocoa nibs 331.1 10.7
(n = 1) (n = 1)
cocoa powder 403.8 ± 88.2 196.4 ± 203.4
(n = 3) (n = 3)
Bertoldi et al.20 dark chocolate 144 615 ± 398 8.3 23.5 ± 25.0
(n = 1) (n = 8) (n = 1) (n = 8)
West Africa South America West Africa South America
dark chocolate 201 ± 31 142 ± 51 19.7 ± 7.9 11.0 ± 8.1
(n = 2) (n = 2) (n = 2) (n = 2)
East Africa Central America East Africa Central America
Dahiya et al.23 chocolate 244 (10−2730)b 1915 (236−8040)b
(n = 23) (n = 23)
Indiac Indiac
Devi et al.24 chocolate 190 ± 270 1820 ± 1340
(n = 22) (n = 22)
Indiac Indiac
Iwegbue44 chocolate 70 ± 60d 80 ± 80d
Nigeria Nigeria
Jalbani et al.25 chocolate 353 ± 25 2480 ± 190
(n = 20) (n = 20)
Pakistanc Pakistanc
Lee and Low19 chocolate 320 1500
(milk/dark) (n = 18) (n = 18)
Malaysia Malaysia
Mounicou et al.14 cocoa powder 133 ± 20 602 ± 73 125 ± 7 52 ± 10 229 ± 69 150 ± 9
(n = 3) (n = 7) (n = 1)e (n = 3) (n = 7) (n = 1)e
Ghana Malaysia Bahia, Brazil Ghana Malaysia Bahia, Brazil
cocoa powder 94 ± 14 170 ± 25 191 ± 39 769 ± 154
(n = 3) (n = 1)e (n = 3) (n = 1)e
Ivory Coast Habuna, Brazil Ivory Coast Habuna, Brazil
cocoa powder 738 ± 53 197 ± 0
(n = 1)e (n = 1)e
Ecuador Ecuador
cocoa powder 533 ± 16 11 ± 3
(n = 1)e (n = 1)e
El Oro, Ecuador El Oro, Ecuador
cocoa powder 1833 ± 20 173 ± 12
(n = 3) (n = 3)
Venezuela Venezuela
Vanderschueren et al.21 chocolate 200 ± 110 120 ± 70 330 ± 300 <20f <20f 20f
(n = 33) (n = 14) (n = 22) (n = 33) (n = 14) (n = 22)
Central America Central America
chocolate 580 ± 520 <LOQf
(n = 69) (n = 69)
South America South America

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Table 1. continued
mean ± standard deviation (n), unless otherwise noted
Cd (μg/kg)
study product type Africa Asia
Villa et al.17 milk chocolate
dark chocolate
a
Continent of origin is noted in publications. Information on region/country of origin of cocoa beans is provided here when noted in publications.
b
minimum−maximum. cPublication indicates that products were purchased locally, but origin of cocoa beans is not indicated. dSample size is not
specified. eEach sample is analyzed in duplicate or triplicate. fMedian. gMean of means is calculated for presentation in this table.
between those from Latin America and Africa.14,15,20−22
(Several studies have identified lower Cd concentrations in
cocoa beans and chocolate from Brazil compared to other areas
of Latin America.)14,17,20 In contrast, Pb concentrations do not
follow this same geographic pattern. For example, Bertoldi et
al. found that Cd levels in South American cocoa beans were
significantly higher than those in West African cocoa beans,
while there was no significant difference in Pb levels based on
geographic origin of cocoa beans.20 Bertoldi et al. stated that
Pb in chocolate may result primarily from production process
contamination, with a smaller Pb contribution from the raw
beans.20 Vanderschueren et al., who used elemental finger-
printing to trace the origin of chocolates, found that Latin
American chocolate had significantly higher levels of Cd in
comparison to African and Asian chocolates, while Pb levels
were not found to be associated with origin.21 Like Bertoldi et
al., Vanderschueren et al. concluded that Pb in chocolates
likely results from the production process instead of the cocoa
nibs.21 Several studies in Table 1 found Pb levels to be
substantially higher than Cd levels; these authors attributed the
higher Pb levels to contamination of raw materials (e.g., cocoa
beans) and contamination during manufacturing.19,23−25
Reasons for the geographic differences observed for Cd and
Pb levels in cocoa and chocolate are discussed below.
