Renewable energy
For the academic journal, see Renewable Energy (jour- China and the United States heavily investing in wind,
nal). hydro, solar and biofuels.[4]
Wind, solar, and biomass are three emerging renewable sources
of energy.
Global public support for different energy sources (2011) based
on a poll by Ipsos Global @dvisor[1]
Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that
comes from resources which are naturally replenished on
a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides,
waves, and geothermal heat.[2] Renewable energy re-
places conventional fuels in four distinct areas: electricity
generation, air and water heating/cooling, motor fuels,
and rural (off-grid) energy services.[3]
Based on REN21's 2014 report, renewables contributed
19 percent to our global energy consumption and 22 per-
cent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013, re-
spectively. This energy consumption is divided as 9%
coming from traditional biomass, 4.2% as heat energy
(non-biomass), 3.8% hydro electricity and 2% is electric-
ity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass. World-
wide investments in renewable technologies amounted to
more than US$214 billion in 2013, with countries like
1
Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographi-
cal areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are
concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid de-
ployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is re-
sulting in significant energy security, climate change mit-
igation, and economic benefits.[5] In international public
opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting re-
newable sources such as solar power and wind power.[6]
At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world
already have renewable energy contributing more than
20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy
markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the
coming decade and beyond.[7] Some places and at least
two countries, Iceland and Norway generate all their elec-
tricity using renewable energy already, and many other
countries have the set a goal to reach 100% renewable
energy in the future. For example in Denmark the gov-
ernment decided to switch the total energy supply (elec-
tricity, mobility and heating/cooling) to 100% renewable
energy by 2050.[8]
While many renewable energy projects are large-scale,
renewable technologies are also suited to rural and re-
mote areas and developing countries, where energy is
often crucial in human development.[9] United Nations'
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable
energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new
levels of prosperity.[10]
1 Overview
See also: Outline of solar energy, Lists of renewable en-
ergy topics and Sustainable energy
Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such
as sunlight, wind, tides, plant growth, and geothermal
heat, as the International Energy Agency explains:[11]
Renewable energy is derived from natural
processes that are replenished constantly. In
its various forms, it derives directly from the
sun, or from heat generated deep within the
earth. Included in the definition is electricity
and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean,
hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources,
and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renew-
able resources.
2 1
Global Energy Potential
Solar 23,000 TW
Tidal 0.3 TW
World Energy
Wave 0.2–2 TW consumption
(power demand of 16 TW)
Geothermal 0.3–2 TW
Uranium
Hydro 3–4 TW
Biomass 2–6 TW
Oil
Wind
25–70 TW Natural
gas
215 TW-yr
annually total reserves
Global energy potential by source
World energy consumption by source. Renewables accounted for
19% in 2012.
Renewable energy resources and significant opportuni-
ties for energy efficiency exist over wide geographi-
cal areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which
are concentrated in a limited number of countries.
Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy
efficiency, and technological diversification of energy
sources, would result in significant energy security and
economic benefits.[5] It would also reduce environmental
pollution such as air pollution caused by burning of fossil
fuels and improve public health, reduce premature mor-
talities due to pollution and save associated health costs
that amount to several 100 billion dollars annually only
in the United States.[12] Renewable energy sources, that
derive their energy from the sun, either directly or indi-
rectly, such as hydro and wind, are expected to be capable
of supplying humanity energy for almost another 1 billion
years, at which point the predicted increase in heat from
the sun is expected to make the surface of the earth too
hot for liquid water to exist.[13][14]
Climate change and global warming concerns, coupled
with high oil prices, peak oil, and increasing government
support, are driving increasing renewable energy legis-
lation, incentives and commercialization.[6] New govern-
ment spending, regulation and policies helped the indus-
try weather the global financial crisis better than many
other sectors.[15] According to a 2011 projection by the
International Energy Agency, solar power generators may
produce most of the world’s electricity within 50 years,
reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases that harm the
OVERVIEW
environment.[16]
As of 2011, small solar PV systems provide electric-
ity to a few million households, and micro-hydro con-
Coal figured into mini-grids serves many more. Over 44
million households use biogas made in household-scale
900 TW-yr digesters for lighting and/or cooking, and more than
166 million households rely on a new generation of
more-efficient biomass cookstoves.[17] United Nations'
90–300 TW-yr
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable
energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new
240 TW-yr
levels of prosperity.[10] At the national level, at least 30
nations around the world already have renewable energy
contributing more than 20% of energy supply. National
renewable energy markets are projected to continue to
grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond, and
some 120 countries have various policy targets for longer-
term shares of renewable energy, including a 20% tar-
get of all electricity generated for the European Union by
2020. Some countries have much higher long-term pol-
icy targets of up to 100% renewables. Outside Europe,
a diverse group of 20 or more other countries target re-
newable energy shares in the 2020–2030 time frame that
range from 10% to 50%.[7]
Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four
distinct areas: electricity generation, hot water/space
heating, transportations, and rural (off-grid) energy
services:[3] As most of renewables provide electricity,
renewable energy deployment is often applied in con-
junction with further electrification, which has several
benefits: For example electricity can be converted to
heat without losses and even reach higher temperatures
than fossil fuels, can be converted into mechanical en-
ergy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of
consumpion.[18][19] In addition to that electrification with
renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore
leads to a significant reduction in primary energy require-
ments, because most renewables don't have a steam cycle
with high losses (fossil power plants usually have losses
of 40 to 65 %).[20]
• Power generation
Renewable hydroelectric energy provides
16.3% of the worlds electricity. When hydro-
electric is combined with other renewables
such as wind, geothermal, solar, biomass and
waste: together they make the “renewables” to-
tal, 21.7% of electricity generation worldwide
as of 2013.[21] Renewable power generators
are spread across many countries, and wind
power alone already provides a significant
share of electricity in some areas: for example,
14% in the U.S. state of Iowa, 40% in the
northern German state of Schleswig-Holstein,
and 49% in Denmark. Some countries get
most of their power from renewables, includ-
ing Iceland (100%), Norway (98%), Brazil

(86%), Austria (62%), New Zealand (65%),
and Sweden (54%).[22]
• Heating
Solar water heating makes an important con-
tribution to renewable heat in many countries,
most notably in China, which now has 70% of
the global total (180 GWth). Most of these sys-
tems are installed on multi-family apartment
buildings and meet a portion of the hot wa-
ter needs of an estimated 50–60 million house-
holds in China. Worldwide, total installed solar
water heating systems meet a portion of the
water heating needs of over 70 million house-
holds. The use of biomass for heating contin-
ues to grow as well. In Sweden, national use
of biomass energy has surpassed that of oil.
Direct geothermal for heating is also growing
rapidly.[22]
• Transportation
Renewable biofuels have contributed to a sig-
nificant decline in oil consumption in the
United States since 2006.[22] U.S. oil use fell
8.5% from 2005 to 2014.[23] The 93 billion
liters of biofuels produced worldwide in 2009
displaced the equivalent of an estimated 68 bil-
lion liters of gasoline, equal to about 5% of
world gasoline production.[22]
2 History
Prior to the development of coal in the mid 19th cen-
tury, nearly all energy used was renewable. Almost with-
out a doubt the oldest known use of renewable energy, in
the form of traditional biomass to fuel fires, dates from
790,000 years ago. Use of biomass for fire did not be-
come commonplace until many hundreds of thousands
of years later, sometime between 200,000 and 400,000
years ago.[24] Probably the second oldest usage of renew-
able energy is harnessing the wind in order to drive ships
over water. This practice can be traced back some 7000
years, to ships on the Nile.[25] Moving into the time of
recorded history, the primary sources of traditional re-
newable energy were human labor, animal power, water
power, wind, in grain crushing windmills, and firewood, a
traditional biomass. A graph of energy use in the United
States up until 1900 shows oil and natural gas with about
the same importance in 1900 as wind and solar played in
2010.
By 1873, concerns of running out of coal prompted ex-
periments with using solar energy.[26] Development of so-
lar engines continued until the outbreak of World War
I. The importance of solar energy was recognized in a
3
1911 Scientific American article: “in the far distant fu-
ture, natural fuels having been exhausted [solar power]
will remain as the only means of existence of the human
race”.[27]
The theory of peak oil was published in 1956.[28] In the
1970s environmentalists promoted the development of
renewable energy both as a replacement for the eventual
depletion of oil, as well as for an escape from dependence
on oil, and the first electricity generating wind turbines
appeared. Solar had long been used for heating and cool-
ing, but solar panels were too costly to build solar farms
until 1980.[29]
The IEA 2014 World Energy Outlook projects a growth
of renewable energy supply from 1,700 gigawatts in 2014
to 4,550 gigawatts in 2040. Fossil fuels received about
$550 billion in subsidies in 2013, compared to $120 bil-
lion for all renewable energies.[30]
3 Mainstream technologies
3.1 Wind power
Main article: Wind power
Airflows can be used to run wind turbines. Modern
The 845 MW Shepherds Flat Wind Farm near Arlington, Oregon,
USA
utility-scale wind turbines range from around 600 kW
to 5 MW of rated power, although turbines with rated
output of 1.5–3 MW have become the most common for
commercial use; the power available from the wind is a
function of the cube of the wind speed, so as wind speed
increases, power output increases up to the maximum
output for the particular turbine.[31] Areas where winds
are stronger and more constant, such as offshore and high
altitude sites, are preferred locations for wind farms. Typ-
ical capacity factors are 20-40%, with values at the upper
end of the range in particularly favorable sites.[32][33]
Globally, the long-term technical potential of wind en-
ergy is believed to be five times total current global energy
production, or 40 times current electricity demand, as-
suming all practical barriers needed were overcome. This
4 3 MAINSTREAM TECHNOLOGIES

