Seed Production Technologyof Wheatand Barley

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Title of the Book: Seed Production Technology
Edition: First- 2021
Copyright 2021 © Authors
Editors
Nirmal Singh
Anurag Malik
Himani Punia
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or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval
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Disclaimer
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ii
Contents
Unit No. Title Pages
1. Seed Production Technology of Wheat and Barley 1-28

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Neha Thakur, Uppuluri Tejaswini, Anurag Malik , and Nirmal Singh
2. Quality Seed Production Technology of Rice 29-40

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Rukoo Chawla, Versha and Atman Poonia
3. Seed Production Technology of Cotton, Jute and Flax 41-66

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Nirmal Singh, Pramendra, Rajan Kamboj and Naveen Rao
4. Seed Production Technology of Cowpea and Soybean 67-81

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Nidhi, Gagandeep Singh, Rahul Kumar and Anurag Malik
5. Seed Production Technology of Rapeseed & Mustard 82-96

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Nirmal Singh, Sourabh, Himani Punia and Akash
6. Quality Seed Production Technology of Berseem & Oats 97-110

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Atman Poonia, Versha, Rukoo Chawla and Rajesh Yadav
7. Seed Production Technology of Sunflower & Safflower 111-127

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Nidhi, Neeru Dumra, Rahul Kumar and Gagandeep Singh
8. Seed Production Technology of Peas and Beans: French Bean, 128-155

Pea and Cluster Bean
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Neha Thakur, Uppuluri Tejaswini, Himangini and Anurag Malik
9. Quality Seed Production Technology of Pulses (Chickpea, 156-168

Mungbean, Broadbean and Lentil)
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Versha, Atman Poonia, Rukoo Chawla and Rajesh Yadav
10. Utilization of Existing Genetic Mechanisms for Quality Hybrid 169-184

Seed Production in Cole Crops
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Sangeet Kumar, Kiran Sagwal, Nidhi Sehgal and Vivek Thapliyal
11. Quality Seed Production of Leafy Vegetables: Amaranth and 185-198

Palak
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Nidhi sehgal, Nirmal Singh and Sangeet Kumar
vi
12. Varietal and Hybrid Seed Production in Solanaceous Vegetables 199-226
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Himangini, Neha Thakur, Anurag Malik, and Nirmal Singh
13. Quality Seed Production of Rare Vegetables: Asparagus, Lettuce, 227-255

Celery and Parsley
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Ajay Chauhan, Simran Sharma and Rhitisha Sood
14. Advances in Quality Seed Production of Major Seed Spices: 256-278

Coriander, Fennel and Fenugreek
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sangeet Kumar, Rajesh Kumar Vinod Kumar and Ajay Chauhan
15. Varietal and Hybrid Seed Production in Apiaceae Vegetables 279-297

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Akash, Shubham, Kapil and Mayank
vii
CHAPTER 1:
SEED PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF WHEAT AND BARLEY

Neha Thakur Uppuluri Tejaswini
Assistant Professor, Department of Seed Science and Technology,
Department of Seed Science and Technology, Gandhi Krishi Vigyana Kendra (GKVK),
College of Horticulture and Forestry, Bengaluru, Karnataka - 560092
Thunag, Mandi, (tejaswini.uppulurichanti@gmail.com)
Himachal Pradesh - 175048
(nthakur0708@gmail.com)
Anurag Malik Nirmal Singh

Department of Seed Science and Technology, Department of Seed Science and Technology,
Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural
University, Hisar, Haryana – 125004 University, Hisar, Haryana – 125004
(anuragmalikseed@hau.ac.in) (nirmalsingh@hau.ac.in)
1. Introduction:
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) belongs to Gramineae family and is an essential cereal and the
most crucial food grain for human. It ranks second in total food grain production after maize and is
followed by rice. Wheat is predominant food for about 10 billion people in 43 countries of the world.
This accounts for 35 % of world population. Globally India holds second position in the production of
wheat first being China [1]. China, India, Russian Federation, United states, France, Australia and
Canada are top wheat growing countries [1]. Globally interest for wheat is rising due gluten proteins
present in wheat flour that expedite the production of processed foods. It is because of its
unique adhesive property and viscoelasticity. Wheat seeds are a rich source of carbohydrates and
protein (13%). This is comparatively high as seen in other major cereals although the protein quality is
relatively low for supplying essential amino acids. As a composite grain, wheat is a complete package
to deliver dietary fiber as well as multiple nutrients [2]. Of the thousands of varieties known, the
major cultivated species are presented in the following section. In India bread wheat shares 87 per
cent of the total wheat produced and it is also most consumed wheat. Then durum wheat control 12
per cent and dicoccum wheat shares 1 per cent of the total wheat production in India.
On account of its worldwide consumption wheat grain releases 1,370 kilojoules of food
energy per 100 grams. It is enriched with multiple essential nutrients, manganese, phosphorus, niacin,
protein, dietary fiber and several vitamins and other dietary minerals. Wheat grain is composed
of carbohydrates (71%), fat (1.5%), water (13%) and proteins (13%). The protein of wheat is mostly
glutenin (75-80%). Though wheat grain constitutes decent quantity of essential amino acids, but as
similar to all the cereals the wheat protein is also deficient in lysine. This is because of
wheat endosperm’s gluten proteins that this cereal is particularly poor in lysine. As a result of various
momentous attempts done by eminent plant breeders it is possible to develop lysine-rich wheat
varieties. Newly released wheat varieties are generally supplemented with proteins from other food
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Chapter 1: Seed Production Technology of Wheat and Barley
sources that are abundant in protein content e.g., pulses (legumes). Thus, it can overcome the protein
deficiency present in this cereal. If there is shortage of even one essential amino acid then it initiates
the breakdown and loss of other amino acids that are exclusively beneficial during the period of
growth and development in human.
2. Some of the Species of Wheat Under Cultivation:

• Common or Bread wheat (T. aestivum): A hexaploid (2n = 6x = 42) wheat species. It is also
the largely under cultivation in the world.
• Einkorn wheat (T. monococcum): A diploid (2n = 2x = 14) species consisting of variants in
both wild and cultivated forms.
• Emmer wheat (T. dicocum): It’s a tetraploid (2n = 4x = 28) species. This variety was
cultivated long back but currently it is not in much use.
• Club wheat (T. compactum): It is also called soft wheat is main ingredient of cookies, cake,
pastries, and flour. It has also uses in industry for gluten, alcohol, malt and dextrose production.
• Durum wheat (T. durum): It is tetraploid (2n = 4x = 28) this is the second most cultivated
wheat and commonly used. It used in processing pasta, macaroni and spaghetti.
• Spelta wheat (T. spelta): It is hexaploid (2n = 6x = 42) wheat and not cultivated in all areas.
Although as many as 18 species of wheat are recognised worldwide [3] but there is very less species
that hold importance especially for modern agriculture as mentioned in table 1.
Table 1: Ploidy level of some of the species of wheat
Scientific name Ploidy level