■
SOURCES OF CD AND PB CONTAMINATION AND
FACTORS AFFECTING CD AND PB LEVELS IN
COCOA BEANS
Cd and Pb in cocoa and chocolate come from both natural and
anthropogenic sources in the environment as well as from
processing. Soil Cd appears to be an important driver of Cd
levels in cocoa and chocolate. Soil Cd concentration may result
from geological sources, including volcanic sediments, mining
activities, and use of phosphate-based fertilizers or municipal
sludge in agriculture.14,26−28 Pb in soil may stem from naturally
occurring concentrations in areas where the cacao trees are
grown, agricultural practices (i.e., fertilizer application, use of
lead-containing pesticides, or soil amendments), and atmos-
pheric deposition of Pb from industrial or vehicular
emissions.29,30
The patterns of uptake of Cd and Pb from soils by cacao
trees are very different. Cd is more mobile in soils than Pb and
is readily absorbed by the cacao tree.31 The fraction of soil Cd
available to cacao trees for uptake (phytoavailability) depends
upon various factors that include soil pH, concentrations of
metals competing for uptake [e.g., zinc (Zn)], soil salinity (as a
result of chloride ions), soil organic matter, and metal-
adsorbing iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) hydrous oxides (see
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Pb (μg/kg)
Latin America Africa Asia Latin America
10.6g 27.6g
(n = 9) (n = 9)
Brazil Brazil
47.8g 68.5g
(n = 11) (n = 11)
Brazil Brazil
Table 2). Soil pH is considered the most important factor
affecting Cd phytoavailability; as soil pH increases, Cd
Table 2. Summary of Soil Properties and Agronomic
Factors Affecting Cd Concentrations
soil properties/
agronomic factors effect on the Cd concentration in cocoa beans
pH increase in soil pH decreases Cd absorption
salinity (chloride decrease in soil chloride concentration decreases
concentration) Cd absorption
soil zinc increase in soil Zn decreases Cd absorption
soil amendments addition of biochar/lime decreases Cd absorption
(biochar/lime)
soil cadmium increase in soil Cd increases plant Cd
concentration
solubility decreases. Optimal growth of cacao trees occurs at
a soil pH of 5.0−7.5,32 and when soil pH is greater than 6, Cd
binds with organic matter, Fe and Mn hydrous oxides, and clay
minerals in soil,31,33 reducing its phytoavailability. A number of
field studies have been conducted on cacao trees in
Ecuador,26,34 Honduras,27,35 Peru,36 and Trinidad and
Tobago,32,37 examining the relationship between soil and
agronomic factors and Cd phytoavailability. Adding liming
material, an alkaline substance comprised of calcium carbonate
that increases the pH of soil, can decrease soil Cd
phytoavailability, thus reducing Cd concentrations in cacao
trees.32,37,38 However, the addition of liming material to soil
can also reduce Zn phytoavailability.