would require wind turbines to be installed over large ar-
eas, particularly in areas of higher wind resources, such as
offshore. As offshore wind speeds average ~90% greater
than that of land, so offshore resources can contribute
substantially more energy than land stationed turbines.[34]
In 2013 wind generated almost 3% of the worlds total
electricity.[21]
3.2 Hydropower
Main articles: Hydroelectricity and Hydropower
Energy in water can be harnessed and used. Since water
Wave power, which captures the energy of ocean surface
waves, and tidal power, converting the energy of tides,
are two forms of hydropower with future potential; how-
ever, they are not yet widely employed commercially. A
demonstration project operated by the Ocean Renewable
Power Company on the coast of Maine, and connected
to the grid, harnesses tidal power from the Bay of Fundy,
location of world’s highest tidal flow. Ocean thermal en-
ergy conversion, which uses the temperature difference
between cooler deep and warmer surface waters, has cur-
rently no economic feasibility. In 2013 hydropower gen-
erated almost 16% of the worlds total electricity.[21]

3.3 Solar energy

Main article: Solar energy

Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, is

The Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China

is about 800 times denser than air, even a slow flowing

stream of water, or moderate sea swell, can yield consid-
erable amounts of energy. There are many forms of water
energy:
Satellite image of the 550-megawatt Topaz Solar Farm in Cali-
fornia, USA
• Hydroelectric energy is a term usually reserved for
large-scale hydroelectric dams. The largest of which
is the Three Gorges Dam in China and a smaller ex- harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies
ample is the Akosombo Dam in Ghana. such as solar heating, photovoltaics, concentrated so-
lar power, solar architecture and artificial photosynthe-
[36][37]
• Micro hydro systems are hydroelectric power in- sis. Solar technologies are broadly characterized
stallations that typically produce up to 100 kW of as either passive solar or active solar depending on the
power. They are often used in water rich areas as a way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy.
remote-area power supply (RAPS). Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to
the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass
• Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity systems derive or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that
kinetic energy from rivers without the creation of naturally circulate air. Active solar technologies encom-
a large reservoir. pass solar thermal energy, using solar collectors for heat-
ing, and solar power, converting sunlight into electricity
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly us-
Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hy- ing concentrated solar power (CSP).
dropower in 2010. For counties having the largest per- A photovoltaic system converts light into electrical direct
centage of electricity from renewables, the top 50 are current (DC) by taking advantage of the photoelectric
primarily hydroelectric. China is the largest hydroelec- effect.[38] Solar PV has turned into a multi-billion,
tricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in fast-growing industry, continues to improve its cost-
2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic elec- effectiveness, and has the most potential of any renewable
tricity use. There are now three hydroelectricity stations technologies together with CSP.[39][40] Concentrated so-
larger than 10 GW: the Three Gorges Dam in China, lar power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and track-
Itaipu Dam across the Brazil/Paraguay border, and Guri ing systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small
Dam in Venezuela.[35] beam. Commercial concentrated solar power plants were
3.5 Bio energy
first developed in the 1980s. CSP-Stirling has by far the heats rock and water in the crust, sometimes up to 700
highest efficiency among all solar energy technologies. °F (371 °C).[43]
In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that “the
development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean so-
lar energy technologies will have huge longer-term bene-
fits. It will increase countries’ energy security through re-
liance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-
independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pol-
lution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and
keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advan-
tages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incen-
tives for early deployment should be considered learning
investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be
widely shared”.[36] In 2013 solar generated less than 1%
of the worlds total grid electricity.[21]
3.4 Geothermal energy
Main articles: Geothermal energy and Geothermal elec-
tricity
Sugarcane plantation to produce ethanol in Brazil
Geothermal energy is from thermal energy generated and
Steam rising from the Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station in
Iceland
stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that
determines the temperature of matter. Earth’s geother-
mal energy originates from the original formation of the
planet and from radioactive decay of minerals (in cur-
rently uncertain[41] but possibly roughly equal[42] propor-
tions). The geothermal gradient, which is the difference
in temperature between the core of the planet and its sur-
face, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy
in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The ad-
jective geothermal originates from the Greek roots geo,
meaning earth, and thermos, meaning heat.
The heat that is used for geothermal energy can be from
deep within the Earth, all the way down to Earth’s core
– 4,000 miles (6,400 km) down. At the core, tempera-
tures may reach over 9,000 °F (5,000 °C). Heat conducts
from the core to surrounding rock. Extremely high tem-
perature and pressure cause some rock to melt, which is
commonly known as magma. Magma convects upward
since it is lighter than the solid rock. This magma then
5
From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for
bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since
ancient Roman times, but it is now better known for
electricity generation.
3.5 Bio energy
Main articles: Biomass, Biogas and Biofuel
A CHP power station using wood to supply 30,000
households in France
Biomass is biological material derived from living, or re-
cently living organisms. It most often refers to plants
or plant-derived materials which are specifically called
lignocellulosic biomass.[44] As an energy source, biomass
can either be used directly via combustion to produce
heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of
biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved
by different methods which are broadly classified into:
thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods. Wood re-
mains the largest biomass energy source today;[45] exam-
ples include forest residues – such as dead trees, branches
and tree stumps –, yard clippings, wood chips and even
municipal solid waste. In the second sense, biomass in-
cludes plant or animal matter that can be converted into
fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels.
Industrial biomass can be grown from numerous types
of plants, including miscanthus, switchgrass, hemp, corn,
poplar, willow, sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo,[46] and a
variety of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil
6 3 MAINSTREAM TECHNOLOGIES

palm (palm oil).
Plant energy is produced by crops specifically grown for
use as fuel that offer high biomass output per hectare
with low input energy. Some examples of these plants
are wheat, which typically yield 7.5–8 tonnes of grain
per hectare, and straw, which typically yield 3.5–5 tonnes
per hectare in the UK.[47] The grain can be used for liq-
uid transportation fuels while the straw can be burned to
produce heat or electricity. Plant biomass can also be
degraded from cellulose to glucose through a series of
chemical treatments, and the resulting sugar can then be
used as a first generation biofuel.
bio-ethanol are almost equal to, the energy yields from
bio-ethanol. However, according to the European Envi-
ronment Agency, biofuels do not address global warm-
ing concerns.[54] Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils,
animal fats or recycled greases. It can be used as a
fuel for vehicles in its pure form, or more commonly
as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, car-
bon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered
vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using
transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Eu-
rope. Biofuels provided 2.7% of the world’s transport fuel
in 2010.[55]

Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of en- Biomass, biogas and biofuels are burned to produce
ergy like methane gas or transportation fuels like ethanol heat/power and in doing so harm the environment. Pol-
and biodiesel. Rotting garbage, and agricultural and hu- lutants such as sulphurous oxides (SOₓ), nitrous oxides
man waste, all release methane gas – also called landfill (NOₓ), and particulate matter (PM) are produced from
gas or biogas. Crops, such as corn and sugarcane, can the combustion of biomass; the World Health Organisa-
be fermented to produce the transportation fuel, ethanol. tion estimates that 7 million premature deaths are caused
Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can be produced each year by air pollution.[56] Biomass combustion is a
from left-over food products like vegetable oils and an- major contributor.[56][57][58] The life cycle of the plants
imal fats.[48] Also, biomass to liquids (BTLs) and cel- is sustainable, the lives of people less so.
lulosic ethanol are still under research.[49][50] There is
a great deal of research involving algal fuel or algae- 3.6 Heat pump
derived biomass due to the fact that it’s a non-food re-
source and can be produced at rates 5 to 10 times those Main article: heat pump
of other types of land-based agriculture, such as corn and A heat pump is a device that provides heat energy from a
soy. Once harvested, it can be fermented to produce
biofuels such as ethanol, butanol, and methane, as well
as biodiesel and hydrogen. The biomass used for elec-
tricity generation varies by region. Forest by-products,
such as wood residues, are common in the United States.
Agricultural waste is common in Mauritius (sugar cane
residue) and Southeast Asia (rice husks). Animal hus-
bandry residues, such as poultry litter, are common in the
United Kingdom.[51]
Biofuels include a wide range of fuels which are derived
from biomass. The term covers solid, liquid, and gaseous
fuels.[52] Liquid biofuels include bioalcohols, such as
bioethanol, and oils, such as biodiesel. Gaseous biofuels
include biogas, landfill gas and synthetic gas. Bioethanol
is an alcoho] made by fermenting the sugar components
of plant materials and it is made mostly from sugar and
starch crops. These include maize, sugarcane and, more
recently, sweet sorghum. The latter crop is particularly
suitable for growing in dryland conditions, and is being
investigated by International Crops Research Institute for
the Semi-Arid Tropics for its potential to provide fuel,
along with food and animal feed, in arid parts of Asia
and Africa.[53]
With advanced technology being developed, cellulosic
biomass, such as trees and grasses, are also used as feed-
stocks for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a Outside unit of an air-source heat pump.
fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as
a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehi- source of heat to a destination called a “heat sink”. Heat
cle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the United pumps are designed to move thermal energy opposite to
States and in Brazil. The energy costs for producing the direction of spontaneous heat flow by absorbing heat
from a cold space and releasing it to a warmer one. A heat
4.1 Growth of renewables 7

pump uses some amount of external power to accomplish

the work of transferring energy from the heat source to
the heat sink.
While air conditioners and freezers are familiar examples
of heat pumps, the term “heat pump” is more general and
applies to many HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air con-
ditioning) devices used for space heating or space cool-
ing. When a heat pump is used for heating, it employs the
same basic refrigeration-type cycle used by an air con-
ditioner or a refrigerator, but in the opposite direction -
releasing heat into the conditioned space rather than the
surrounding environment. In this use, heat pumps gen-
erally draw heat from the cooler external air or from the
ground.[59] In heating mode, heat pumps are three to four
times more efficient in their use of electric power than
simple electrical resistance heaters.
In the context of renewable energy, heat pumps are able Global growth of renewables through 2011[63]
to use electricity from renewable sources to provide heat-
ing and cooling of structures in a cost and energy effec-
4.1 Growth of renewables
tive way, displacing non renewable sources. It has been
concluded that heat pumps are the single technology that
From the end of 2004, worldwide renewable energy ca-
could reduce the greenhouse gas emissions of households
pacity grew at rates of 10–60% annually for many tech-
better than every other technology that is available on the
nologies. For wind power and many other renewable
market. With a market share of 30% heat pumps could
technologies, growth accelerated in 2009 relative to the
reduce global CO2 emissions by 8% annually.[60] Using
previous four years.[3] More wind power capacity was
ground source heat pumps could reduce around 60% of
added during 2009 than any other renewable technol-
the primary energy demand and 90% of CO2 emissions in
ogy. However, grid-connected PV increased the fastest
Europe in 2050 and make handling high shares of renew-
of all renewables technologies, with a 60% annual av-
able energy easier.[61] Using surplus renewable energy in
erage growth rate.[3] In 2010, renewable power consti-
heat pumps is regarded as the most effective household
tuted about a third of the newly built power generation
means to reduce to reduce global warming and fossil fuel
capacities.[64]
depletion.[62]
Projections vary, but scientists have advanced a plan
to power 100% of the world’s energy with wind,
hydroelectric, and solar power by the year 2030.[65][66]
According to a 2011 projection by the International En-
3.7 Grid energy storage ergy Agency, solar power generators may produce most
of the world’s electricity within 50 years, reducing the
Main article: Grid energy storage emissions of greenhouse gases that harm the environ-
ment. Cedric Philibert, senior analyst in the renewable
Grid energy storage (also called large-scale energy stor- energy division at the IEA said: “Photovoltaic and solar-
age) is a collection of methods used to store electrical thermal plants may meet most of the world’s demand for
energy on a large scale within an electrical power grid. electricity by 2060 – and half of all energy needs – with
Electrical energy is stored during times when production wind, hydropower and biomass plants supplying much of
(especially from intermittent power plants such as renew- the remaining generation”. “Photovoltaic and concen-
able electricity sources such as wind power, tidal power, trated solar power together can become the major source
solar power) exceeds consumption, and returned to the of electricity”, Philibert said.[16]
grid when production falls below consumption. Wind power is growing at the rate of 30% annually,
with a worldwide installed capacity of 282,482 megawatts
(MW) at the end of 2012, and is widely used in Europe,
Asia, and the United States. At the end of 2012 the
photovoltaic (PV) capacity worldwide was 100,000 MW,
4 Commercialization and PV power stations are popular in Germany and Italy.
Solar thermal energy stations operate in the USA and
Spain, and the largest of these is the 354 MW Solar
Main article: Renewable energy commercialization Energy Generating Systems power plant in the Mojave
Desert. The world’s largest geothermal power installa-
8 4 COMMERCIALIZATION

tion is The Geysers in California, with a rated capacity of
750 MW. Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy
programs in the world, involving production of ethanol
fuel from sugar cane, and ethanol now provides 18% of
the country’s automotive fuel. Ethanol fuel is also widely
available in the USA.
4.2 Economic trends
of different scenarios where intermittent renewables ac-
counted for 33 percent of the total power.” In the models,
inefficiencies in cycling the fossil fuel plants to compen-
sate for the variation in solar and wind energy resulted in
an additional cost of “between $0.47 and $1.28 to each
MegaWatt hour generated"; however, the savings in the
cost of the fuels saved “adds up to $7 billion, meaning the
added costs are, at most, two percent of the savings.”[77]
4.3 Hydroelectricity

See also: List of largest hydroelectric power stations

Only 25% of the worlds estimated hydroelectric poten-

tial of 14,000 TWh/year has been developed, with Africa,
Asia and Latin America having the greatest potential.[78]
The Three Gorges Dam in Hubei, China, has the world’s
largest instantaneous generating capacity (22,500 MW),
with the Itaipu Dam in Brazil/Paraguay in second place
(14,000 MW). The Three Gorges Dam is operated jointly
with the much smaller Gezhouba Dam (3,115 MW). As
of 2012, the total generating capacity of this two-dam
complex is 25,615 MW. In 2008, this complex generated
98 TWh of electricity (81 TWh from the Three Gorges
Dam and 17 TWh from the Gezhouba Dam), which is
3% more power in one year than the 95 TWh generated
Projection of levelized cost for wind in the U.S. (left) by Itaipu in 2008.
and solar power in Europe[73][74]
4.4 Wind power development
Renewable energy technologies are getting cheaper,
through technological change and through the benefits Main article: Wind power by country
of mass production and market competition. A 2011 Wind power is widely used in Europe, China, and the
IEA report said: “A portfolio of renewable energy tech-
nologies is becoming cost-competitive in an increasingly Global Wind Power Cumulative Capacity (Data:GWEC)
400
broad range of circumstances, in some cases providing 369.6

investment opportunities without the need for specific 350

318.6

economic support,” and added that “cost reductions in 283.1

Cumulative Capacity (Gigawatts)

300
critical technologies, such as wind and solar, are set to 238.1

continue.”[75] 250

198.0

Hydro-electricity and geothermal electricity produced at 200

159.1

favourable sites are now the cheapest way to generate 150

120.7

electricity. Renewable energy costs continue to drop, and 100

93.9

the levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) is declining for 47.6