T. aegiloploids, T. monococcum Diploid 14
Einkorn Series (tetraploid)

T. polonicum, T. durum, T. persicum, T. dicoccoides, T. Tetraploid 28
turgidum, T. orientale, T. timopheevi, T. dicoccum
Dinkale series (hexaploid)
T. spelta, T. macha, T. aestivum or vulgare Hexaploid 42
Wheat cultivars can also be classified on the basis of planting season: spring and winter
wheat, seed colour (e.g., red, yellow, white), seed character (durum, hard bread wheat, and soft
wheat). These types are classified due to the differences in their characteristics. It can also be on the
basis of their utility in food producing and baking industry. The features of major wheat species are
discussed. The durum wheat is high in gluten-producing proteins. Indeed, it is the ‘hardest’ wheat. It
can be used for making semolina, macaroni and other pastas. Another type of cultivated wheat is hard
wheat that includes both winter and spring wheat e.g., western red wheat of Canada and hard red
wheat of United States. This type wheat contains more amount of gluten proteins whereas the soft
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wheat is lower in it. It is utilised for making all-purpose flours and also bread flours. Soft wheat is
with lower gluten content hence it is milled into cake and pastry flours.
Wheat is believed to be originated near the Fertile Crescent. Although the exact place and
date of the origin is unrecognised. The hexaploid wheat is supposed to have its evolution before 7000
BC. It is believed to have evolved from Caspian Sea towards Northern Iran and into Afghanistan.
According to Vavilov the probable origin of durum wheat is Abyssinia. But De Candolle believed that
it originated from Valley of Euphrates and Tigris. The soft wheat group is presumed to be originated
in the region of Western Pakistan, South west Afghanistan. Seed enterprises or companies have
presumptions for wheat seed that it being a low value high volume crop is not of primary importance.
Its seeds are alternatively consumed as food grain. Mostly farmers use to resow the own saved seed.
Albeit there have been some serious scientific efforts done for commercial exploitation of hybrid
wheat by exploiting gametocide and CMS lines. It is discussed in the coming sections. Since seed is
primary input in agriculture which cannot survive without it since ancient times. Henceforth seed that
has to reach to the farmer should be produced to have a high genetic purity with sound physical,
physiological and health quality.
3. Plant Morphology and Floral Biology:

3.1 Plant:
Wheat is an herbaceous annual plant grows up to a height of 1.2 m with erect and hollow
stems wherein leaves emerge from nodes. The inflorescence comprises of numerous minute flowers
that range from 20 to 100 arranged on spikelet that may be 2-6 in number. It is grown under a diverse
range of climatic conditions and soils. But the best suited climate for wheat is temperate regions and
rainfall between 12 and 36 inches [4]. In the shoot system, senescence and rotting away of the tillers,
ears, and leaves starts as soon as it attains full size. This is common for those shoot parts that are
forms early in the life cycle of a plant. Phytomers are the repeated units of as series the shoot is made
up of. These units bear a node and a leaf as well as internode along with buds in the leaf axil (Figure
1). Roots are of two types, the nodal or adventitious or crown roots and the seminal roots.
3
Figure 1: Wheat plant morphology showing tillers root and leaves
3.2 Tillers and Leaves:

The basal leaves from its axil give rise to the main shoot. The number of tillers produced by a
plant is varying depending on a lot of factors. When grown in isolation, the plant produces
numerous tillers of which many acquire full maturity. At the time of anthesis out of so many tillers
only a few are persistent that produces the ear which is the reproductive unit of wheat plant. Every
leaf comprises of a sheath wrapping on the subtending hollow stem and lamina also called as blade.
There is junction of sheath and lamina which give rise to ligule also called as membranous structure is
present along with auricles which are small hair like projections.
3.3 Internodes:
The number of internodes can be identified by counting the number of leaves. Despite the fact
that the number of nodes borne on a shoot cannot be confirmed as it may vary from plant to plant [4].
There is an increase in the length of distal internodes from the basal towards the most distal one and
the elongated oneis called as peduncle (Figure 1). In some other systems the uppermost leaf called as
flag leaf or internode called as the peduncle are used as reference and number proceeds towards base.
In another way the position as well as emergence of any leaf can be observed and numbering of leaves
and nodes can be done starting from base towards distal end.
3.4 Roots:
There are two types of roots in wheat plant as mentioned earlier. These are seminal (seed)
roots and crown roots (adventitious). The former consists of the roots that emerge immediately after
sowing and later one includes roots that initiate after germination and seedling emergence. Within
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seed embryo there is presence of six roots primordia. Primary roots are formed at the time of
germination, emerging out of coleorhizae. Afterwards lateral seminal roots (four to five in number)
emerge measuring two meters in length. These roots further support the roots at nodal position that is
helpful in tillers development. When the nodal roots are in white root stage it become thicker and
emerge in a more or less horizontal manner and soon whitish roots appear. At first, they are white and
shiny in the lower 3-7 nodes as compared to the seminal roots. The uppermost node consists of roots
that are borne at culm base higher than level of soil. These roots prevailing in upper 30 cm layer of
soil. At maturity stage wheat root system can also go beyond one to two meters depth.
Figure 2: Wheat Inflorescence Showing Complete Floret Structure
3.5 Inflorescence:
Inflorescence of wheat plant called ear. At the first flower opening the ear consists of
completely developed florets with the pollen grains and carpel. After anthesis, as pollination takes
place the florets open up, where the pistil is pollinated. The function of stamens and lodicules is
accomplished that is swelling up to facilitate the floret opening. Therefore, these parts wither off and
shrivel and further supports in further growth and development of the carpels, to form caryopsis that is
thelo developing fruit. The main axis of ear is called as rachis. It also consists of internodes with a
spikelet borne and attached at each node. If the growing conditions are not good then it may lead to
poor growth and development of, the lowermost spikelet, ear top and may result in more sterile
florets. Within each spikelet the number of florets that are fertile is about two to four. The florets
consist of sheath like structure called as the lemma and palea. These two structures enclose lodicules
(two in number), stamens (three) and the carpel (two bifid) (Figure 2). The male reproductive part or
individual stamen is structured with anther which is yellow in colour and borne on the top of
attachment called as filament. The anther is three mm in length and it resembles a bag containing
numerous pollen grains also called as chambers or loculi. Each pollen grain consists of starch granule
and a single nucleus inside a small circular pore [3]. Female gametophyte bears bifid stigma over a
5
short style and oval ovary. Inside ovary the multicellular embryo sac is structured with an egg nucleus
with, the egg apparatus, two polar nuclei and polyploid antipodal cells ranging between 20 to 30 in
number [5].
4. Floral Biology:
wheat is an inflorescence of spike of spikelets. Flower appears first in the culm and then in
the tillers. The flower blooms throughout the day and it remains for up to 3-5 days. Anthesis takes
place from nine am to two pm with peak activity from 10 am to one pm. The coinciding of dehiscence
of anther with stigma receptivity coincides is the reason that wheat crop is having high rate of self-
pollinated with less than one per cent cross pollination. As ear emerges from the flag leaf sheath,
corresponding activities occur shortly such as, elongation of filaments of the stamens that attain 10
mm length. As soon as anther is developed to a certain length it dehisces to release pollen. It takes
place due to the longitudinal split which starts from the anther tip and progresses down releasing
pollen grains [3]. Within the spikelet anthesis starts from upper two-third of the ear followed by
florets of the spikelet towards base. It is trailed by opening of few florets form upper spikelet and
further it consecutively continues. Finally, the remaining two florets open in spikelet at base [6].
5. Pollination and Fertilization:

Wheat pollen grains are active and viable for five hours. Within one and half hour of settling
down on stigma the pollen germinates to produce pollen tube. It takes 40 minutes time for reaching
the female sac by the pollen tube. After growing downwards in to style and through cells then slowly
piercing the embryo sac through the micropylar end [5].
Figure 3: Structure (Cross Section) of Wheat Grain or Seed
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6. Embryo and Endosperm Development:

After formation of embryo, it depends on the antipodal cells for meeting the nutritional
requirement. It gets its nutrition from cell hydrolysis in parenchyma of the nucellus and nested
endosperm [7,8]. Immediately after the joining of pollen nuclei and the one central nuclei a
synchronous division of cells takes place that makes endosperm cells get doubled in a couple of hours.
The nutritive tissue that is endosperm is coenocytic so the cell wall is formed after three days [9]. The
peripheral cells inside the endosperm divide making the entire embryo sac cellular type [10,11]. After
the complete cell formation there is synthesis of the sub-cellular structures called the protein bodies
[12,13]. Thereafter the division of amyloplast stops before cell division. Also, in the starch grains
there is differential growth within the cell layers of the endosperm [13].
The fruit of monocot species which is the result of sexual reproduction is single seeded fruit
or is the fruit-cum-seed hence it is called as caryopsis. In the fruit the seed coat or testa is joined with
the thin pericarp (fruit coat). The triploid endosperm is starchy with living cells present in the
aleurone layer and non-viable storage tissue. Wheat embryo consists of scutellum, coleoptile (shoot
sheath), the radicle and the coleorhiza (root sheath).
7. Cultural Practices:
7.1 Land Requirement:
Wheat is successfully under cultivation in essentially all corners of the world whether warm
or cool environments and diverse kind soils which are productive and well drained. Therefore, when
wheat production is carried out (for breeder seed) the seeds is selected on the basis of (i) Area of
adaption (ii) Good soil condition (which sustain high seed multiplication ratio) (iii) Reliable climate
(temperature, drought, frost, flooding etc.,). As well as there should not be any volunteer plants or
weeds in seed production field. Also, before going sowing, soil alkalinity and acidity should be
checked. Apparently, there should not be any crop rotation at least by 3 seasons. The land should be
certified for seed production by state seed certification agency before going for actual seed
production.
7.2 Preparation of Land:

After selection of land, it is prepared for sowing by proper ploughing, harrowing and
levelling. Firstly, deep ploughing by using the local plough is done so as to turn over the soil and kill
any hidden pathogen. Afterwards harrowing is done before pre-sowing for irrigation followed by
shallow plough done before pre-sowing irrigation. For seed bed preparation the major operation of
land preparation is levelling. It should be free from weeds. In the seed bed attack of white ant and
Gujhia weevil can be prevented by broadcasting BHC 10 % dust @ 25 kg ha-1 through fertilizer just
before the final harrowing or ploughing.
7
7.3 Previous Cropping and Weeds:

The cropping history of land is must to know before taking up the seed production. The crop
should be planted, based on knowledge of previous cropping. This is done so as to avert unnecessary
impurities from noxious weeds, soil-borne diseases and any volunteer plant. As prescribed by the
national seed regulations between planting of two seed crops a time of minimum of two year is
allowed for the basic seed production and for certified seed production field should not be sown with
wheat in previous year [14]. As in grain production the practice of crop rotation does have importance
in seed production for wheat. Here, the previous cropping that is allowed is of pulses, vegetables or
left as clean fallow. The crops those should be avoided are of other cereals (barley, oat, rye and
triticale) which are also the off types for wheat and forage crops (oat). Seeds should be free of any
noxious weed [15] The presence of Jungli oats or Avena spp. in wheat is a consequence of seeds
contamination with noxious weeds such as wild oats (Avena fatua, or A. ludoviciana). These harmful
weeds are difficult to eradicate. Presence of such weeds in field can accord up to 10% loss of yield
globally even after taking up control measures [16,17].
The pre-requisite for land selection is that the selected fields should be properly rotated and should
not have any from contaminants as mentioned above with some permitted limits as given table 2.
Table 2: Permitted Limits for Contaminants in Wheat Seed Field.

Permitted (%) Max.
Contaminants Foundation Certified
Off-type plants 0.050 0.20
Inseparable other crop plants 0.010 0.050
Plants affected by seed borne diseases 0.10 0.50
7.4 Isolation Requirement:

Wheat is a self-pollinated crop (Cleistogamous) where cross pollination occurs as low as 1-
4%. So, field of wheat can be isolated by 3m distance, with a strip of non-cereal crop or left without
cropping. The fields infected with seed borne diseases, objectionable weeds are isolated by a distance
of 150 m (table 1.).
Table 3: Isolation Distance for Wheat Seed Production

Minimum Distance (meters)
Contaminants
Foundation Certified
Fields of other varieties 3 3
Fields of same variety conforming to varietal purity
requirements for certification 3 3
Fields of wheat, triticale and rye with infection of Loose smut
disease in excess of 0.10% and 0.5% in case foundation and 150 150
certified seed, respectively
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Table 4: Isolation Distance for Hybrid Seed Production of Wheat
Minimum Distance (meters)

Contaminants
Fields of other varieties including commercial hybrid of the
200 100
same variety
Fields of the same hybrid (code designation) not conforming to
varietal purity requirements for certification 200 100
Fields of wheat, triticale and rye with infection of Loose smut
(Ustilago tritici (Pers.) Jens.) disease in excess of 0.10% and 200 150
0.50% in Foundation and Certified seed, respectively
7.5 Sowing Bed and Sowing Method / Seed Rate:

The seed bed is prepared similar to the seedbed for grain crop. The area of bed preparation
should be devoid of weeds as wheat crop has a little ability to suppress the weed [18] and also a
competition for weed in wheat seed production plot can reduces the yield by 20 % [15]. Sowing of
seeds can be done by an automatic drill since there is always an advantage of row-planting as
correlated to broadcasting method. This practice requires less quantity of seed, promotes weed control
through machines, and field inspection as well as roguing by certification officials [19]. In the
planting beds there is always empty rows left at some intervals (called as roguing lanes). These can be
used for spraying of the crop as well as the seed producer can round in the field, while inspecting and
roguing the crop. Sowing depth is important for both small as well as large seeded crops. Sowing
seeds at a depth more than double the size of seeds delays emergence of seedling. It also emerges a
weaker seedling that give rise to poor tillers and results in loss of yield. Therefore, in this case the
varieties that have a short coleoptile length also called as semi-dwarf varieties deteriorate in their
quality in comparison to varieties with longer coleoptile length [20]. As soon as the average day
temperature reaches 23±3°C it is the best sowing time for this crop. Tillering is beneficial when the
average day degrees is 16-20°C. To carry out seed production in either nucleus/breeder/foundation
seed, the initial seed should be brought from and approved by state or central seed certification
agency. Best time of sowing for varieties that stay in field for longer duration is on 15th of November.
Whereas those varieties that are short and medium duration their seeds cane be sown in third week of
November. Recommended quantity of seeds required for sowing per hectares for this crop is 85-100
kg. Seeds are thoroughly mixed in a systemic fungicide to control the seed borne disease or loose
smut [21]. Seeds are sown at row to row spacing of 22 to 23 cm and 15-18 cm for wheat varieties
those are late sown. This also facilitates rouging and inspection work.
7.6 Method of Sowing:

As said earlier the depth of sowing is very important for the better-quality seed crop. Hence,
seeds are sown in rows behind the plough or through seed drill at a depth, 5 cm as the size of seed is
9
small. It should be made sure that seed drill that is used should be cleaned thoroughly before use and
it should be free of any off-type seed.
7.7 Fertilizer and Irrigation:

The recommended dose of fertilizers for wheat is followed that is nitrogen @ 80-120 kg/ha,
phosphoric fertiliser (50-60 kg ha)-1 and potash (40 kg ha-1). In rainfed conditions, whole fertilizer is
spread to the base at the time of sowing. Under irrigated conditions fertiliser is broadcasted as 50 per
cent nitrogenous fertilizers and entire dosage of phosphate and potassium fertilizers. Then at first
irrigation the remnant 50 per cent nitrogen fertilizer is applied. To overcome the deficiency of
micronutrients Zinc @ 15-20 kg/ha is put in soil at the seeding time based on the soil status. Four to
six irrigations are sufficient for wheat seed production depending upon the soil type. Very first
irrigation is provided at the crown root initiation (CRI) stage that falls at 30-35 days after sowing. The
most critical stages for moisture stress are crown root initiation and heading stage. Next irrigations are
provided at late tillering, flowering, milk and dough stages to meet the moisture requirement of plants.
Further two to three extra irrigations will be needed in case of light soils.
7.8 Weed Management:

Weed will not be a menace if the source of seed is an authorised one. In the initial period
hoeing and weeding controls the weed and eliminates the unnecessary competition for plant. Most
prevalent weeds in wheat Chenopodium album L. and Cyperus rotundus L. A period of 45 days after
sowing is most important for maintaining a weed free crop. Hence hand weeding is necessary to be
conducted after 3 to 4 weeks of sowing. Broad leaved weeds that appear at 25 to 30 days after are
controlled by a spray of 2,4-D @ 0.5 kg a.i. ha-1 in 750 litres of water. There should not be any delay
in spraying the chemicals as it may affect the formation seeds adversely. After 35 days of sowing
Gulli danda or Phalaris minor or wild oats which is a designated weed of wheat crop appears. It can
be controlled by application of pendimethalin one Kg per hectares for 750 litres of water as pre-
emergence weedicide.
7.9 Field Inspection and Roguing:

The inherent and outward (physical) purity of seed is of foremost important in quality seed
production programme. It is maintained at field level by a well scheduled field inspection. Field need
to be thoroughly inspected for all the reproductive stages of ear emergence as well as for later stages
of seed filling, glume colour change and seed colour changes. A minimum of four inspections are
done by field inspector. First inspection is done before flowering so as to arbitrate isolation location,
rogue out of volunteer plants, outcrosses, checking proper planting ratio (in case of CMS), any faults
in planting etc. The second and third inspections are done during flowering to check isolation, off
types, pollen shedders in female parent and other relevant factors. It is totally indispensable to carry
10
out roguing during flowering and at just ahead of the flowering stage. This is so because chances of
appearance of off-type plants are obvious and high at this stage of growth. Fourth inspection is carried
out at maturity stage and before harvesting to verify seed characteristics. Off types can be identified
and rogued out easily when crop starts to turn colour and also when ear heads or spikelets turn greyish
in colour and maturation initiates in it.
8. Improved Varieties of Wheat:

DBW222 (Karan Narendra): It is newly released variety of ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and
Barley Research, Karnal (IIWBR). It is timely sown in irrigated conditions of Punjab, Haryana, some
parts of U.P., Jammu and some parts of Rajasthan, H.P. and Uttarakhand. It has a yield potential of
61.3 q/ha. This variety is highly resistant to Karnal bunt and loose smut disease with strong stem
length and lodging resistant.
DDW 47: This is durum variety of wheat and is also newly released by IIWBR. It’s suited to timely
sown and irrigated condition of central zone of India. The seeds have a high yellow pigment content.
Its average yield is 74.1 q/ha. It is resistant to black and brown rust.
DBW 252: It is a timely sown variety with restricted irrigated conditions. It is suitable for cultivation
in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Assam, plains of North Eastern States and West Bengal.
The average yield of this variety is 37.0 q/ha. It gets matured in 125 to 130 days and is susceptible to
drought susceptible but highly resistant to the wheat blast disease.
WB 2: This variety of wheat is rich in iron (40.0 mg L-1) and zinc (42.0 mg L-1) content. It is under
cultivation in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, parts of Rajasthan and Western UP, parts of J&K and HP. It is
sown under timely and irrigated conditions. The average potential of this variety is 51.60q//ha. I t is
resistant to powdery mildew and yellow and brown rusts.
DBW 39: This variety is suitable for Odisha, West Bengal, Assam, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Jharkhand, and plains of North Eastern States. It is a timely sown variety preferred for irrigated
conditions with seed yield of 44.6q/ha. It is tolerant to leaf blight and resistance to black rust, brown
rust.
9. Hybrid Seed Production:

Emasculation and pollination are generally used for production of hybrid seed in wheat. Also,
it can be a result of or end product of Cytoplasmic Male Sterility technique. These procedures are
carried out in open field conditions for breeder seed production programme at ICAR accredited
institutes or at state agriculture universities. Further certified seed production of these hybrids can be
successfully initiated at farmer’s field.
11
9.1 Cytoplasmic Male Sterility:

This technique and nuclear-restoration system in wheat species was firstly found in Triticum
timopheevii [22]. It is proclaimed that male sterility induces via cytoplasm may have no negative but a
balanced influence on quality characters as well as agronomic traits. This sighting also inspired
researchers to evaluate bread wheat for alternate sources of male sterile cytoplasm that also includes
restoration of fertility via nuclear genes for successful hybrid seed production. CMS can be derived
out either spontaneously or through mutagenesis. It can also emerge out of inter or intra specific and
intergeneric crosses. Nuclear encoded fertility restorer (Rf) genes counteract the effect of a male
sterile cytoplasm. However, there is a restriction on the action of Rf genes i.e., sporophytic and
gametophytic which depends upon the cell that shows the effect. The sporophytic Rfs because of their
heterozygous nature are practised more as the Rfrf genes produces 100 per cent viable pollen grains.
Whereas, in case of gametophytic heterozygotes only 50 per cent of the pollen grains are viable which
results in undesired yield potential in hybrid. These restorer genes are incorporated from the donor to
the required line. It positively affects restoration of pollen fertility and thus produce a Restorer line or
R-line. Restoration genes are identified from a large number of species that are scattered throughout
the ABD genomes [23]. Also, R lines on the basis of their performance can be identified as "shallow
sterile", "sterile" and "deeply sterile".
By this classification we can very well understand why it is difficult to develop and maintain
R-lines that are acceptable for agronomic performance. [24] [25]. Maintenance of the male sterile line
is accomplished when male sterile line is crossed to an isogenic line (or the maintainer line) with
cytoplasmic fertility. This cross will always yield in a sterile progeny due to recessiveness for restorer
allele. But whenever we are going for commercial production of hybrid seed, restorer line carrying
dominant restorer alleles and also bearing an excellent pollinator quality is crossed to the male sterile
line gives a fertile F1 seed.
Other Features of CMS System for HSP

• It is an excellent hybrid seed production system that is sensitive to environmental factors viz.,
temperature and photoperiod [26].
• The only male-sterile cytoplasm that is commercially exploited for wheat hybrid seed
production is T. timopheevii Zhuk [27]. But this kind of cytoplasm has few unwanted effects
as the environment changes [28].
• This breeding technique also features non restoration of fertility and production of uneven
textured seed of hybrid [29].
• Progress has been made in developing R lines through marker-assisted selection for Rf genes
by using first generation marker called as restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)
12
• There has been noticed an increase in agronomic progress when the Rf genes are retained in
the male population [25].
9.2 Use of Chemical Hybridizing Agent:

The class of chemicals that bear the property of altering male sterility are classified as
Chemical hybridizing agent (CHA). These chemicals have gained widespread acceptance to due to
shortening of need of manual labour and cost for emasculation. Under some circumstances there may
be adverse mode of action if the correct dosage of this chemical is not used leading to female sterility
[30] [31]. In the very first report on the effect of CHA on wheat [32], investigations were made on
spring wheat. It was therefore reported that CHA is a systemic chemical and can be found persistence
in the treated plants and expressed at various maturity stages. This effect of this chemical is also
reduced by rain, wind and heat in field. But these chemicals if applied in prescribed dosage
considered non-phytotoxic and non-mutagenic, environmentally safe. Wheat crop can be treated with
CHA e.g., maleic hydrazide [32], ethephon (Ethrel), gibberellins, RH-531 and RH-532 (Rowell and
Miller, 1971) [33] for anti-lodging. Also, CHAs e.g., RH-0007, HYBREX [34], clofencet (Genesis®)
from Monsanto SC2053 (Orsan) [35] and azetidine-3- carboxylic acid (WL 84811) etc... are highly
commercialised for hybrid production in wheat crop. It is so because of its genotypes specificity and a
narrow application window that was confined to develop high risk [36, 39]. Use of chemical
WL84811 also called azetidine-3-carboxylic acid as CHA is not recommended because of residual
toxicity persistent in the seed formed [37]. Other chemicals that are used as CHAs in wheat seed
production are Genesis® in the USA and Europe until 2007 [36,38] and Croisor®100 that is also a
plant growth regulator
10. Seed Certification:

Certifying the crop meant for seed production involves several rounds of field inspection.
Wherein various factors are looked upon for maximum permitted limit. These are as given in the
following table as per the Indian Minimum Seed Certifications Standards (IMSCS) 2013. These
standards are checked at different stage of inspection as discussed in field inspection and rouging
section (Table 4).
Table 5: Permitted Contaminants in Wheat Seeds.
Permitted (%) Max.

