History of Piano Literature

Harpsichord Music:
It's Form and Characteristic

Lecturer: Wilson Chu

Introduction
In most respects, the late Renaissance and Baroque ages in music
history proved to be advantageous for keyboard composition.
Beginning about 1550 and extending to 1750, this era is notable
for its recognition of the harpsichord.

During this time the harpsichord assumed a place in virtually every

musical ensemble. Beyond its use as a supporting instrument, the
harpsichord soon achieved a repertoire of its own. Indeed, most
composers after 1650 singled out at least some part of their writing
for the keyboard—either harpsichord or organ, or both.
The old church modes slowly yielded to concepts of major
and minor tonality.
(Refer to Ionian as major and Aeolian as natural minor)

During 1650 – 1700, the science of harmony (chords

and their relationships) was crystallized. Modulation was
another outgrowth of this tonal stabilization.
Dissonance, usually treated with great respect and some,
temerity by Renaissance composers, became part of the
expressive language of Baroque writers.
Repeated motives and phrases became particularly popular (these
were most effective on instruments with two keyboard manuals).

Since crescendo and diminuendo are impossible on the harpsichord

because of the method of tone production, the composers partially
compensated for this deficiency by the “echo” effect.

A phrase could be played on one keyboard with a strong dynamic

level, then “echoed” or repeated softly on the second keyboard.
These echoings sometimes are called terrace dynamics.
 Rhythm
Baroque rhythm as applied to harpsichord music is vital.
Since accent is impossible on this instrument, rhythm is
greatly dependent upon phrasing, note values, harmony, and
ornamentation.

Ornamentation plays a significant role in Baroque keyboard

music. The assorted embellishments—trills, mordents—were
used differently by each composer. These ornaments were
effective in maintaining a rhythmic accent; they were necessary
to delineate a slow, lyrical phrase line; and they were suitable
for introducing dissonances
 Texture
The texture of keyboard music changed substantially in the
Baroque period. During the early 17th century, composers
concentrated on a purely homophonic style, basically a
melody with chordal accompaniment.

Gradually, beginning about mid-17th century, this

homophonic approach was combined with elements of
polyphonic texture.
This synthesis achieved its most perfect expression in the
music of Johann Sebastian Bach.
 Rococo Era
The term Rococo is applied to certain composers and
compositions written during the late Baroque and Pre-Classic
eras. Rococo music is characterized by profuse ornamentation,
light texture, and occasional superf iciality.

It was used primarily by French and Italian composers of the

day and is known also as the stile galant.
 Keyboard Forms
There are three important compositional forms:
- the suite (and closely related sonata)
- the variation
- the fugue, which was frequently preceded by a prelude,
toccata, or fantasia.
 The Suite / Partita / Sonata da
camera

The suite usually denotes a cycle (or series) of dance pieces

changing in tempo and meter yet preserving key unity
throughout. Each suite section—excluding the optional
introductory movement (prelude, overture, etc.)—was
constructed in bipartite form.

Bipartite form means that the musical structure is separated

roughly into two sections, each section marked for repetition, if the
performer so desires.
The first section has one theme—sometimes fragments of a
second—and toward the end of this first section there occurs a
modulation to the dominant or relative major key of the initial
tonality.

The second section has some brief development or variation of the

theme, then a modulation back to the original key. The suite can
be traced back to the paired dances written for the lute—beginning
about the 14th century in France, Germany, and Italy.

Let's analyzed Bach's Partita No. 1 & No. 2!

 Pavane & Gailliard
The galliard, a dance in triple meter, came to be coupled with
the pavane. The galliard first appeared in Lombardy at the
end of the 15th century.

In 1529 the French publisher Attaignant published a series of

galliards; the English composers appropriated this dance
form about 1541. The pavane and galliard were a popular
combination after 1550.
 Allemande
The allemande probably had its beginnings in France or the
Netherlands. About 1600, it ceased to be used for dancing
and became a stylized dance type.
Sébastien de Brossard, an early 18th century writer, defined
the allemande as a “grave symphony, usually in duple time, often
in quadruple; it has two sections, each of which is played twice.”
 Minuet
During the 16th century, the minuet form gradually evolved in
France.
It was popular as an instrumental ensemble piece during the
reign of Louis XIV and consisted of 3 sections:

Minuet I, Minuet II or Minuet en trio (written for three

instruments only), and Minuet III. Later the term Minuet II was
dropped and Trio was used—even though the entire minuet
might be played by only one keyboard nstrument.
 Courante
The courante, of French origin, was very much in vogue from 1660
to 1700. After 1700 it no longer was danced but continued to be a
favorite form of the harpsichord schools.
As a keyboard piece, it existed in two stylized types.
1. The courante, or French type, was a dance of moderate tempo in
ternary meter, usually based on a 3/2 scheme, which could be
accented several ways.
2. The Italian corrente is much less restrained in character and
shows more rhythmic stability. The latter type utilizes a running
melodic line supported by a chordal accompaniment.
 Sarabande
The sarabande was a popular dance in Spain before 1600. By
1650 it had spread throughout the continent and later
received independent instrumental treatment.

The sarabande was a dance of noble character usually

written with notes of long value, although considerable
ornamentation is in evidence. It is written in ternary
measure, begins on a strong beat, and often presents a
prolongation of the second beat. Typically, there are two
sections of eight measures each.
 Gigue
England apparently introduced the gigue or jig, a piece in ternary
meter.
The gigue is “an air ordinarily for instruments, almost always in
triple time, which is full of dotted syncopated notes, which make
the melody gay and, in a manner of speaking, sparkling.”
The continental type is characterized by a fugal entry for each of
its two sections.
 Bourree
A gay, rapid dance in duple meter, the bourrée was discovered in
Auvergne at the end of the 16th century.

It was assimilated into the suite group about the time of Lully.
 Unmeasured Prelude
Dating more or less from the beginning of the 17th century in France, the
unmeasured prelude probably goes back to the stylistic processes of the
16th century Italian school. (The measured prelude was also used, but
was found most often in Germany.)

The unmeasured prelude was improvisatory, made up of chords alternating

with passage work.
The unmeasured prelude seemed to serve a dual purpose.

1. It provided the lutenist with an opportunity to test his instrument for

exact pitch

2. It allowed him to warm up, so to speak, before proceeding to the

allemandes, courantes, and gigues.

This same explanation applied to the prelude as used by the French

harpsichordists, for equal temperament was not yet a common
practice; and even if it were, the harpsichord required frequent tuning
then as it does today.
 Sonata
During the late 17th to 18th century, many Italian and Spanish keyboard
composers produced individual pieces in bipartite form, which they called
“sonatas.”

However, the Italians also freely used the term sonata to designate
groups of pieces, but these groups were really suites.

The term sonata is an abbreviation of two forms common to Italy: the

sonata da camera or “chamber sonata” (a series of dance movements using
a common or nearly related tonality), and the sonata da chiesa or “church
sonata” (a group of pieces contrasting in texture and tempo, each piece
retaining the bipartite structure).
 Classic Suite
The classic suite emerged with Johann Froberger, who blended
continental dance forms with the stylistic processes of the French
Baroque.
In his earlier suites, Froberger used only three dances: allemande,
courante, sarabande. Soon four basic dances became the standard
for the suite.
Froberger did not, however, place the gigue at the end. His
movement sequences for the suite dances were:
Allemande – gigue / courante – courante / gigue –
Sarabande
 German Suite
By the 18th century—due in great part to Johann Sebastian Bach—the German
suite had become more or less standardized as follows:

1.Introductory optional movement: prelude (measured), overture, fantasia, etc.

2. allemande

3. courante

4. sarabande

5. Optional dances: gavotte, bourrée, passepied, etc.

6. gigue

Composers in other countries took up this form from time to time, but on the
whole it remained German creation.
 Variation
The principle of variation is based on simultaneous contrast of
repetition and change. In the recurring bass line, a melodic phrase
of 4 or 8 measures is designed, frequently in triple meter and
minor tonality. This bass melody remains constant; anything else
may change. (Refer to Beethoven's Variations)

Compositions utilizing this method bear various names such as

basso ostinato, chaconne, and passacaglia.
 Chaconne & Passacaglia
In the Baroque era, the terms chaconne and passacaglia were used
interchangeably. Therefore, they also apply to variation based on a
recurring harmonic pattern, hence the basic harmony is the constant
factor. (looping harmony)

The composer may use great imagination in rhythmic, melodic, and

motivic metamorphosis, but he must preserve the harmonic outline.

(photo of Passacaglia)
 Theme & Variations
The Baroque “theme and variations” found its greatest success in
Germany and Austria. Some composers, such as Froberger,
combined variation technique with the suite, producing a hybrid
form called the variation suite.

In this event, the courante, sarabande, and gigue became variations

on the initial material presented in the allemande. In Germany, the
theme and variations attained its most distinguished development
with Johann Sebastian Bach’s Goldberg Variations.
 Fugue
The fugue form was in its prime during the Baroque age. Indeed, there
are later instances when the fugue made brief appearances; Beethoven
and Mendelssohn wrote fugues, and 20th century composers such as Paul
Hindemith and Samuel Barber have used fugal form for keyboard
pieces.

The fugue developed from the Renaissance ricercar and organ canzona.
The ricercar (derived from the motet) was made up of several sections,
each section being a fugal exposition—the presentation of a basic theme
or subject in each polyphonic voice.
A fugue is a contrapuntal composition worked out according to prescribed
rules and tenets of keyboard counterpoint. It habitually employs three or
four voices, occasionally f ive. the fugue proceeds to alternate “episodes”
and “entries.”

An episode occurs when there is a section of a fugue without a voice

part stating the subject in full. On the other hand, an entry occurs when
there is a return of the complete subject in one of the voice parts. Toward
the end, at the climax of the fugue, all voice parts may enter with the
subject in close succession (stretto).
 Improvisatory Style
A piece in contrasting style usually preceded the fugue, and
for this the Baroque composer could select from several
quasi-improvisatory types, such as the prelude, toccata, etc.
The prelude (in measured rhythms) had a principal motive
that was expanded by repetition and modulation.

The toccata, fundamentally a work in rapid tempo, had

alternating passages of different textures. And the fantasy
included elements from both the prelude and toccata.
 Conclusion
The suite, variation, and fugue were the forms used most
universally by Baroque keyboard composers. There were others,
but they were rather exclusively confined to individual countries or
sporadically used by individual composers.

After the Baroque period, the scene changed apropos these forms.
The variation, restricted to a basically homophonic texture,
continued into the Classic era. The suite gradually disappeared
although one of its members, the minuet, was incorporated into
Classic sonata form. The fugue as a keyboard form lost its
prominence until the early 19th century.