Zn is chemically similar to Cd and competes with Cd for
uptake by the cacao tree. Uptake of Cd depends upon Zn soil
content, and cacao trees take up more Cd when the soil
content of Zn is lower. Thus, Zn soil content can be increased
to reduce Cd uptake by cacao trees.38 Soil salinity (specifically
chloride ions) also plays a role in Cd solubility, and tree uptake
of Cd is thought to be greater with increased chloride
concentrations based on studies in other crops.39 Use of soil
organic matter (e.g., livestock manure and biochar) has been
shown to reduce Cd mobility through adsorption or complex-
ation of Cd on the soil organic matter.40 Recent application of
Cd isotope analyses to assess Cd profiles and sources in soil in
Latin America may help provide additional information on
factors affecting Cd concentrations in cocoa beans, such as the
potential role of cocoa trees in concentrating Cd in the upper
soil layers.41
Pb, in contrast to Cd, has low soil mobility because Pb binds
strongly to organic and/or colloidal materials, although this
mobility may be affected by many variables, including pH,
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cation-exchange capacity, mineral content, and biological and
microbial conditions. Pb absorbed by the cacao tree may be
retained in the roots and may not always be translocated to the
rest of the tree.42,43
Pb contamination of cocoa beans after harvest occurs during
fermentation and drying (because cocoa beans may be exposed
to Pb-containing soil and dust or other atmospheric
emissions), during shelling and winnowing (because pieces
of cacao bean shells contaminated with Pb can contaminate the
product), and also during smaller scale manufacturing and
storage processes that may not comply with good manufactur-
ing practices (because manufacturing equipment and storage
containers for chocolate may contain Pb soldering).23,30,44
■ INTERNATIONAL INTEREST IN CD AND PB LEVELS
The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) is an interna-
tional organization with the mission to protect the health of
consumers and to ensure fair practices in food trade. The
Codex Committee on Contaminants in Foods (CCCF), a
subsidiary committee of the CAC, establishes MLs and
develops codes of practice related to contaminants in foods,
including Pb and Cd.
In 2004, Codex published a code of practice (COP) that
recommends agricultural and manufacturing techniques for the
prevention and reduction of Pb contamination in foods, which
includes recommendations relevant to cocoa and chocolate,
including avoiding the use of leaded gasoline by farmers and
processors, selecting food ingredients with low Pb levels, and
avoiding use of Pb soldering in food processing and storage
equipment.45 Recently, Codex approved new work for revision
of this COP to reflect recent information on sources of Pb in
food and updated measures for reducing Pb in food that have
become available since the COP was published in 2004.46
With respect to Cd, since 2015, the CCCF has been working
to develop MLs for Cd in cocoa and chocolate (on the basis of
percent total cocoa solids). The push to develop MLs is driven
by economic considerations, because a lack of Cd MLs in
cocoa and chocolate is threatening exports, especially from
developing countries.47 This is in part because the European
Commission implemented MLs in January 2019 for Cd in
specific cocoa and chocolate products.48 Cocoa and chocolate
products that do not comply with these MLs are denied access
to European markets. Table 3 shows the MLs established by
the European Commission.
Table 3. European Commission Cd MLs in Chocolate and
Cocoa Products
European
Commission
European Commission food categories (MLs) (mg/kg)
≤30% total dry cocoa solids 0.10
from ≥30 to <50% total dry cocoa solids 0.30
≥50% total dry cocoa solids 0.80
cocoa powder sold to the final consumer or as an 0.60
ingredient in sweetened cocoa powder sold to the final
consumer (drinking chocolate)
To develop Codex MLs, CCCF has analyzed data on the
occurrence of Cd in cocoa and chocolate products submitted
by Codex member countries and observers and considered
various analytical approaches, including assessing possible MLs
by country and region of origin based on percent total cocoa
solids in chocolate products and considering occurrence data,
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intake data, percent of PTMI, and percent of possible rejected
samples. Since beginning its work, CCCF has established Cd
MLs for two categories of chocolate: from ≥50 to <70% total
cocoa solids on a dry matter basis (0.8 mg/kg) and ≥70% total
cocoa solids on a dry matter basis (0.9 mg/kg). Development
of additional Cd MLs is under consideration, and the
committee will consider the “concept of proportionality”
between the percent cocoa solids in the cocoa and chocolate
products under consideration and the proposed MLs.47
To complement the ML-related work, CCCF is also
developing a COP for the prevention and reduction of Cd
contamination in cocoa beans. This COP will help farmers,
primarily those in Latin America, affected by the elevated Cd
levels. The COP will address mitigation efforts during primary
production and postharvest (fermentation, drying, and
storage). Mitigation efforts during manufacturing and process-
ing of finished products (e.g., chocolates) will not be included,
because they are not sufficiently developed. The COP is
intended to reduce Cd contamination in cocoa beans and
finished products and will facilitate application and compliance
with Codex Cd MLs.46 The objective is to complete the COP
by 2021.