59.1
74.0

39.4
wind power, solar photovoltaic (PV), concentrated solar 50
17.4
23.9
31.1

10.2 13.6
power (CSP) and some biomass technologies.[76] Renew- 0
6.1 7.6

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
able energy is also the most economic solution for new Year

grid-connected capacity in areas with good resources. As

the cost of renewable power falls, the scope of economi-
cally viable applications increases. Renewable technolo-
gies are now often the most economic solution for new
generating capacity. Where “oil-fired generation is the
predominant power generation source (e.g. on islands,
off-grid and in some countries) a lower-cost renewable
solution almost always exists today”.[76] A series of stud-
ies by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory
modeled the “grid in the Western US under a number
Worldwide growth of wind capacity (1996–2014)[79]
United States. From 2004 to 2014, worldwide installed
capacity of wind power has been growing from 47 GW
to 369 GW—a more than sevenfold increase within 10
years with 2014 breaking a new record in global installa-
tions (51 GW). As of the end of 2014, China, the United
States and Germany combined accounted for half of total
global capacity.[79] Several other countries have achieved
4.5 Solar thermal
Four offshore wind farms are in the Thames Estuary area:
Kentish Flats, Gunfleet Sands, Thanet and London Array. The
latter is the largest in the world as of April 2013.
relatively high levels of wind power penetration, such
as 21% of stationary electricity production in Denmark,
18% in Portugal, 16% in Spain, and 14% in Ireland in
2010 and have since continued to expand their installed
capacity.[80][81] More than 80 countries around the world
are using wind power on a commercial basis.[55]
• Offshore wind power
As of 2014, offshore wind power amounted
to 8,771 megawatt of global installed capac-
ity. Although offshore capacity doubled within
three years (from 4,117 MW in 2011), it ac-
counted for only 2.3% of the total wind power
capacity. The United Kingdom is the undis-
puted leader of offshore power with half of the
world’s installed capacity ahead of Denmark,
Germany, Belgium and China.
• List of offshore and onshore wind farms
As of 2012, the Alta Wind Energy Cen-
ter (California, 1,020 MW) is the world’s
largest wind farm.[82] The London Array (630
MW) is the largest offshore wind farm in the
world. The United Kingdom is the world’s
leading generator of offshore wind power, fol-
lowed by Denmark.[83] There are several large
offshore wind farms under construction and
these include Anholt (400 MW), BARD (400
MW), Clyde (548 MW), Fântânele-Cogealac
(600 MW), Greater Gabbard (500 MW),
Lincs (270 MW), London Array (630 MW),
Lower Snake River (343 MW), Macarthur
(420 MW), Shepherds Flat (845 MW), and the
Sheringham Shoal (317 MW).
9
4.5 Solar thermal
Main article: List of solar thermal power stations
The United States conducted much early research in
The 377 MW Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System with all
three towers under load, Feb 2014. Taken from I-15.
Solar Towers of the PS10 and PS20 solar thermal plants in Spain
photovoltaics and concentrated solar power. The U.S. is
among the top countries in the world in electricity gener-
ated by the Sun and several of the world’s largest utility-
scale installations are located in the desert Southwest.
The oldest solar thermal power plant in the world is
the 354 megawatt (MW) SEGS thermal power plant,
in California.[84] The Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating
System is a solar thermal power project in the Califor-
nia Mojave Desert, 40 miles (64 km) southwest of Las
Vegas, with a gross capacity of 377 MW.[85] The 280
MW Solana Generating Station is a solar power plant near
Gila Bend, Arizona, about 70 miles (110 km) southwest
of Phoenix, completed in 2013. When commissioned it
was the largest parabolic trough plant in the world and
the first U.S. solar plant with molten salt thermal energy
storage.[86]
The solar thermal power industry is growing rapidly
with 1.3 GW under construction in 2012 and more
planned. Spain is the epicenter of solar thermal power
development with 873 MW under construction, and a
further 271 MW under development.[87] In the United
States, 5,600 MW of solar thermal power projects have
10 4 COMMERCIALIZATION

been announced.[88] Several power plants have been con-
structed in the Mojave Desert, Southwestern United
States. The Ivanpah Solar Power Facility being the
most recent. In developing countries, three World Bank
projects for integrated solar thermal/combined-cycle gas-
turbine power plants in Egypt, Mexico, and Morocco
have been approved.[89]
by 2050, with solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar
power contributing 16% and 11%, respectively. This re-
quires an increase of installed PV capacity to 4,600 GW,
of which more than half is expected to be deployed in
China and India.[96]
4.7 Photovoltaic power stations

4.6 Photovoltaic development Main article: List of photovoltaic power stations

Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first
Main articles: Growth of photovoltaics and Solar power
by country
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
2006
2010
2014

Europe
Asia-Pacific
Americas
China Solar panels at the 550 MW Topaz Solar Farm
Middle East and Africa

