Chapter 9 * Status

* Promotion opportunities
ELEMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL
BEHAVIOR.mp4 - Google Drive * The basic challenge for the organization is to manage
this Psychological Contract and make sure that it is
Basic Elements of Individual Behavior in getting the value from the employees but at the same
Organizations time, provide the employees appropriate inducements.
***Symbiotic relationship – give and take***

Way to maintain this maintain or achieve the

Psychological Contract

Person-Job Fit
- the extent to which the contributions made by the
individual match the inducements offered by the
organization

- Each employee has a specific set of needs to be

Understanding Individuals in Organization
The relationship between people and their employers
are complex.
In understanding this complexity, we must consider the
nature of this relationship, especially those unwritten.
Employers especially the managers must learn to
appreciate the different characteristics in each and
every employee which affect their attitudes about the
firm and their performance towards their jobs.
fulfilled and a set of job-related behaviors to
contribute.
- The degree to which the organization can take
advantage of those behaviors and, in turn, fulfill
an employee’s needs will determine the level of
person-job fit.
Reasons for unachieved person-job-fit
- selection procedures are imperfect
- both people and organizations change
- each individual is unique
> measuring skills and performance is difficult
> assessing needs, attitudes, and personality is
complex

Psychological contract The Nature of Individual Differences

- The overall set of expectations held by an individual
Personal attributes that vary from one person to
with respect to what he or she will contribute to the
another
organization and what the organization will provide
- Physical
in return.
- Psychological
Contributions from Individual - Emotional
- What the individual provides to the organization
Whenever an organization attempts to assess or
* Effort
account for individual differences among employees, it
* Ability
must consider the situation in which behavior occurs.
* Loyalty
* Skills Personality and Individual Behavior
* Time
Individual differences
* Competencies
- personal attributes that vary from one person to
Inducements from the Organization another
- what the organization provides to the individual
Personality
* Pay
- the relatively set of psychological and behavioral
* Job security
attributes that distinguish one person from another
* Benefits
* Career opportunities
The “Big Five” Personality Traits
1. Agreeableness
- A person’s ability to get along with others.
- HIGH Agreeableness: to be very
understanding, very gentle, very cooperative,
and good natured in dealing with other people
- LOW Agreeableness: he is irritable, impatient,
has antagonistic feelings towards others.
2. Conscientiousness
- A person’s ability to manage multiple tasks
and consistently meet deadlines.
- HIGH Conscientiousness: person with
discipline, very systematic attitude, organized,
and responsible
- LOW Conscientiousness: careless and
irresponsible
3. Neuroticism (negative emotionality)
- Extent to which a person experiences anxiety
or is poised, calm, resilient, and secure.
- HIGH Neuroticism: always on the negative
side, easily distracted and feel insecure
- LOW Neuroticism: poised, resilient, and
secured attitude
4. Extraversion
- A person’s comfort level with relationships.
- HIGH Extroversion: sociable, friendly, talkative,
open, and able to establish different
relationships
- LOW Extroversion: unsociable, quiet, might
not be willing to listen/associate with fellow
employees
5. Openness
- A person’s rigidity of beliefs and range of
interests
- related to extraversion and agreeableness
- HIGH Openness: willing to listen, willing to
change
- LOW Openness: closed and not willing to
change
The Myers-Briggs Framework
This framework, based on the classic work of Carl Jung,
differentiates people in terms of four general
dimensions, defined as follows:
Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
- one popular questionnaire that some organizations
use to assess and differentiate personalities based
on the dimensions of the MB framework.
- useful method for determining communication
styles and interaction preferences; has questionable
reliability and validity.
Extraversion (E) versus introversion (I).
- Extraverts get their energy from being around other
people, whereas introverts are worn out by others and
need solitude to recharge their energy.
Sensing (S) (concrete things) versus intuition (N) (abstract).
- The sensing type prefers concrete things, tends to be
factual and see the reality,
- Whereas intuitive prefer abstract concepts.
Thinking (T) versus feeling (F).
- Thinking individuals base their decisions more on logic
and reason, tends to be rational
- whereas feeling individuals base their decisions more
on feelings and emotions.
Judging (J) (completion) versus perceiving (P) (process).
- People who are the judging type enjoy completion or
being finished, wants to see things
complete/proof/evidence
- whereas perceiving types enjoy the process and open-
ended situations.
 - He wants to be a boss, superior, and wants to
control others

Self-esteem
- The extent to which a person believes that he or
she is a worthwhile and deserving individual
- Related to self-confidence and self-efficacy

Risk propensity
- The degree to which an individual is willing to take
chances and make risky decisions