■
MITIGATION EFFORTS
Given the interest in reducing Cd concentrations in cocoa
beans, there has been increased research, conducted primarily
in Latin America, into developing Cd mitigation methods.
With respect to industry-supported research, as part of a legal
settlement, some chocolate manufacturers are required to
address Cd and Pb levels in their products, in part through the
work of an expert committee. This committee is tasked with
researching sources of Cd and Pb in chocolate products and
making recommendations on measures to reduce contaminant
levels in the products at each stage of production (i.e., growing,
harvesting, and fermentation; storage and transport of
fermented cocoa beans; and bean processing and chocolate
manufacturing);49 like the Codex COPs, this work may
support changes in growing and processing that lower Cd
and Pb levels.
Recent literature on Cd mitigation has focused on
agronomic practices in Latin America that affect the relation-
ship between soil Cd and Cd levels in cocoa beans,34,37 such as
reducing the mobility of Cd in the soil in order to reduce the
uptake of Cd by cacao trees.
One example of research is the use of soil amendments,
including biochar and liming materials, to reduce the
phytoavailability of soil Cd in Trinidad and Tobago.32,37
Liming materials together with organic matter increase the pH
of soil, while biochar, a form of wood charcoal with absorptive
properties, complexes Cd when biochar is mixed with soil.
Ramtahal et al. examined the effect of biochar and liming on
mitigating Cd bioaccumulation in cacao trees through
measurement of Cd leaf concentrations under in vitro,
greenhouse, and field conditions.37 (Significant correlations
between Cd cocoa leaf and Cd bean concentrations have been
reported in field studies in Ecuador and Trinidad and
Tobago.)34,50,51 Biochar and liming materials were found to
be effective at reducing Cd in leaves by reducing the
phytoavailability of Cd under in vitro and greenhouse
conditions; however, their effectiveness was reduced under
field conditions as a result of factors such as the landscape, soil
composition, climatic factors (e.g., rainfall), and tree factors
(e.g., root depth). The authors recommended additional
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studies on the timing for applying amendments, placement of
amendments (i.e., depth), and concomitant use of other
mitigation measures, such as low Cd-bioaccumulating
genotypes.
Zug et al. examined use of fertilizers and the diversity of
nearby vegetation on Cd concentrations in cacao trees grown
on farms in Peru.36 The authors found that reduction in
fertilizer use can mitigate Cd levels in cacao. This is attributed
to many factors, including reduced levels of Cd contributed by
fertilizers, reduced mobility of Cd in acidic soils (because some
fertilizers can increase acidity), and slower growth of the cacao
tree (resulting in less uptake of Cd). In addition, the authors
surmise that use of shade trees, in particular, banana plants,
may be a factor in phytoremediation as a result of the Cd
absorption by shade trees. Traditionally, cacao trees were
grown with shade trees (agroforestry), which may provide
benefits, such as increased Cd absorption by the shade trees,
protection from sunlight, and regulation of temperature and
humidity, but some modern production farms have switched
from agroforestry to monoculture. Some farmers are now
exploring returning to agroforestry. Gramlich et al. also
reported lower Cd content in cacao leaves from agroforestry
systems in Bolivia compared to Cd levels in cacao leaves from
monoculture systems.35 However, Zug et al. concluded that, in
addition to further examining the influences of fertilizers and
agroforestry, additional parameters that were not measured
(e.g., availability of soil nutrients) need to be assessed.36
Genetic strategies, through either breeding varieties of cacao
trees that take up less Cd or grafting with low-Cd-uptake
rootstocks, provide possible measures for reducing Cd levels in
cocoa products.52−54 For example, Lewis et al. demonstrated
that there was a 13-fold variation in Cd bean and 7-fold
variation in Cd leaf concentrations among 10 cacao tree
accessions (trees from the same species collected from one
location) grown in Trinidad, despite the fact that they were
grown in soil with the same Cd concentration.54
There has been less published on process mitigation
measures for Cd and Pb, aside from the industry practice of
combining cocoa beans from various geographic regions, which
can have a significant effect on reducing the Cd content in
cocoa and chocolate.1 The fermentation process, which
develops the flavors of the cocoa bean, may also help mitigate
Cd through fermentation-associated production of acids. Cd is
more soluble in acidic conditions, and this may promote Cd
migration from the cocoa nib. Vanderschueren et al. examined
the influence of fermentation on Cd distribution in cacao. The
authors found that Cd migration from nibs to the seed coat
(only nibs are used in production of cocoa and chocolate)
occurred if the pH of the nib dropped below 5 following
extended fermentation.55 Further research is needed to assess
the influence of nib pH on nib Cd levels and flavor (because
excessive fermentation can affect flavor).