Worldwide growth of PV capacity grouped by region in

MW (2006–2014)
Photovoltaics (PV) uses solar cells assembled into solar
panels to convert sunlight into electricity. It’s a fast-
growing technology doubling its worldwide installed ca-
pacity every couple of years. PV systems range from
small, residential and commercial rooftop or building in-
tegrated installations, to large utility-scale photovoltaic
power station. The predominant PV technology is
crystalline silicon, while thin-film solar cell technology
accounts for about 10 percent of global photovoltaic de-
ployment. In recent years, PV technology has improved
its electricity generating efficiency, reduced the installa-
tion cost per watt as well as its energy payback time, and
has reached grid parity in at least 30 different markets Nellis Solar Power Plant, photovoltaic power plant in Nevada,
by 2014.[90] Financial institutions are predicting a second USA
solar “gold rush” in the near future.[91][92][93]
developed in the 1980s. As the cost of solar electricity
At the end of 2014, worldwide PV capacity reached at has fallen, the number of grid-connected solar PV sys-
least 177,000 megawatts. Photovoltaics grew fastest in tems has grown into the millions and utility-scale solar
China, followed by Japan and the United States, while power stations with hundreds of megawatts are being
Germany remains the world’s largest overall producer of built. Solar PV is rapidly becoming an inexpensive, low-
photovoltaic power, contributing about 7.0 percent to the carbon technology to harness renewable energy from the
overall electricity generation. Italy meets 7.9 percent Sun.
of its electricity demands with photovoltaic power—the
highest share worldwide.[94] For 2015, global cumulative Many solar photovoltaic power stations[97] have been built,
capacity is forecasted to increase by more than 50 gi- mainly in Europe, China and the USA. The 579 MW
gawatts (GW). By 2018, worldwide capacity is projected Solar Star, in the United States, is the world’s largest PV
to reach as much as 430 gigawatts. This corresponds power station.
to a tripling within five years.[95] Solar power is fore- Many of these plants are integrated with agriculture and
casted to become the world’s largest source of electricity some use tracking systems that follow the sun’s daily path
4.10 Geothermal development
across the sky to generate more electricity than fixed-
mounted systems. There are no fuel costs or emissions
during operation of the power stations.
However, when it comes to renewable energy systems and
PV, it is not just large systems that matter. Building-
integrated photovoltaics or “onsite” PV systems use exist-
ing land and structures and generate power close to where
it is consumed.[98]
4.8 Carbon-neutral and negative fuels
Main articles: Carbon-neutral fuel and Methanol econ-
omy
Carbon-neutral fuels are synthetic fuels (including
methane, gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuel or ammonia[99] )
produced by hydrogenating waste carbon dioxide recy-
cled from power plant flue-gas emissions, recovered from
automotive exhaust gas, or derived from carbonic acid
in seawater.[100] Such fuels are considered carbon-neutral
because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric
greenhouse gases.[101] To the extent that synthetic fuels
displace fossil fuels, or if they are produced from waste
carbon or seawater carbonic acid,[102] and their combus-
tion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust
pipe, they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and
net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere, and
thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation.[103]
Such renewable fuels alleviate the costs and dependency
issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either
electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hy-
drogen or other fuels, enabling continued compatible and
affordable vehicles.[104] Carbon-neutral fuels offer rela-
tively low cost energy storage, alleviating the problems of
wind and solar intermittency, and they enable distribu-
tion of wind, water, and solar power through existing nat-
ural gas pipelines.[104] Nighttime wind power is consid-
ered the most economical form of electrical power with
which to synthesize fuel, because the load curve for elec-
tricity peaks sharply during the warmest hours of the day,
but wind tends to blow slightly more at night than during
the day, so, the price of nighttime wind power is often
much less expensive than any alternative.[104] Germany
has built a 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant which
they are scaling up to 10 megawatts.[105][106][107]
The George Olah carbon dioxide recycling plant in
Grindavík, Iceland has been producing 2 million liters of
methanol transportation fuel per year from flue exhaust
of the Svartsengi Power Station since 2011.[108] It has the
capacity to produce 5 million liters per year.[109]
4.9 Biofuel development
See also: Geothermal energy in the United States
See also: Ethanol fuel, Sustainable biofuel and Issues re- Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustain-
lating to biofuels able, and environmentally friendly,[116] but has histori-
11
Biofuels provided 3% of the world’s transport fuel in
Brazil produces bioethanol made from sugarcane available
throughout the country. A typical gas station with dual fuel ser-
vice is marked “A” for alcohol (ethanol) and “G” for gasoline.
2010.[55] Mandates for blending biofuels exist in 31 coun-
tries at the national level and in 29 states/provinces.[55]
According to the International Energy Agency, biofuels
have the potential to meet more than a quarter of world
demand for transportation fuels by 2050.[110]
Since the 1970s, Brazil has had an ethanol fuel program
which has allowed the country to become the world’s sec-
ond largest producer of ethanol (after the United States)
and the world’s largest exporter.[111] Brazil’s ethanol fuel
program uses modern equipment and cheap sugarcane as
feedstock, and the residual cane-waste (bagasse) is used
to produce heat and power.[112] There are no longer light
vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline. By the end of
2008 there were 35,000 filling stations throughout Brazil
with at least one ethanol pump.[113]
Nearly all the gasoline sold in the United States today
is mixed with 10% ethanol, a mix known as E10,[114]
and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehi-
cles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends. Ford,
Daimler AG, and GM are among the automobile compa-
nies that sell “flexible-fuel” cars, trucks, and minivans that
can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure
gasoline up to 85% ethanol (E85). By mid-2006, there
were approximately 6 million E85-compatible vehicles
on U.S. roads.[115] The challenge is to expand the market
for biofuels beyond the farm states where they have been
most popular to date. Flex-fuel vehicles are assisting in
this transition because they allow drivers to choose dif-
ferent fuels based on price and availability. The Energy
Policy Act of 2005, which calls for 7.5 billion US gallons
(28,000,000 m3 ) of biofuels to be used annually by 2012,
will also help to expand the market.[115]
4.10 Geothermal development
12
Geothermal plant at The Geysers, California, USA
cally been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries.
Recent technological advances have expanded the range
and size of viable resources, especially for applications
such as home heating, opening a potential for widespread
exploitation. Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases
trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are
much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels. As
a result, geothermal power has the potential to help miti-
gate global warming if widely deployed in place of fossil
fuels.
The International Geothermal Association (IGA) has re-
ported that 10,715 MW of geothermal power in 24 coun-
tries is online, which is expected to generate 67,246 GWh
of electricity in 2010.[117] This represents a 20% increase
in geothermal power online capacity since 2005. IGA
projects this will grow to 18,500 MW by 2015, due to
the large number of projects presently under considera-
tion, often in areas previously assumed to have little ex-
ploitable resource.[117]
In 2010, the United States led the world in geothermal
electricity production with 3,086 MW of installed capac-
ity from 77 power plants;[118] the largest group of geother- cellulostic feedstocks. Project Gaia, Inc. and CleanStar
mal power plants in the world is located at The Geysers,
a geothermal field in California.[119] The Philippines fol-
lows the US as the second highest producer of geothermal
power in the world, with 1,904 MW of capacity online; Renewable energy projects in many developing countries
geothermal power makes up approximately 18% of the have demonstrated that renewable energy can directly
country’s electricity generation.[118]
4 COMMERCIALIZATION
4.11 Developing countries
Main article: Renewable energy in developing countries
Renewable energy can be particularly suitable for devel-
Solar cookers use sunlight as energy source for outdoor cooking
oping countries. In rural and remote areas, transmission
and distribution of energy generated from fossil fuels can
be difficult and expensive. Producing renewable energy
locally can offer a viable alternative.[120]
Technology advances are opening up a huge new mar-
ket for solar power: the approximately 1.3 billion people
around the world who don't have access to grid electricity.
Even though they are typically very poor, these people
have to pay far more for lighting than people in rich coun-
tries because they use inefficient kerosene lamps. Solar
power costs half as much as lighting with kerosene.[121]
An estimated 3 million households get power from small
solar PV systems.[122] Kenya is the world leader in the
number of solar power systems installed per capita. More
than 30,000 very small solar panels, each producing 12 to
30 watts, are sold in Kenya annually. Some Small Island
Developing States (SIDS) are also turning to solar power
to reduce their costs and increase their sustainability.[123]
Micro-hydro configured into mini-grids also provide
power. Over 44 million households use biogas made in
household-scale digesters for lighting and/or cooking, and
more than 166 million households rely on a new genera-
tion of more-efficient biomass cookstoves.[17] Clean liq-
uid fuel sourced from renewable feedstocks are used for
cooking and lighting in energy-poor areas of the develop-
ing world. Alcohol fuels (ethanol and methanol) can be
produced sustainably from non-food sugary, starchy, and
Mozambique are implementing clean cooking programs
with liquid ethanol stoves in Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria and
Mozambique.[124]
contribute to poverty reduction by providing the energy
4.13 100% renewable energy 13

needed for creating businesses and employment. Renew-
able energy technologies can also make indirect contribu-
tions to alleviating poverty by providing energy for cook-
ing, space heating, and lighting. Renewable energy can
also contribute to education, by providing electricity to
schools.[125]
4.12 Industry and policy trends
See also: Renewable energy commercialization
U.S. President Barack Obama's American Recovery and
United Nations’ Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said
that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest na-
tions to new levels of prosperity.[10] In October 2011, he
“announced the creation of a high-level group to drum up
support for energy access, energy efficiency and greater
use of renewable energy. The group is to be co-chaired
by Kandeh Yumkella, the chair of UN Energy and di-
rector general of the UN Industrial Development Or-
ganisation, and Charles Holliday, chairman of Bank of
America”.[131]
4.13 100% renewable energy

Main article: 100% renewable energy

The incentive to use 100% renewable energy, for elec-

tricity, transport, or even total primary energy supply
globally, has been motivated by global warming and
other ecological as well as economic concerns. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has said that
there are few fundamental technological limits to inte-
grating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to
meet most of total global energy demand. Renewable
energy use has grown much faster than even advocates
anticipated.[132] At the national level, at least 30 nations
around the world already have renewable energy con-
tributing more than 20% of energy supply. Also, Profes-
[126] sors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow have developed a
Global New Investments in Renewable Energy
series of “stabilization wedges” that can allow us to main-
tain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate
Reinvestment Act of 2009 includes more than $70 billion change, and “renewable energy sources,” in aggregate,
in direct spending and tax credits for clean energy and constitute the largest number of their “wedges.” [133]
associated transportation programs. Leading renewable
energy companies include First Solar, Gamesa, GE En- Using 100% renewable energy was first suggested in a
ergy, Hanwha Q Cells, Sharp Solar, Siemens, SunOpta, Science paper published in 1975 by Danish physicist Bent
Suntech Power, and Vestas.[127] Sørensen.[134] It was followed by several other proposals,
until in 1998 the first detailed analysis of scenarios with
The military has also focused on the use of renewable fu- very high shares of renewables were published. These
els for military vehicles. Unlike fossil fuels, renewable
were followed by the first detailed 100% scenarios. In
fuels can be produced in any country, creating a strate- 2006 a PhD thesis was published by Czisch in which
gic advantage. The US military has already committed
it was shown that in a 100% renewable scenario energy
itself to have 50% of its energy consumption come from supply could match demand in every hour of the year in
alternative sources.[128]
Europa and North Africa. In the same year Danish En-
The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) ergy professor Henrik Lund published a first paper[135]
is an intergovernmental organization for promoting the in which he adresses the optimal combination of renew-
adoption of renewable energy worldwide. It aims to pro- ables, which was followed by several other papers on the
vide concrete policy advice and facilitate capacity build- transition to 100% renewable energy in Denmark. Since
ing and technology transfer. IRENA was formed on then Lund has been publishing several papers on 100%
26 January 2009, by 75 countries signing the charter of renewable energy. After 2009 publications began to rise
IRENA.[129] As of March 2010, IRENA has 143 mem- steeply, covering 100% scenarios for countries in Europa,
ber states who all are considered as founding members, America, Australia and other parts of the world.[136]
of which 14 have also ratified the statute.[130] In 2011 Mark Z. Jacobson, professor of civil and envi-
As of 2011, 119 countries have some form of national ronmental engineering at Stanford University, and Mark
renewable energy policy target or renewable support pol- Delucchi published a study on 100% renewable global en-
icy. National targets now exist in at least 98 countries. ergy supply in the journal Energy Policy. They found pro-
There is also a wide range of policies at state/provincial ducing all new energy with wind power, solar power, and
and local levels.[55] hydropower by 2030 is feasible and existing energy sup-
14 5 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

ply arrangements could be replaced by 2050. Barriers to

implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be
“primarily social and political, not technological or eco-
nomic”. They also found that energy costs with a wind, 1
solar, water system should be similar to today’s energy
costs.[137] 2 3
4
Similarly, in the United States, the independent National 6 7
5
Research Council has noted that “sufficient domestic re- 5
newable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to