Contaminants Foundation Certified
Off-types in seed parent 0.050 0.20
Off-types in pollinator 0.050 0.20
Pollen shedding ear/heads in seed parent 0.050 0.10
Inseparable other crop plants 0.010 0.05
Plants affected by seed borne diseases 0.10 0.5
13
11. Heterosis:
The term heterosis implies to the manifestation of heterozygosity or hybrid vigour and is
expressed as increase in fruitfulness, size, vigour, and tolerance to specific pests, disease or climate. It
is relative to either to the heterobeltosis or the mid-parent value. Invariably there is advantage of
hybrid that is due to three main factors: (i) Efficacy of the breeding-method, (ii) Result of the
breeding system used for hybrid development, (iii) Inbuilt status of heterosis. Development of a
breeding population and improvement of heterotic breeding populations is the major concern of plant
breeder. Nevertheless, wheat falls under the category of autogamous species, hence it urges the need
to develop the populations for out-crossing efficiency. Heterosis can be a viable spot for any a seed
enterprise but since seed yields are important for the economic viability in the hybrid. The major
constraint of this crop is high seed rate and comparatively lower seed multiplication ratio against
vegetables.
12. Wheat Diseases:

Loose Smut (Ustilago tritici): This is the most devastating seed borne disease of wheat. Here the
entire inflorescence bears a mass of spores of smut. It can be controlled by seed mixing in with
carboxin at the rate of 2.0 gm kg-1 seed.
Karnal Bunt: Its pathogen is Neovossia indica and its symptoms are not easily detected before
harvest. Only few seeds per spike are infected by the disease initially. But as soon as harvest is over
the seeds are very easily detectable by visual inspection. It appears as a mass of black teliospores that
has replaced some parts of the endosperm. Also, there is rupturing of the caryopsis covering. There is
also a foul or fishy odour coming out of the seeds when it is crushed. Spraying Propiconazole (25EC)
@ 0.1 %, may be given (in seed crop only) at ear head emergence stage can be a prophylactic measure
for this disease.
Flag Smut (Urocystis agropyri): The main symptoms of this disease appear below the epidermis of
leaf sheaths as masses of black teliospores. One to two days before sowing the seeds can be treated
with 2.5 gm of Carbendazium 50 WP per kg seed.
Stem Rust or Black Rust (Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici): The rust pustules on the entire plant. It
can destroy the crop by showing severe effects on reduced tillering and grain weight and quality
losses both under favorable and unfavourable conditions. It severe cases entire crop loss can take
place. Resistant varieties should be used.
Powdery Mildew on Wheat (Erysiphe graminis f. sp. Tritici): It appear as white cottony powder on
the arial parts of plant. This affects the photosynthesis process of leaves and reduces food supply to
14
the entire plant system. Under favourable condition for disease the high infection levels are reached
before heading and thus whole crop is lost without seed formation. Spraying propiconazole (25 EC)
@ 0.1 % at earhead emergence stage can effectively control the disease spread in powdery mildew
prone areas.
13. Insect Pests:

Wheat Midge: The insect feeds and infests a wheat plant during heading throughout early flowering.
The stage that affects the plant most is the larval stage. Further the larvae can reach up to the
developing seed after hatching, to feed on it. Cultural methods are used to control this pest such as
early planting, practising crop rotation. As the larva is rested within the seeds therefore no chemical
control can be opted rather Organophosphate insecticides with the active ingredient as chlorpyrifos
can kill eggs.
Wheat stem saw fly: Wheat stem saw fly forms tunnel inside the infested stems. The adult stage
insect causes about 10 to 14 per cent seed yield. Also cut off of the stem causes additional loss. Best
cultural practice is to use resistant varieties and crop rotation with the non host crop along with
shallow tillage. It will control about 90 per cent sawfly damage. Spray of carbaryl (Sevin XLR Plus 4)
@32 - 48 oz/ac, methyl on wheat plant if 6-8 larvae per square foot are present and plant is in the milk
stage can be done.
14. Determination of Physiological Maturity:

Wheat seeds attain physiological maturity and are harvested when seeds have the highest dry
matter accumulation and can attain maximum seed physiological parameters of vigour and
germination [40]. The seed crop should be harvested at physiological maturity to avoid losses and pre-
harvest sprouting due to uncertain weather. The most suitable stage for harvesting is when seed
moisture content of 20-25%. Mechanical harvesting is practiced for seed production fields but with
prior precautions to get cleaned equipment. Seeds are harvested with commercial combine harvesters
by considering various factors. These are mechanical damage to seed and cleanliness of equipment for
maintaining physical purity as well as seed moisture content. For seed crops, dry weather during
ripening and 16 to 19 per cent seed moisture content is essential for threshing or combine harvesting
this reduces mechanical damage [41].
15. Harvesting, Threshing and Seed Conditioning:

Harvesting of male plants is done before female plants by employing manual labour instead
of mechanization as there are more chance of contamination. During threshing it is made sure that
equipment should be clean before and after threshing are area where threshing is done is cleaned
thoroughly to prevent mixtures. Labourers should be advised to keep the harvested plants of various
15
varieties separately in field. After harvesting and threshing female and male seed bags are kept
separate [42]. It is not mandatory to keep male plants till final harvest stage as the hybrids is present
on the female plants but if kept it can be used as grain. It can aid to get extra income and help in
reducing the cost of production of the hybrid seed. But generally male plants should harvest first to
avoid losses and confusion. The practice usually followed is complete harvest of R line crop before
initiating harvest of A line plants.
16. Seed Yield:

The average hybrid seed yield varies from 35 to 40 q/ha.
Table 6: Minimum Seed Certification Standards for Wheat Seed Quality
Standards for each class

Factor Foundation Certified
Minimum Pure seed 98.0% 98.0%
Maximum Inert matter 2.0% 2.0%
Maximum Other crop seeds 10/kg 20/kg
Maximum Total weed seeds 10/kg 20/kg
Maximum Objectionable weed seeds 2/kg 5/kg
Maximum Seeds infested with Nematode galls of Ear-cockle
(Anguina tritici Milne.) and Tundu (Corynebacterium None None
michiganense pv. tritici and A. tritici Milne. complex)
Maximum Seeds infected by Karnal bunt (Neovossia indica 0.50% (by 0.250% (by
(mitra) Mundkur) (Syn. Tilletia tritici (Bjerk) Wint) number) number)
Minimum Germination 85% 85%
Maximum Moisture 12.0% 12.0%
Maximum For vapour-proof containers (maximum) 8.0% 8.0%
Barley Seed Production
1. Introduction:
Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) crop is a cereal and is associated to Poaceae family. It is termed
as common barley, cereal barley or grain barley, Jau (in Hindi). Barley is cultivated majorly as Rabi
season crop in northern plains of India. During to 2018-19, 1630 thousand tonnes of barley was
produced from 661 thousand hectares with per hectare productivity of 2695kg/ha [44]. In India the
states that take up production of barley are Haryana, HP, UP, Rajasthan, MP, Bihar, Punjab and
Jammu and Kashmir (Union territory). Rajasthan ranks first in acreage (274 thousand hectare) and
production (876.33 thousand tonnes) and highest productivity of barley is reported in Haryana (3450
kg/hectare) [44]. H. spontaneum which is a weedy plant is presumed as the ancestor of cultivated
common barley. About 10,000 years ago this crop was first found to be in cultivation within the fertile
16
crescent region of the Near East [45]. Barley crop is of paramount importance and ranks fourth in top
cereal crops produced in the world after wheat, maize, and rice [46]. Barley is under cultivated in the
Andes on mountain slopes, Tibet, Nepal, Ethiopia, as rain fed crop in North Africa, Afghanistan,
Pakistan and the Middle East. There are many crop wild relatives found in Barley. H. vulgare subsp.
spontaneum and H. marinum is tolerant to drought and salt and is also wild relatives for barley
improvement. H. bulbosum species of barley is resistant to Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus and Stem Rust
[47].
This crop is grown globally from cool arctic to most tropical places and from high altitudes to
sea level. Barley grain is cultivated for its food and fodder and commercial value in malting and
brewing industry of India residing in Haryana, Western U.P., Punjab and Rajasthan [48]. Malt is the
second largest use of barley after flour. Barley straw is utilized by farmers for animal feed all around
the world. Barley Sattu and Tsampa the superfood of the Himalayas is a product of Barley flour. The
grain of barley is a huge source of energy as it has a low glycemic index that provides slow but
continuous release of energy which is must for survival in the high treacherous altitudes. In
comparison to rice or wheat the total number of cells in endosperm of barley seed is higher therefore
it consists of higher proportions of β glucans [49]. There are many health benefits of barley diet for
curing anemia, bone disorder, lower cholesterol, type-2 diabetes and kidney stone. For some part of
the global population is allergic to barley that is seen in form of Coeliac disease (Gluten-sensitive
enteropathy) due to intolerance due to glutein from barley, wheat, rye etc. [49]. Without exception
barley crop is adapted to grow in stress-prone environments and marginal lands. No doubt it is type of
crop that falls under the category of risk-avoidance crop. Barley varieties or species is classified in
different ways by Crop Wild Relative official (CWR -diversity) e.g. two, four or six-row types,
number of fertile seeds per spikelet; awns covering or not covering the kernels it can be normal
(hooded), elevated (hooded), long awned or shortened; presence of hull or absence (naked); use (food,
feed or malt); height i.e., tall and dwarf and seed colour i.e., white, blue, colourless, or yellow. There
are about 33 species under genus Hordeum with basic chromosome number seven (table 7).
Table 7: Classification of Species of Hordeum