Emotional Intelligence
Personality Traits at Work

Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

Locus of control
- The degree to which an individual believes that his
or her behavior has a direct impact or effects on
what happens to them
EQ various dimensions can be described as follows:
 Internal locus of control
- individuals who believe they are in control of
their lives.
 External locus of control
- individuals believe that external forces
dictate what happens to them.
Self-efficacy – Self Confidence
- An individual’s beliefs about his or her capabilities
to perform a task
- High self-efficacy individuals believe they can
perform well; while low self-efficacy individuals
doubt their ability to perform a task
Authoritarianism
- The extent to which an individual believes that
power and status differences are appropriate within
hierarchical social systems like organizations
- Believes in positions/authorities
Machiavellianism (Niccolo M.)
- Behavior directed at gaining power and controlling
the behavior of others
- The extent to which people are self aware, manage
their emotions, motivate themselves, express
empathy for others, and possess social skills
 Self-awareness
- It refers to a person’s capacity for being aware
of how they are feeling. In general, more self-
awareness allows people to more effectively
guide their own lives and behaviors.
 Managing emotions
- This refers to a person’s capacities to balance
anxiety, fear, and anger so those emotions do
not overly interfere with getting things
accomplished.
 Motivating oneself
- This refers to a person’s ability to remain
optimistic and to continue striving in the face of
setbacks, barriers, and failure.
 Empathy
- This refers to a person’s ability to understand
how others are feeling, even without being
explicitly told.
 Social skill
- This refers to a person’s ability to get along
 with others and to establish positive
relationships.
Attitudes and Individual Behavior
Attitudes
- Complexes of beliefs and feelings that people have
about specific ideas, situations, or other people
- Mechanism through which most people express
their feelings
Cognitive Dissonance
- The mental discomfort that individuals experience
when their own attitudes are in conflict with their
disorders
- Caused when an individual has conflicting attitudes
3 Components of Attitudes
Affective Component
- how we feel toward the situation
(you know what’s happening)
Cognitive Component
- why we feel that way
(you understand the reason why you feel that
way)
Intentional Component
- how we intend to behave toward or in the
situation
(what do you plan to do)
Work-Related Attitudes
Job satisfaction or dissatisfaction
- An attitude that reflects the extent to which an
individual is gratified by or fulfilled in his or her work
- needs and aspirations (met)
- relationship with coworkers and supervisors
(good or pleasant)
- working conditions (better)
- policies (followed)
- compensation (good)
Job satisfaction and Work Behaviors
- Job satisfaction is influenced by personal, group,
and organizational factors.
* satisfied employees are absent from work less
often, make positive contributions and stay with the
organization
* dissatisfied employees are absent from work more
often, may experience stress which disrupts
coworkers, and are continually looking for another
job
- High Level of Job Satisfaction do not necessarily
lead to high job performance
(the individual may not be motivated to perform
anymore)
Organizational commitment
- An attitude that reflects an individual’s
identification with and attachment to the
organization itself.
- Employee commitment strengthens with an
individual’s age, years with the organization, sense
of job security, and participation in decision making.
- Committed employees have highly reliable habits,
plan a longer tenure with the organization, and
muster more effort in performance
- Organizations must treat its employees fairly,
provide reasonable rewards and job security, and
allowing them to have a say in how things are done
to make them satisfied and committed.
Affect and Mood in Organizations
Positive Affectivity
- A tendency to be relatively upbeat and
optimistic, have an overall sense of well-being,
see things in a positive light, and seem to be in a
good mood
Negative affectivity
- A tendency to be generally downbeat and
pessimistic, see things in a negative way, and
seem to be in a bad mood
Perception and Individual Behavior
Perception
- The set of processes by which an individual
becomes aware of and interprets information about
the environment
Selective perception
- The process of screening out information that
we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts
our beliefs
- If selective perception causes someone to ignore
important information, it can become quite
detrimental
Stereotyping
- The process of categorizing or labelling people
on the basis of a single attribute (e.g., gender and
race)
- Stereotyping may cost the organization valuable
 talent, violate federal anti-bias laws, and is
unethical
Perception and Perceptual Processes
Attribution
- The process or mechanism through which we
observe behavior and attributing causes to it
Type B
- Individuals who are less competitive, are less
devoted to work, and have a weaker sense of time
urgency
- Less likely to experience personal stress or to come
into conflict with other people
- Likely to have a balanced, relaxed approach to life

The basic framework around which we form attributions Causes and Consequences of Stress
is

 Consensus (the extent to which other people in

the same situation behave the same way)

 Consistency (the extent to which the same

person behaves in the same way at different
times)

 Distinctiveness (the extent to which the same Organizational Stressors

person behaves in the same way in other
situations) Causes of Work Stress
- There are several causes of work stress in
Stress and Individual Behavior organizations. Four general sets of organizational
Stress stressors are:
- An individual’s response to a strong stimulus, which Task demands
is called a stressor * Quick decisions
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) * Incomplete information for decisions
- General cycle of the stress process * Critical decisions

The General Adaptation Syndrome Physical demands

- The GAS represents the normal process by which * Temperature extremes
we react to stressful events. * Poorly designed office
* Threats to health
Stage 1: alarm—panic, wondering how to cope,
helpless, level of resistance to stress drops. Role demands
* Role ambiguity
Stage 2: resistance—trying to understand the * Role conflict
stressor, actively resisting the effects of the it,
represents our efforts to confront and control Interpersonal Demands
the stressful circumstance. * Group pressures
* Leadership styles
Stage 3: exhaustion—prolonged exposure to stress * Conflicting personalities
causes to give up or quit.
Consequences of Stress
Personality Types
Negative personal consequences
Type A
- Individuals who are extremely competitive,  Behavioral—smoking, alcoholism, overeating, drug
aggressive, devoted to work, and have a strong abuse.
sense of time urgency, impatient  Psychological—sleep disturbances, depression.
- Have a lot of drive and want to accomplish as much
as possible as quickly as possible, work-oriented  Medical—heart disease, stroke, backaches, ulcers,
skin conditions.
Negative work-related consequences  Background Experiences and Creativity
- creative individuals were raised in environments in
 Poor quality work output and lower
which creativity was nurtured.
productivity.
 Personal Traits and Creativity
 Job dissatisfaction, low morale, and a
- traits shared by most creative people are openness,
lack of commitment.
an attraction to complexity, high levels of energy,
 Withdrawal through indifference and independence and autonomy, strong self-
absenteeism confidence, and a strong belief that one is, in fact,
creative
Individual Consequences of Stress
 Cognitive Abilities and Creativity
Burnout - are an individual’s power to think intelligently and
- A feeling of exhaustion that may develop when to analyze situations and data effectively
someone experiences too much stress for an extended * Most creative people are highly intelligent
period of time * They are both divergent and convergent thinkers,
Managing Stress a skill they use to see different similarities in
situations, phenomena, and events
Stress Management Strategies for Individual
Divergent thinking
 Regular exercise - is a skill that allows people to see differences
- reduces tension and stress, and improves self- among situations, phenomena, or events.
confidence and feelings of optimism
Convergent thinking
 Relaxation - is a skill that allows people to see similarities
- allows individuals to adapt and deal with their among situations, phenomena, or events.
stress
The Creative Process
 Time management
- reduces stress by prioritizing activities to
accomplish them in their order of importance

 Support group
- socializing away from work reduces stress

Creativity in Organizations

Creativity
- The ability of an individual to generate new ideas or
to conceive of new perspectives on existing ideas
- Is nurtured by background environment and
experiences

Personal Traits of Creative Individuals

> Preparation
- openness
- Formal education and training is used to “get up to
- an attraction to complexity
speed”
- high levels of energy
- Experiences on the job provide additional
- independence
knowledge and ideas
- autonomy
- strong self-confidence > Incubation
- a strong belief in their own creativity - A period of conscious concentration during which
knowledge and ideas mature and develop
The Creative Individuals
- Incubation is helped by pauses in rational thought
These attributes generally fall into three categories:
> Insight - Occurs when individuals quit their job for work-
- A spontaneous breakthrough in which the creative related or personal reasons
person achieves a new understanding of some
Organizational Citizenship
problem or situation
- The behavior of individuals that makes a positive
- Patterns of thought coalesce into a new
overall contribution to the organization
understanding
Determinants of Organizational Citizenship
> Verification
- Determines the validity or truthfulness of the  Individual’s personality, attitudes and needs
insight
- Tests are conducted and prototypes are built to see  Social context of the workplace (work group)
if the insight leads to the expected results  Organizations capacity to reward citizenship
Enhancing Creativity in Organizations
- Make creativity part of the organization’s culture
* Set goals for revenues from creative products
and services
* Reward creative success; refrain from punishing
creative failures – some ideas work out as expected,
others don’t
Dysfunctional Behaviors
Types of Workplace Behavior
Those that detract from, rather than contribute to,
organizational performance

 Absenteeism and turnover

 Theft and sabotage

 Sexual and racial harassment

 Politicized behavior

 Intentionally misleading others

 Spreading malicious rumors

 Workplace violence

Workplace behavior
- A pattern of action by the members of an
organization that directly or indirectly influences
organizational effectiveness

Performance behaviors
- The total set of work-related behaviors that the
organization expects the individual to display

Withdrawal behaviors
> Absenteeism
- Occurs when an individual does not show up
for legitimate or feigned reasons
- May be a symptom of other work-related
problems
> Turnover