4000 - 600
play a significant role in future electricity generation and
thus help confront issues related to climate change, en-
ergy security, and the escalation of energy costs … Re- 8
newable energy is an attractive option because renew-

0m
able resources available in the United States, taken collec-
9
tively, can supply significantly greater amounts of elec-
tricity than the total current or projected domestic de-
mand.” .[138] 10
The most significant barriers to the widespread imple-
mentation of large-scale renewable energy and low car-
bon energy strategies are primarily political and not tech-
nological. According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways 500 - 1000 m
report, which reviewed many international studies, the 500 - 1000 m
key roadblocks are: climate change denial, the fossil fu-
els lobby, political inaction, unsustainable energy con-
sumption, outdated energy infrastructure, and financial
constraints.[139] Enhanced geothermal system (see file description for details)

Enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) are a new

5 Emerging technologies
Other renewable energy technologies are still under de-
velopment, and include cellulosic ethanol, hot-dry-rock
geothermal power, and marine energy.[140] These tech-
nologies are not yet widely demonstrated or have lim-
ited commercialization. Many are on the horizon and
may have potential comparable to other renewable en-
ergy technologies, but still depend on attracting sufficient
attention and research, development and demonstration
(RD&D) funding.[140]
There are numerous organizations within the academic,
federal, and commercial sectors conducting large scale
advanced research in the field of renewable energy. This
research spans several areas of focus across the renew-
able energy spectrum. Most of the research is targeted
at improving efficiency and increasing overall energy
yields.[141] Multiple federally supported research organi-
zations have focused on renewable energy in recent years.
Two of the most prominent of these labs are Sandia Na-
tional Laboratories and the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL), both of which are funded by the
United States Department of Energy and supported by
various corporate partners.[142] Sandia has a total bud-
get of $2.4 billion[143] while NREL has a budget of $375
million.[144]
type of geothermal power technologies that
do not require natural convective hydrother-
mal resources. The vast majority of geother-
mal energy within drilling reach is in dry and
non-porous rock.[145] EGS technologies “en-
hance” and/or create geothermal resources in
this “hot dry rock (HDR)" through hydraulic
stimulation. EGS and HDR technologies, like
hydrothermal geothermal, are expected to be
baseload resources which produce power 24
hours a day like a fossil plant. Distinct from
hydrothermal, HDR and EGS may be feasi-
ble anywhere in the world, depending on the
economic limits of drill depth. Good locations
are over deep granite covered by a thick (3–5
km) layer of insulating sediments which slow
heat loss.[146] There are HDR and EGS sys-
tems currently being developed and tested in
France, Australia, Japan, Germany, the U.S.
and Switzerland. The largest EGS project in
the world is a 25 megawatt demonstration plant
currently being developed in the Cooper Basin,
Australia. The Cooper Basin has the potential
to generate 5,000–10,000 MW.
• Cellulosic ethanol

• Enhanced geothermal system Several refineries that can process biomass and
turn it into ethano are built by companies such

as Iogen, POET, and Abengoa, while other
companies such as the Verenium Corporation,
Novozymes, and Dyadic International[147] are
producing enzymes which could enable future
commercialization. The shift from food crop
feedstocks to waste residues and native grasses
offers significant opportunities for a range of
players, from farmers to biotechnology firms,
and from project developers to investors.[148]
• Artificial photosynthesis
Artificial photosynthesis uses techniques in-
cluding nanotechnology to store solar electro-
magnetic energy in chemical bonds by split-
ting water to produce hydrogen and then us-
ing carbon dioxide to make methanol.[149] Re-
searchers in this field are striving to design
molecular mimics of photosynthesis that uti-
lize a wider region of the solar spectrum, em-
ploy catalytic systems made from abundant, in-
expensive materials that are robust, readily re-
paired, non-toxic, stable in a variety of envi-
ronmental conditions and perform more effi-
ciently allowing a greater proportion of pho-
ton energy to end up in the storage compounds,
i.e., carbohydrates (rather than building and
sustaining living cells).[150] However, promi-
nent research faces hurdles, Sun Catalytix a
MIT spin-off stopped scaling up their proto-
type fuel-cell in 2012, because it offers few
savings over other ways to make hydrogen from
sunlight.[151]
• Algae fuels
Producing liquid fuels from oil-rich varieties of
algae is an ongoing research topic. Various mi-
croalgae grown in open or closed systems are
being tried including some system that can be
set up in brownfield and desert lands.
• Experimental solar power
Concentrated photovoltaics (CPV) systems
employ sunlight concentrated onto photo-
voltaic surfaces for the purpose of electric-
ity generation. Thermoelectric, or “thermo-
voltaic” devices convert a temperature differ-
ence between dissimilar materials into an elec-
tric current.
• Marine energy
Marine energy (also sometimes referred to as
ocean energy) refers to the energy carried by
15
Rance Tidal Power Station, France
ocean waves, tides, salinity, and ocean temper-
ature differences. The movement of water in
the world’s oceans creates a vast store of kinetic
energy, or energy in motion. This energy can
be harnessed to generate electricity to power
homes, transport and industries. The term ma-
rine energy encompasses both wave power –
power from surface waves, and tidal power –
obtained from the kinetic energy of large bod-
ies of moving water. Offshore wind power is
not a form of marine energy, as wind power is
derived from the wind, even if the wind tur-
bines are placed over water. The oceans have
a tremendous amount of energy and are close
to many if not most concentrated populations.
Ocean energy has the potential of providing
a substantial amount of new renewable energy
around the world.[152]
6 Debate
Main articles: Renewable energy debate, Nuclear power
proposed as renewable energy and Green job
Renewable electricity production, from sources such as
wind power and solar power, is sometimes criticized for
being variable or intermittent, but is not true for concen-
trated solar, geothermal and biofuels, that have continu-
ity. In any case, the International Energy Agency has
stated that deployment of renewable technologies usually
increases the diversity of electricity sources and, through
local generation, contributes to the flexibility of the sys-
tem and its resistance to central shocks.[155]
There have been “not in my back yard” (NIMBY) con-
cerns relating to the visual and other impacts of some
wind farms, with local residents sometimes fighting or
blocking construction.[156] In the USA, the Massachusetts
Cape Wind project was delayed for years partly because
of aesthetic concerns. However, residents in other ar-
16
eas have been more positive. According to a town coun-
cilor, the overwhelming majority of locals believe that
the Ardrossan Wind Farm in Scotland has enhanced the
area.[157]
A recent UK Government document states that “projects
are generally more likely to succeed if they have broad
public support and the consent of local communi-
ties. This means giving communities both a say and
a stake”.[158] In countries such as Germany and Den-
mark many renewable projects are owned by communi-
ties, particularly through cooperative structures, and con-
tribute significantly to overall levels of renewable energy
deployment.[159][160]
The market for renewable energy technologies has contin-
ued to grow. Climate change concerns and increasing in
green jobs, coupled with high oil prices, peak oil, oil wars,
oil spills, promotion of electric vehicles and renewable
electricity, nuclear disasters and increasing government
support, are driving increasing renewable energy legis-
lation, incentives and commercialization.[6] New govern-
ment spending, regulation and policies helped the indus-
try weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many
other sectors.[15][161]
7 Gallery
• Burbo, NW-England
• Sunrise at the Fenton Wind Farm in Minnesota,
USA
• The CSP-station Andasol in Andalusia, Spain
• Ivanpah solar plant in the Mojave Desert, California,
United States
• Three Gorges Dam and Gezhouba Dam, China
• Shop selling PV panels in Ouagadougou, Burkina
Faso
• Stump harvesting to increases recovery of biomass
from forests
• A small, roof-top mounted PV system in Bonn, Ger-
many
• The community-owned Westmill Solar Park in
South East England
• Komekurayama a photovoltaic power station in
Kofu, Japan
• Krafla, a geothermal power station in Iceland
8 See also
• Design feasibility of Wind turbine systems
9 REFERENCES
• Distributed generation
• Energy efficiency
• Energy storage
9 References
[1] Ipsos 2011, p. 3
[2] Omar Ellabban, Haitham Abu-Rub, Frede Blaabjerg, Re-
newable energy resources: Current status, future prospects
and their enabling technology. Renewable and Sus-
tainable Energy Reviews 39, (2014), 748–764, p 749,
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.113.
[3] REN21 (2010). Renewables 2010 Global Status Report
p. 15.
[4] REN21 (2014). “Renewables 2014: Global Status Re-
port” (PDF). pp. 13, 17, 21, 25. ISBN 978-3-9815934-
2-6. Archived from the original on 4 September 2014.
[5] International Energy Agency (2012). “Energy Technology
Perspectives 2012” (PDF).
[6] “Global Trends in Sustainable Energy Investment 2007:
Analysis of Trends and Issues in the Financing of Renew-
able Energy and Energy Efficiency in OECD and Devel-
oping Countries” (PDF). unep.org. United Nations En-
vironment Programme. 2007. p. 3. Archived from the
original on 13 October 2014. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
[7] REN21 (2013). “Renewables global futures report 2013”
(PDF).
[8] • Brian Vad Mathiesen et al., Smart Energy Systems
for coherent 100% renewable energy and transport
solutions. In: Applied Energy 145, (2015), 139–
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edge management system that provides the ma-
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22 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text
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Kelly, Twang, Robbot, Vardion, MrJones, Korath, Chris 73, RedWolf, Gaucho~enwiki, Nyh, Mayooranathan, Chopchopwhitey, Postdlf,
Yarvin, Alexblainelayder, Henrygb, Meelar, LGagnon, Rasmus Faber, Sunray, UtherSRG, Sterlingda, Phanly, Cyrius, Iain.mcclatchie,
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Shanes, RoyBoy, Cacophony, Femto, Bobo192, Nigelj, NetBot, Eggplantpasta, Chtito, Smalljim, Evolauxia, Viriditas, Vortexrealm, Richi,
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urinæ, Pethr, Gene Nygaard, Ultramarine, Stuartyeates, Planders, Angr, OwenX, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Simon Shek, Jpers36, MG-
Tom, JeremyA, Jwanders, Xaliqen, Kgrr, Xydean, Bkwillwm, Koassim, Knuckles, Hard Raspy Sci, Male1979, MarcoTolo, Behun, Gra-
ham87, Deltabeignet, V8rik, BD2412, Kbdank71, Pmj, Pentawing, Susten.biz, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Gjmulder, Hitssquad, Panoptical,
PinchasC, Ellenmc, Tangotango, Pabix, Gudeldar, Vegaswikian, CQJ, Daniel Collins, Gozar, Lionelbrits, Titoxd, SchuminWeb, Fleet-
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RobotE, NTBot~enwiki, Dmtk, Michael4444, Arado, Bhny, Mike Schiraldi, Gardar Rurak, Splette, D0li0, Stephenb, Manop, Alex Ra-
mon, David Woodward, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, NawlinWiki, EWS23, Dougschi, Shreshth91, Webmotiva~enwiki, Ste-
fantrinh1991, Wiki alf, Voyevoda, NickBush24, R’son-W, LiamE, Banes, Matticus78, Muu-karhu, Raven4x4x, Xiroth, Tony1, Buck-
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fuadam, Marekmosiewicz~enwiki, Roke, David A Bozzini, Mejor Los Indios, DVD R W, Theroachman, Tom Morris, Anthony717, Hid-
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mand, Oscarthecat, Lovecz, Improbcat, Matt0401, TheDarkArchon, Joefaust, Rampart, Persian Poet Gal, Rothery, George Church, Deli nk,
Kungming2, Ecgossett, Mkamensek, Para, Oatmeal batman, Firetrap9254, Rama’s Arrow, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Chlewbot, Flume,
Nixeagle, Whatthree16, ByronEngl212, Dripp, Elocina, Theanphibian, PrometheusX303, Cybercobra, Nakon, T-borg, Funky Monkey, Al-
fredng, Horses In The Sky, Aelffin, Nils Simon, Dreadstar, Nrcprm2026, Jbergquist, Hammer1980, Just plain Bill, Er Komandante, Jóna
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DSachan, Nadyes, Green caterpillar, JD Lisa, Pseudo-Richard, FlyingToaster, MarsRover, Myasuda, AndrewHowse, Yaris678, Mierlo,
Lesqual, Steel, Cowan66@hotmail.com, Gogo Dodo, ANTIcarrot, Dancter, DumbBOT, Teratornis, Ssilvers, Green.energy, Zer0faults, S-
kei, Crum375, Betacommand2, Independent Journalist, Mattisse, Vbinfo, Krishyaanis, Epbr123, Gaijin42, Sagaciousuk, Gralo, Headbomb,
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Bot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Opelio, Ownlyanangel, Mrshaba, Gregalton, Daoi, SteveOnline, Alphachimpbot, Flex Flint, Myanw, SeanMD,
JAnDbot, O-Jay, Zabby1982, MER-C, Sanchom, BenB4, Jdailey67, SiobhanHansa, Acroterion, Ideal4real, Skyemoor, Hroðulf, Bongwar-
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Marktj, Hfcom, MartinBot, Rukaribe, Gandydancer, EyeSerene, Cocosmooth, NAHID, Poeloq, Hanslicht, Middlenamefrank, Ben Mac-
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colton, Woood, Hiamoduril, Warlordwolf, Gloy, Lvanhelden, Elenseel, Gtg204y, Bonadea, Xaxx, Sven42, Andy Marchbanks, DASonnen-
feld, Fusion Power, Avitohol, Xiahou, Idioma-bot, SimDarthMaul, M-72, Xnuala, ACSE, Stormryder, VolkovBot, JS Uralia, Calvingao,
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GDonato, MatthewHaywood, Takkkadox, Gavoth, CoJaBo, Sethmasia, Kenao, Arnon Chaffin, Qxz, Preservario, Jameswkb, Leafyplant,
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Thunderbird2, Anthxnysd, Axle 2007, Dodo von den Bergen, HybridBoy, Yomaceo, Murkee, Biscuittin, Jserra, Andersneld, SieBot, Fnaga-
ton, Wjreece, Omarworld87, Johnpauljones2007, Tresiden, Henryc4, Tblakeslee, Nihil novi, E8, Brazzouk, Andrew.Ainsworth, Garryge-
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Dillard421, Billyg, Maelgwnbot, Vice regent, Envirocorrector, Cosmo0, Robvanbasten, Hayleyjones77, IECBuck, Thegingernut102.3
2crfm, Fundy, Ghetsmith, Ecarp, Jbntj, ImageRemovalBot, Ikarusdanoz, Beeblebrox, Grantrowe, ClueBot, Mariordo, Rumping, Avenged
Eightfold, School20077002, Nnemo, DesertAngel, DoYouRenew?, CasualObserver'48, Pnastu, Watti Renew, Ventusa, Bhargavshivarthy,
HUB, Tartine, Dinesh rewaria, Robmoney, Zonneson, Infimus, Yazazaz, Kitsunegami, -Midorihana-, Blindgoing~enwiki, Connaire07, 12
Noon, Muenda, NiciVampireHeart, Milyherex3, DJToxygene, Etip, Moneyowl, Aprout, Jacobmalthouse, Interestedppl, Dnaphd, Schreiber-
Bike, Nukeless, Muro Bot, Red-raconteur, Thehelpfulone, Inspector 34, MilesAgain, Jehandz, Biscito, NJGW, Thunderstix, Meske,
12.2 Images 23

Crowsnest, DumZiBoT, Life of Riley, Jshapira, Escientist, Njoedits, FX Hoffner, XLinkBot, Vayalir, Nicholiser, Nukeh, Scipio-62, 1234d,
Micke478, SilvonenBot, Mm40, JinJian, Zodon, Eaffe, Asynchronmaschine~enwiki, Addbot, American Eagle, Manuel Trujillo Berges,
DOI bot, Spitfired, Devon241161, Older and ... well older, Ronhjones, TutterMouse, Jncraton, Flubuk, Misterx2000, Download, Laa-
knorBot, Jreconomy, Peter 79, Chzz, Favonian, Farmercarlos, LemmeyBOT, Granitethighs, Tassedethe, Delphi234, Rehman, Tide rolls,
Lightbot, Acschwim, Apteva, ScAvenger, ‫ماني‬, Jarble, Jim, S.Portland, Legobot, Nargis 2008~enwiki, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Babban12,
Wpk2200, Emma9183, Rogerb67, Punctilius, Langmore, AnomieBOT, Juzhong, Mrosaclot, Jenakarthik, Daniele Pugliesi, Galoubet,
Materialscientist, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Engineering Guy, Biógrafo, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Cktt13, Charvest, Grantmidnight,
GhalyBot, Ssm83, Azxten, A. di M., Samwb123, REN21, Thehelpfulbot, Energee5, Electropaedia, Dan6hell66, GliderMaven, Appeltree1,
Sko1221, FrescoBot, Tim1337, LucienBOT, Altay8, Brunocip, Menwith, Nirogard, Chaim Shel, Georgeperez, Abydayjee, Citation bot 1,
Hallucegenia, Tabbelio, Pinethicket, Hard Sin, RedBot, Brian Everlasting, Ezhuttukari, Tlhslobus, NimbusWeb, Gryllida, Elekhh, Lotje,
Mdavidson98, Vrenator, LilyKitty, Extra999, Tzachi Bar, Minimac, Thomas Del Monte, Kt57, Perhelion, RjwilmsiBot, FNQ, Time-
Clock871, Hajatvrc, Slon02, Greenopedia, Ndfiz, EmausBot, John of Reading, Melipalen, Trofobi, NCLI, Boundarylayer, Enviromet,
Tommy2010, ZéroBot, John Cline, Checkingfax, Solar panels diy, Shannon1, Bisi77, Stovl, Ganesh Paudel, Fred Gandt, H3llBot, Aflafla1,
Bava Alcide57, TyA, ScienceMsG, L Kensington, Quite vivid blur, Verde22, Ginger Conspiracy, Carmichael, Rangoon11, Diamond-
land, Farmjustice2010, Rememberway, ClueBot NG, Uziw, Surfurman123, Tikayyan, Qarakesek, Coastwise, Slumzy, Borkificator, Mon-
soon Waves, Hahahafr, Kasirbot, Spowers007, Jdrie8, Dougmcdonell, ‫ساجد امجد ساجد‬, Crazymonkey1123, Joshuajohnson555, Morgan
rathbone, Sadicarnot78, NuclearEnergy, Barrodrajesh, Funnyguyt, Bibcode Bot, Rajeev764, Green2BGood, Gamick, BG19bot, Dualus,
Liontigerbear, Sunsurfer2011, Powerrsc, Beaucouplusneutre, Aandrew81, Northamerica1000, Andol, PhnomPencil, Surinder.oberoi28,
TomBrodshaw, Cncmaster, Cameron6426a, KI9357, Cadiomals, Gorthian, Vishalgaonkar22, Kgonza2, Bfax, Iamramgarg, Cousigreeno,
United States Man, Worldwatchinst, Gwickwire, Woodbg, JeffBausch, Vanischenu, BattyBot, Factsearch, Ehr1Ros2, Ocharpen, Cyber-
bot II, Keithkale, ChrisGualtieri, Energygal, IjonTichyIjonTichy, Dexbot, Travelpleb, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, Cerabot~enwiki, Creator011,
Cupco, Lardy123, Among Men, Deanpp, Reatlas, Joeinwiki, Rfassbind, Plexis Pi, Tim AFS, Ruby Murray, Larsvalentin, Morg00, Sam
Friggens, Earlgrey T, Alpha Sigma 111, Prokaryotes, Pointer wrangler, Dompan175, Man of Steel 85, G S Palmer, Tyankee, Femkemilene,
22merlin, Karenluo87, Lagoset, Monkbot, Indiamonsoon, Demoniccathandler, U2fanboi, VCoppola, Tehanim, Vaselineeeeeeee, Shamash-
hors, Guegreen, KasparBot and Anonymous: 1091

12.2 Images
• File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.
jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Frank Vincentz
• File:Alternative_Energies.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Alternative_Energies.jpg License: CC
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diaWiki SVN repository rev:77974 Original artist: Trevor Parscal
• File:EGS_diagram.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/EGS_diagram.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con-
tributors:
• Geothermie_Prinzip.svg Original artist: Geothermie_Prinzip.svg: *Geothermie_Prinzip01.jpg: “Siemens Pressebild” http://www.siemens.
com
• File:EU-PV-LCOE-Projection.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/EU-PV-LCOE-Projection.png
License: CC0 Contributors:
• Data source: EPIA Solar Photovoltaics Competing in the Energy Sector—On the road to competitiveness, September 2011. PDF-format.
See page 18, figure 8, European PV LCOE range projection 2010-2020 by segment. Original artist: S-kei
• File:Faz_S_Sofia_canavial_090607_REFON.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Faz_S_Sofia_
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• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-
sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Giant_photovoltaic_array.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Giant_photovoltaic_array.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: NELLIS AIR FORCE BASE website - Solar panels connect to base electric grid Original artist: U.S.
Air Force photo/Airman 1st Class Nadine Y. Barclay
• File:Global-RE-Investment-VC-Eng.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/
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• File:GlobalREPowerCapacity-exHydro-Eng.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/
GlobalREPowerCapacity-exHydro-Eng.png License: CC0 Contributors: REN21, Renewables Global Status Report 2012, p.17,
table “Selected Indicators”, PDF (archived) Original artist: S-kei
• File:Global_Wind_Power_Cumulative_Capacity.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Global_Wind_
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• File:Global_energy_potential_perez_2009_en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Global_energy_
potential_perez_2009_en.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
• Perez et al., 2009, “A Fundamental Look At Energy Reserves For The Planet”, p.3, PDF (archived) Original artist: Rfassbind
• File:Global_public_support_for_energy_sources_(Ipsos_2011).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/
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• File:IvanpahRunning.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/IvanpahRunning.JPG License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sbharris
24 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Metz_biomass_power_station.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Metz_biomass_power_station.

jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work by the original uploader Original artist: Bava Alcide57
• File:NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Gretar Ívarsson, geologist at Nesjavellir Original artist: Gretar Ívarsson – Edited by Fir0002
• File:Outunit_of_heat_pump.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Outunit_of_heat_pump.jpg License:
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• File:PS20andPS10.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/PS20andPS10.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contrib-
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tors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Schuminweb at English Wikipedia
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Original artist: ?
• File:Rance_tidal_power_plant.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Rance_tidal_power_plant.JPG Li-
cense: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Dani 7C3
• File:Sao_Paulo_ethanol_pump_04_2008_74_zoom.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Sao_Paulo_
ethanol_pump_04_2008_74_zoom.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mariordo Mario Roberto Duran Ortiz
• File:Shepherds_Flat_Wind_Farm_2011.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Shepherds_Flat_Wind_
Farm_2011.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: flickr: More Windmills...... Original artist: Steve Wilson from Orpington, UK
• File:Solar-Panel-Cooker-in-front-of-hut.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/
Solar-Panel-Cooker-in-front-of-hut.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Origi-
nal artist: Tom Sponheim
• File:Solar_Panels_at_Topaz_Solar_1_(8159002527)_(2).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Solar_
Panels_at_Topaz_Solar_1_%288159002527%29_%282%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Solar Panels at Topaz Solar 1 Orig-
inal artist: Pacific Southwest Region from Sacramento, US
• File:Sugarcane_field.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Sugarcane_field.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/photos/dec97/k7151-3.htm Original artist: Photo by Scott Bauer
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• File:Thames_Estuary_and_Wind_Farms_from_Space_NASA_with_annotations.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Thames_Estuary_and_Wind_Farms_from_Space_NASA_with_annotations.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Annotated version of File:Thames Estuary and Wind Farms from Space NASA.jpg showing offshore wind farms Original
artist: Operational Land Imager, with annotations by Delusion23
• File:ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.
jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: File:Three_Gorges_Dam,_Yangtze_River,_China.jpg Original artist: Source file: Le Grand Portage
• File:Topaz_Solar_Farm,_California_Valley.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Topaz_Solar_
Farm%2C_California_Valley.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=85403&
src=eoa-iotd Original artist: Earth Observatory image by Jesse Allen, using EO-1 ALI data provided courtesy of the NASA EO-1 team.
Caption by Adam Voiland.
• File:Total_World_Energy_Consumption_by_Source_2010.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/
Total_World_Energy_Consumption_by_Source_2010.png License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Delphi234
• File:US_projected_cost_of_wind_power.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/US_projected_cost_of_
wind_power.png License: Public domain Contributors: “The Past and Future Cost of Wind Energy”, NREL conference paper no. 6A20-
54526, page 4 Original artist: E. Lantz and M. Hand (National Renewable Energy Laboratory) and R. Wiser (Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory)
• File:West_Ford_Flat_Geothermal_Cooling_Tower.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/West_Ford_
Flat_Geothermal_Cooling_Tower.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original up-
loader was Rtracey at en.wikipedia
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Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use official Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
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Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lukipuk
• File:Windmills_D1-D4_-_Thornton_Bank.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Windmills_D1-D4_-_
Thornton_Bank.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hans Hillewaert

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