Efforts have been made to understand the influence of
processing on the composition of Cd and Pb in cocoa beans
using analytical techniques to measure the concentrations of
Cd and Pb in various parts of the cocoa beans.14,18,56 However,
a study by Thyssen et al. used bioimaging with laser ablation−
inductively coupled plasma−triple quadrupole mass spectrom-
etry (LA−ICP−TQMS) to examine Pb and Cd distribution
(including that of other elements) in cocoa beans.57
Application of this technique may help shed light on the
influence of other cocoa processing steps, including drying,
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roasting, and winnowing, on the disposition of Cd and Pb in
cocoa beans and methods for mitigation.
■ DISCUSSION
Information on the occurrence of Cd and Pb in cocoa and
chocolate and the factors contributing to their occurrence is
increasing, but more work is needed to identify successful
mitigation methods. This is particularly relevant for Cd as a
result of the elevated concentrations of Cd in cocoa beans
originating from certain regions of Latin America and
international limits on Cd in cocoa and chocolate. Higher
Cd levels in cocoa beans have the potential to negatively
impact trade from Latin America, and this has motivated
mitigation research that may assist Latin American cocoa
producers. Pb in cocoa and chocolate may be best addressed
through good agricultural and manufacturing practices,
including those identified in the Codex COP on Pb reduction.
The U.S. Government has supported research to develop
methods to reduce Cd and Pb in cocoa,58 which may
encourage the growing of cocoa instead of coca.3
Because of the numerous factors affecting Cd levels in cocoa,
a combination of approaches may be needed for Cd mitigation.
Meter et al. have proposed a “mitigation hierarchy approach”
for reducing Cd in cocoa beans in Latin America and the
Caribbean that includes actions from farm to final product:5
(1) Avoiding high risk areas (where cocoa is known to
accumulate high concentrations of Cd) for starting new
plantations. (2) Minimizing the absorption of Cd by the cacao
tree through management of potential sources of Cd, including
fertilizer and use of soil amendments (e.g., liming materials,
Zn, and organic matter). (3) Reducing levels of Cd through
postharvest steps, including fermenting, drying, roasting, and
winnowing. However, considerable research is needed to better
understand the effectiveness of these mitigation steps and their
impact on cocoa beans. (4) Reducing Cd in cocoa and
chocolate through blending. Blending involves combining
cocoa beans from various geographic regions, which can
reduce Cd in cocoa and chocolate. However, blending cannot
be used to produce fine-flavored chocolates if they are sourced
from a specific region of Latin America.
Although JECFA concluded that total Cd dietary exposure
for high consumers of cocoa and chocolate products is not a
concern, there is still interest in reducing Cd in chocolate
products. For Pb, the FDA has stated that efforts to limit
consumer exposure in foods to the greatest extent feasible
should be pursued.59 Ongoing activities aimed at reducing
both Cd and Pb in chocolate products, including Codex work,
industry-sponsored research projects, and European Commis-
sion Cd MLs, will help accelerate efforts to develop mitigation
methods.
■
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
Eileen Abt − Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition,
United States Food and Drug Administration, College Park,
Maryland 20740, United States; orcid.org/0000-0002-
3314-1438; Phone: 240-402-1529; Email: eileen.abt@
fda.hhs.gov
Author
Lauren Posnick Robin − Center for Food Safety and Applied
Nutrition, United States Food and Drug Administration,
College Park, Maryland 20740, United States
J. Agric. Food Chem. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
Complete contact information is available at:
https://pubs.acs.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.9b08295
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
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H https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.9b08295
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