Common name Scientific Name Ploidy level Chromosome no.
Grain barley Horduem vulgare L. spp. vulgare
Wild barley H. vulgare L. spp. spontaneum
Diploid 2n = 2x = 14
Argentine barley H. euclaston
Centenilo H. stenostachys
Bulbosum barley H. bulbosum
Tetraploid 2n = 4x = 28
Cape wild barley H. capense
Meadow barley H. brachyantherum
Hexaploid 2n = 6x = 42
Arizona barley H. arizonicum
Varietal seed production in barley is commercially viable since crop is highly self-pollinated
with a minimum of 0-9 % outcrossing. For the development of hybrid seeds method of emasculation
17
and pollination as well as male sterility can be employed. Barley hybrids can be developed by using a
genetic recessive gene for male sterility in a balanced tertiary trisomic system [50]. It became possible
for exploitation of hetrosis for the production of hybrid in barley for the first time after description of
genetic male sterile in barley by Suneson in 1945.
2. Plant and Floral Biology:

Plant morphology type of barley is similar to that of wheat as mentioned in previous section
about shoot, root and leaves. Hordeum species is taxonomically symbolized as bearing spikelets and
single floret borne in triplets the rachis which is the main axis of the spike. The Rachis is tough in
barley that makes harvesting process easy. In six rowed barley the intermodal length in Rachis is
greater at top as compared to two rowed one to accommodate the lateral kernels [51]. The
inflorescence of barley is ear, head or spike with prevailing cleistogamy. Within the inflorescence are
sessile and fertile florets in central spikelet and the two lateral florets, are stalked (pedicillate) and
may be fertile (six rowed barley) or sterile (two rowed barley). The individual florets are bearing
reduced glumes that are situated dorsally to each spikelet. Characteristic long awns are features of
both lemmas and the glumes. The floret of barley consists of three anthers with spherical and smooth
pollens that geminates within five minutes of reaching the stigma. Stigma is biforked with hairlike
covering. The anthers of a male sterile plant are reduced in size and have leathery texture. The
pollination behavior also varies from species viz., H. vulgare is annual (requires one season for entire
plant life) and self-pollinating, whereas, H. bulbosum is perennial and obligatory cross-pollinating
with self-incompatibility [52]. Each spike of barley can carry 25-60 kernels in six-rowed cultivars and
15-30 kernels in two-rowed cultivars. Each spike is contained within the flag leaf that swells up at the
time of booting. [49]
Anthesis begins from middle of spike which consecutively spreads to the opposite sides both
up and down. Flowering is completed in one to four days. Pollen and stigma mature at same time in
individual florets. Pollen remains viable from 2 hrs. to 26 hrs. and stigma receptivity is up to six to
eight days from first flowering.
3. Soil and Climate Requirements:

The most suitable soil type for barley cultivation is the sandy loamy to loamy soils of Indo –
Gangetic plains with neutral to mild salinity. Barley crop is having salt resistance hence it can be
possible to cultivate it on saline coastal areas of Sunderban in West Bengal, sodic and lighter soils.
4. Cultural Practices for Seed Production:

Barley crop requires a temperate to subtropical climatic condition for its proper growth and
development. During growth period it requires 12-15 C temperature and around 30 C at the time of
18
maturity. This crop is intolerant to frost at any stage of growth and mostly the incidence of frost at the
time of flowering is not advisable for getting higher seed yields. However it is highly tolerant to
drought and sodic condition ([53]). Since in India it is grown as a winter annual and cool springs
hence the amount of moisture required by the crop for transpiration is not as much as it is needed for
dry or warm season. During crop growth barley demands at least 4 inches of water or 450-650
mm/total growing period (120 to 150 days) from crop germination to the reproductive or grain filling
stage. This stage is most essential stage of seed development [54]. Predominantly barley grain is
cultivated in the rainfed conditions in the northern hills of India where in farmers have low
agricultural inputs. But this crop proves to be a boon in such areas as water requirement of this crop is
low. The best time of sowing of the seeds is between 15th October to 10th November for irrigated
conditions and in second fortnight of October for rainfed conditions to utilize the residual moisture
from the monsoon rains.
4.1 Land Requirement:

Land selected for a certified seed production should be free from weeds, volunteer crops
plants and it should be well isolated form fields of same species. The total area on which seed
production has to be taken up should be registered under State Seed Certification Agency. Field
should be first ploughed by disc harrow or soil turning plough to uproot weeds and kill over wintering
pests and weeds. Then after precisely leveling the land irrigation is done before sowing. Barley crop is
sensitive to water and nitrogen hence proper leveling of land using laser land leveler should be done
before sowing. The field may attain optimum soil moisture after 5-15 days of irrigating depending on
soil type. Afterwards two to three ploughings is done with harrow to make soil well pulverized [48].
4.2 Seed Selection and Treatment:

Seed of best quality standards can be obtained from National Seed Corporation, State Seed
Farm Corporation or SAUs, and KVKs. Before sowing seeds can be treated with Bavistin @2kg/kg
seed as preventive measure to control loose smut disease. Seed treatment with 150ml of
Chlorpyriphos (20 EC) in 5 liter of water per 100 kg seeds can control termite attack in field but soil
should have enough moisture content. Among the physical treatment seed thermal treatment with hot
vapors (100°C) for one to 10 seconds on spring barley can reduce fungal infection (Fusarium,
Alternaria, Penicillium etc.) and improve seed germination. [55]
Improved Varieties:
DWBR 92: Two rowed barley variety suitable for north western plains zone of India. It is timely
sown and fits well for irrigated conditions with yield of 49.81 q/ha. It can be utilized for malt
production as well.
19
RD2035: This variety is suitable for north western plains zones of India resistant to nematodes. It is
timely sown and fits well for irrigated conditions with yield of 42.70 q/ha. It can be utilized for food
and fodder production.
RD2552: This variety is suitable for north eastern plains zones of India tolerant to salt. It is timely
sown and fits well for irrigated conditions with yield of 38.37 q/ha. It can be utilized for food and
fodder production.
HBL 276: it is a huskless variety of barley suitable for north hill zone of India and resistant to cold
and rust diseases. It is timely sown and fits well for rainfed conditions with yield of 23.00 q/ha. It can
be utilized for food and fodder production.
PL 751: This variety is most suitable for feed barley and is suited for cropping in Gujarat, Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. This variety is timely sown and irrigated variety of six
rowed barley with resistant to black rust. The average yield is 46.8 q/ha.
4.3 Nutrient Management:

After field preparation well rotten FYM (20-30 T/ha) shall be ploughed with soil. For timely
sown crop fertilizer dose of 60 kg N:30 kg P:20 kg K is required. Entire dose of phosphorus and
potash with 1/3rd amount of nitrogen fertilizer should be broadcast in soil before followed by
ploughing or better if placed at the time of seed sowing by seed cum fertilizer drill at a depth of 7 to
10 cm. Balance amount of nitrogen is splitted into two equal top dressing first at tillering stage or 30
days after sowing and second top dressing at boot stage or 60 days after sowing. In case of Zinc
deficiency ZnSO4 @ 20 kg/ha can be applied [48]. A nitrogen fertilizer dose @ 100-120 kg/ha applied
in splits with two third applied at seeding time can result in a greater number of ears per meter square
and seed yield higher as compared to single application (Moreno 2003). Integrated nutrient
management always have an added interest in obtaining maximum seed yield and quality. An
integration of 75% NPK + 5 T FYM ha-1 along with biofertilizer and vermicompost instead of 100 %
NPK alone can cause a substantial increase in number of seeds per spike and test weight [56].
Response of plants to Phosphorus fertilizer at early growth and tillering stage is maximal but it
diminishes as the plant transits into the reproductive phase as there is elongation stem.
4.4 Seed Rate and Sowing Method:

For varietal seed production seed rate of 100 kg/ha is needed with a row spacing of 15-20 cm.
Seed is sown at a depth not more than five cm. Sowing barley at 20 cm depth as compared of at a five
cm has shown to reduce the establishment of plants (about 76 %) with a reduction in grain yield by
62% [57]). Optimum time of sowing winter barley is 1-25 Nov and for late sown crop it is 1-25
December in case of irrigated conditions. Raised bed up to 120cm wide can also be opted for barley
sowing other than flat bed method of sowing. By using raised bed technique an increase in seed yield
20
can be achieved along with compressed irrigation requirement. This consequently ameliorates water
productivity and nitrogen use efficiency in comparison with seed drilling method [58]. Raised bed
seed production interprets better ability of plant roots to anchorage on beds and capacity to withstand
water stress. Therefore, plants become less susceptible to distress caused by climate
change. Traditional method of sowing Barley is dropping seeds with a Chonga (a tube connected with
a funnel like structure behind country plough). If sowing using traditional method, it should be kept in
mind that there is proper row to row spacing for roughing operation to be taken up for quality seed
production.
4.5 Weed Management:

Along with roughing few manual weedings of field can add up to the improved physical
quality of seeds. Two manual weedings are required to be done at 30-35 and 55 to 60 days after
sowing [53]. Isoproturon a.i. @1.75kg/ha + 0.5 kg/ha 2,4-D @ in 800-1000 litres of water can control
post emergence grass and broad-leaved weeds 30-35 days after sowing e.g., bathua (Chenopodium
album), hirankhuri (Convolvulus arvensis), wild carrot (Cronopus didymus). Pendimethalin (Stomp)
3125 to 3750 ml/ha in 350-375 L of water can control both broad and narrow leaved weeds when
spray 3 days after sowing.
4.6 Isolation Requirements:

Isolation is necessary not only from the context of maintenance of genetic purity, but it is also
required to be maintained from certain crops and varieties especially in some countries for the control
of such diseases as loose smut, caused by Ustilago nuda. The seed fields of barley for varietal/hybrid
seed production shall be isolated by the distance given in following table from the contaminants (table
8) [59].
Table 8: Isolation Requirement for Barley Seed Production Fields

Minimum distance (meters)
Hybrid
Varietal seed
Seed
Contaminants
Fields of other varieties/ commercial hybrid of the same
3 3 200 100
variety
Fields of the same variety/Hybrid not conforming to
3 3 200 100
varietal purity requirements for certification
Fields of barley with infection of Loose smut (Ustilago
nuda (Jens.) Rostr.) disease in excess of 0.10% and 150 150 200 150
0.50% in Foundation and Certified seed respectively
4.7 Irrigation:
Barley is water sensitive crop hence it needs irrigation at specific stages. First irrigation is
done at 30-35 DAS at CRI (Crown Root Initiation) stage. Second irrigation at panicle emergence
stage 65-70 DAS and third irrigation at grain formation stage (90-95 DAS).
21
4.8 Field Inspection and Rouging:

Field inspection is done thrice. Once before sowing the seeds to ensure the field meets the
requirement of minimum area for certification, isolation distance, volunteer crops plants etc. and also
at early vegetative growth. Second inspection at the 75 % ear emergence stage and third at maturity or
before harvesting. If the off-type plants were removed after stage of flowering is over then all the
plants that surrounds in 0.5 meter should be removed and discarded in case of hybrid seed production
by CMS to ensure seed genetic purity. Rouging is very crucial operation at all the stages of field
inspection. It is practically impossible to rouge out thousands of hectares of area together hence it is
always preferred to practice roughing on smaller area of seed production [60]. Rouguing is done at
different stages 2-3 times in the seed production plot of barley at vegetative, flowering and before
harvesting stage. Each time with the objective of removing a distinct off type, the entire plant should
be removed along with all the tillers. In this way making several passes in the field each time to
remove a specific type of weed or off type is proven beneficial for a successful rouging operation.
Although if seed is brought from the authorized source, then there will be little need to do roughing as
the seed will be free of any off type or admixture plant. Plants that are rouged out from barley seed
production plots are Wild oats (Avena fatua), Gulli danda (Phlaris minor), Wheat (Triticum aestivum)
and any other volunteer plant from previous season crop. Barley plant can be effectively rougued out
from other varieties by looking into the characteristics type viz., vegetative characters (plant height,
Growth:- Erect Semi-prostrate Prostrate, Flag leaf present/absent, Flag leaf waxiness), floral character
(spike type-Two or six rowed, flag leag length, awn tip pigmentation) and grain character (colour,
hullness, shape) [61]. When rouging is completed, it should be confirmed that remaining plant
matches the description of the variety.
4.9 Pest and Disease Management:

The strip rusts is exotic disease for barley and spreads like wild fire under favorable
conditions. Its symptoms include bright yellow orange spots forming pustules on leaves that can rub
off easily onto fingers. Disease development is of higher frequency when climates is warm (15-20°C)
and rainy. There are more chances of severe infection in crops if the nights are warm and it is sown
early. This pathogen can however survive over summer on barley grass. Control measures is foliar
spray of Propiconazole (25 EC) @0.1 % (500 ml in 500 L of water/ ha) at symptom appearance then
again at 15 days intervals. Loose smut (Ustilago nuda) deviates the seed health by turning it into a
black powdery mass of spores that shed with Rachis as remanant. It can be controlled by solar-heat or
hot-water treatment of seed, growing resistant varieties, proper roguing out as well as dry seed
treatment with Carboxin (0.25) %.
Aphid causes heavy losses to crop and seed quality. Imidacloprid @ 20 g a.i. /ha in 1000 L of
water can be sprayed. Moyla disease caused by cereal cyst nematode (Heterodera avenae) is common
22
appearance in sandy soils caused by where the second juvenile stage of nematodes enters inside plants
and stars feeding on it. Deep summer ploughing, crop rotations and early sowing can be practiced to
overcome this pest attack. Rodents often dig deep burrow in soil and make it less composite these
live-burrows can be fumigated @one tabelet 0.5 g per small burrow. Shoot fly (Atherigona naqvii)
infection is caused by maggots that attack young seedlings by killing the central shoots and causing
dead-hearts. It can be treated by spray of Phorate @10% or Disulfoton @ 5% in soil at sowing and
spraying seedlings with 0.03% Dimethoate.
4.10 Harvesting:
Barley seeds get ready for harvest by March end and second week of April. It is when the
seed moisture is 25 to 30 per cent. But there is shattering tendency in barley seeds therefore it should
be harvested before achieving maturity so that spikes do not break open. At the time of harvesting
chances of occurrence of rain and hailstorms is high in Northern zone hence it may affect seed health
therefore harvesting of seed crop should not be delayed. It can be harvested using Combine machine.
But it should be made sure that the machines are cleaned properly off the seeds of other varieties or
crops so as to maintain genetic purity and physical purity of the harvested seeds. Seeds are dried well
up to 10-12 % seed moisture content before it is processed
5. Seed Yield:
The average seed yield of barley is 25 to 35 q/ha
6. Hybrid Seed Production:

Barley crop is highly self-pollinated due to cleistogamous nature hence development of
hybrid seed production is a tedious task. Further use of emasculation and pollination techniques adds
up to the labour cost. Therefore, male sterility can be employed as breeding technique for
development of hybrid seed. In 1979 msm1 and msm2 two male sterile cytoplasm were found in wild
barley (H. vulgar L. spp. spontaneum). The strain msm1 is also carrier of dominant fertility restorer
gene [62]). Using thermosensitive genetic male sterile lines e.g. msg 10, 30 and 38 for seed
production can result in 30 % more setting of seeds at a temperature regime of 24-27 C [63].
Cytoplasmic Male Sterility discovered from a population of alloplasmic Hordeum jubatum cytoplasm
[64] with H. vulgare as maintainer line but no fertility restoration system. So often development of
hybrids through CMS does not always give promising results. Hybrids are also developed by single
homozygous lines in generation of barley also called as doubled haploids or DH. In 1970s DH was
developed in an interspecific cross of H. bulbosum L. and H. vulgare L. [65]. Three line breeding
system is used for hybrid seed production by male sterility wherein A line or male sterile line also
called as seed parent and R line is the restorer line also called as pollen parent are sown in definite
23
ration in field. B line is the male fertile line also called as maintainer line and is used to maintain the
A line.
For production of hybrid seeds the A line and R line is sown in certain ratio. Allowed for pollen
transfer naturally and hybrid seed is harvested from A line
7. Seed Processing:
Debearding is primarily done in barley to remove the beard, or awn, from bearded varieties of
barley. Debearding is a crucial pre cleaning step to prevent clogging of seed processing machines and
better seed-sizing operations and seed flowability. Debearders are effectively used for seed lot
containing large numbers of incompletely threshed seed heads [60].
8. Seed Storage:
Safe seed storage always depends upon the temperature, relative humidity of storage
environment and seed moisture content. It helps in increasing seed viability and decreases damage
chances due to storage pests and fungal infestation [66]. These pathogens produce metabolic heat by
creating a ‘hotspot’ that allows for greater insect population growth. Fumigating with 650 ppm
phosphine gas concentration of the storage atmosphere is optimum for controlling pest [67].
Harvesting of barley crop can be done at a seed moisture around 14 to 15% and at such moisture level
the seed lots should not be sent to warehouse. The best practice is to dry seed lots mechanically or
naturally to bring the moisture to safe limit that is 9-10%. Seeds need to be protected from rodent and
bird infestation in the warehouse where it is to be stored until marketed. Seed treated with 75 % WP
Thiram or Captan @ 70 g in 500 mL water per 100 kg seeds is necessary for safe seed storage.
9. Seed Certification:
Seed certification aims at providing good quality seeds of a notified variety to farmers. Hence
certification of seed is not only restricted to the harvested seed but it aims at control of seed
production at field level as well as managing the land on which seed production will be taken up. It
can be done by meeting the specific requirements of the crop (Section a). For the certification of seed
following certain seed standards for maintaining quality is recommended (Section b)
Specific Requirements:
The maximum percentage of off-types, objectionable weed plants, plants affected by seed
borne diseases are given as under (table 9)[59]
24
Table 9: Permitted Contaminants in Barley Seed Production Field

Maximum permitted (%)
Factor
Off- type 0.050 0.20
Inseparable other crop plants: oats, wheat, gram, triticale 0.010 0.050
Plants affected by seed borne diseases (e.g., Loose smut)
0.10 0.50
Minimum Seed Standards: The minimum standards required for maintaining seed quality in wheat
are described in table 10.
Table 10: Minimum Seed Certification Standards for Wheat Seed

Quality parameter Foundation seed Certified seed
Minimum Pure seed 98.0 % 98.0 %
Maximum Inert matter 2.0 % 2.0 %
Maximum Other crop seed 10/kg 20/kg
Maximum Other distinguishable varieties 10/kg 20/kg
Maximum Weed seed 10/kg 20/kg
Minimum Germination 85 % 85 %
Maximum Moisture Normal 12% 12%
Maximum Moisture Vapour Proof Container 8.0% 8.0%
Bibilography:
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Seed Production Technology of Wheat and Barley

Chapter · April 2022

Neha Thakur Tejaswini Uppuluri

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Anurag Malik Nirmal Singh

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Edition: First- 2021

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PUBLISHER & PRINTER: INSC International Publishers

Unit No. Title Pages

1. Seed Production Technology of Wheat and Barley 1-28

2. Quality Seed Production Technology of Rice 29-40

3. Seed Production Technology of Cotton, Jute and Flax 41-66

4. Seed Production Technology of Cowpea and Soybean 67-81

5. Seed Production Technology of Rapeseed & Mustard 82-96

6. Quality Seed Production Technology of Berseem & Oats 97-110

7. Seed Production Technology of Sunflower & Safflower 111-127

8. Seed Production Technology of Peas and Beans: French Bean, 128-155

9. Quality Seed Production Technology of Pulses (Chickpea, 156-168

10. Utilization of Existing Genetic Mechanisms for Quality Hybrid 169-184

11. Quality Seed Production of Leafy Vegetables: Amaranth and 185-198

13. Quality Seed Production of Rare Vegetables: Asparagus, Lettuce, 227-255

14. Advances in Quality Seed Production of Major Seed Spices: 256-278

15. Varietal and Hybrid Seed Production in Apiaceae Vegetables 279-297

SEED PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF WHEAT AND BARLEY

Anurag Malik Nirmal Singh

2. Some of the Species of Wheat Under Cultivation:

Table 1: Ploidy level of some of the species of wheat

Scientific name Ploidy level

Einkorn Series (tetraploid)

3. Plant Morphology and Floral Biology:

Figure 1: Wheat plant morphology showing tillers root and leaves

3.2 Tillers and Leaves:

Figure 2: Wheat Inflorescence Showing Complete Floret Structure

5. Pollination and Fertilization:

Figure 3: Structure (Cross Section) of Wheat Grain or Seed

6. Embryo and Endosperm Development:

7.2 Preparation of Land:

7.3 Previous Cropping and Weeds:

Table 2: Permitted Limits for Contaminants in Wheat Seed Field.

7.4 Isolation Requirement:

Table 3: Isolation Distance for Wheat Seed Production

Table 4: Isolation Distance for Hybrid Seed Production of Wheat

Minimum Distance (meters)

7.5 Sowing Bed and Sowing Method / Seed Rate:

7.6 Method of Sowing:

7.7 Fertilizer and Irrigation:

7.8 Weed Management:

7.9 Field Inspection and Roguing:

8. Improved Varieties of Wheat:

9. Hybrid Seed Production:

9.1 Cytoplasmic Male Sterility:

Other Features of CMS System for HSP

9.2 Use of Chemical Hybridizing Agent:

10. Seed Certification:

Permitted (%) Max.

12. Wheat Diseases:

13. Insect Pests:

14. Determination of Physiological Maturity:

15. Harvesting, Threshing and Seed Conditioning: