Introduction To Structural Fire Engineering

Introduction to
structural fire
engineering
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Copyright Institution of Structural Engineers

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Introduction to
structural
fire engineering
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ii
| The Institution of Structural Engineers
Introduction to structural fire engineering
Task Group
R Plank BSc(Eng) PhD CEng FIStructE MICE (Sheffield University) Chair
A S Fraser BEng(Hons) PhD CEng MIStructE MICE (Atkins)
M Green BEng CEng MIStructE MICE FIFireE
P Kotsovinos PhD (Ove Arup & Partners)
M O’Connor BSc(Hons) MBA PhD (WSP UK)
B Wong BEng(Hons) MSc PhD CEng MIET (Ramboll UK)
Reviewers
N S Ely BSc(Hons) CEng MIStructE MCIOB (Environment Agency)
J J Roberts BSc(Eng) PhD CEng FIStructE FICE FIMS FCMI FICT Hon DSc (Technical Innovation Consulting Ltd)
Publishing
L Baldwin BA(Hons) DipPub (The Institution of Structural Engineers)
R Thomas BA(Hons) MCLIP (The Institution of Structural Engineers)
Acknowledgements
Permission to reproduce the following has been obtained, courtesy of these individuals/organisations:
Figure 2.2 © BRE; Figure 2.4 © Crown copyright, 1966, licensed under the Open Government License;
Figures 3.1, 5.3 © BuroHappold Engineering; Figures 5.2, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6 © Centrum Hout;
Figure 5.1 © Cameron James McGregor; Figures A.1, A.2 © Promat; Figure A.3 © Rockwool;
Figure A.4 © Unifrax/Morgan Thermal Ceramics; Figure A.6 © Sherwin-Williams; Table 2.2 © Crown copyright, 2019,
licensed under the Open Government License; Table 6.1 © BRE, provided with permission ‘as is’, without any
warranty, from Guidelines for the construction of fire-resisting structural elements (BR 128)
Permission to reproduce extracts from British Standards is granted by BSI Standards Limited (BSI). No other use of
this material is permitted. British Standards can be obtained in PDF or hard copy formats from the BSI online shop:
https://shop.bsigroup.com.
Published by The Institution of Structural Engineers

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First published (version 1.0) January 2020
ISBN 978-1-906335-38-0 (Print)

ISBN 978-1-906335-39-7 (E-book)
© 2020 The Institution of Structural Engineers

The Institution of Structural Engineers and the members who served on the Task Group which produced this Guide have endeavoured to ensure
the accuracy of its contents. However, the guidance and recommendations given should always be reviewed by those using the Guide in light of
the facts of their particular case and any specialist advice. No liability for negligence or otherwise in relation to this Guide and its contents is
accepted by the Institution, the members of the Task Group, its servants or agents. Any person using this Guide should pay particular
attention to the provisions of this Condition.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior permission of
The Institution of Structural Engineers, who may be contacted at: 47–58 Bastwick Street, London EC1V 3PS, United Kingdom.
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The Institution of Structural Engineers
Introduction to structural fire engineering | iii
Contents
Tables vi
Figures vi
Glossary viii
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Foreword ix
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Scope 1
1.3 Building Regulations — an overview 2
1.4 Design responsibilities — an overview 2
1.5 Fire safety engineering — an overview 4
1.6 Structural fire design and architectural solutions 5
2 Design methodology 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Compartment fire behaviour 7
2.2.1 Phases of fire 7
2.2.2 Potential structural performance 9
2.3 Approach to design 9
2.4 Load factors for the fire limit state 11
2.5 Prescriptive fire resistance 11
2.5.1 Standard fire resistance test 11
2.5.2 Limitations of the standard furnace test 12
2.5.3 Code-based levels of fire resistance 13
2.6 Form of construction 15
2.7 Summary 17
3 Concrete 18
3.1 Reaction of reinforced concrete to fire 18
3.1.1 Thermal properties 18
3.1.2 Mechanical properties 18
3.2 Current practice 21
3.3 Design considerations 21
3.3.1 Provision for beams and floor slabs 22
3.3.2 Provision for walls and columns 22
3.4 Construction and detailing 22
3.4.1 Anchorage 23
3.4.2 Spalling 23
3.5 Further engineering methods 23
3.6 Summary 23

iv
4 Steel and composite 24

4.1 Reaction of steel to fire 24
4.1.2 Thermal properties 25
4.1.3 The heating of steel 25
4.2.1 Protected steel 26
4.2.2 Partially protected steel 26
4.2.3 Unprotected steel 28
4.3 Fire design method 29
4.3.1 Simple calculation models 30
4.3.2 Heat transfer to external steelwork 30
4.4 Cellular beams 30
4.5 Robustness of steel and composite framed structures 31
4.7 Summary 32
5 Timber 33
5.1 Construction forms and reaction to fire 33
5.1.1 Effect of density on fire performance 33
5.1.2 Influence of hygroscopicity and moisture content on fire performance 34
5.1.3 Effect of shape and fabrication on fire performance 34
5.1.4 Charring depths 34
5.1.5 Use of fire retardant 34
5.2.1 Temperature profiles 35
5.2.2 Effective cross-section method 36
5.2.3 Reduced strength and stiffness method 36
5.5 Summary 37
6 Masonry 39
6.1 Reaction of masonry to fire 39
6.2.1 BR128 approach 40
6.2.2 Eurocode approach 41
6.3.1 Applied fire protection 43
6.5 Summary 44
7 Appraisal 45
7.1 Introduction 45
7.2 Approach 45
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Introduction to structural fire engineering |v
7.3 Legislation and guidance 45

7.4 Information and management for fire safety 46
7.5 Appraisal under the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 47
8 Structural fire performance for firefighter safety 48
8.1 Introduction 48
8.2 What information does the Fire and Rescue Service need? 48
8.3 Robustness of the primary structure 49
8.4 Types of primary structure 49
8.5 Summary 49
9 Conclusions 50
Appendix: Fire protection materials 51
A.1 Generic fire protection materials 51
A.2 Proprietary fire protection materials 51
A.3 Sprayed cementitious or gypsum-based coatings 51
A.4 Boards and blankets 51
A.5 Intumescent coatings 54
References 55
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vi
Tables
Table 1.1: Roles and responsibilities — structural fire safety design 3
Table 2.1: Level of design complexity 10
Table 2.2: Load factors for fire limit state 11
Table 2.3: Minimum periods of fire resistance 14
Table 2.4: Fire resistance periods for elements of structure 16
Table 2.5: Country comparison of typical fire resistance ratings 16
Table 3.1: Minimum dimensions and axis distances for reinforced and prestressed concrete solid flat slabs 22
Table 4.1: Critical temperature values of utilisation factor 29
Table 6.1: Masonry walls: solid loadbearing — required to resist fire from one side at a time 41
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Table 6.2: Clay masonry minimum thickness of separating non-loadbearing walls (criteria EI ) for fire resistance
classifications 42
Table A.1: Characteristics of fire protection systems 52
Figures
Figure 1.1: Temperature development and fire protection measures 4
Figure 1.2: External unprotected steel: Al Shaqab Equestrian Centre, Doha, Qatar 6
Figure 1.3: Beam and services integration 6
Figure 2.1: Progress of a well-ventilated natural fire 8
Figure 2.2: Post-flashover fire 8
Figure 2.3: Standard temperature–time curves 12
Figure 2.4: Comparison of standard temperature-time curve with temperatures measured during
compartment fires 12
Figure 3.1: Office fire during construction showing damage to green concrete
(note distortion of props used to support timber framework) 18
Figure 3.2: Isotherm profiles 19
Figure 3.3: Stress-strain curves for concrete at high temperatures 20
Figure 3.4: Plot of strength as a function of temperature 20
Figure 3.5: Temperature distribution in slabs exposed to fire on one side 20
Figure 3.6: Distance from fire-exposed face to centroid of reinforcing bars 21
Figure 4.1: Variation of effective steel strength with temperature 24
Figure 4.2: Thermal expansion of steel with increasing temperature 24
Figure 4.3: Stress-strain curves for typical hot-rolled steel at elevated temperatures 24
Figure 4.4: Thermal conductivity of steel with increasing temperature 25
Figure 4.5: Specific heat of steel with increasing temperature 25
Figure 4.6: Concept of section factor 25
Figure 4.7: Heating rates of protected and unprotected steel beams 25
Figure 4.8: Examples of three- and four-sided protection 26
Figure 4.9: Typical composite floor slab 27
Figure 4.10: Types of slimfloor beam 27
Figure 4.11: Partially encased composite beam 28

Introduction to structural fire engineering | vii
Figure 4.12: Forms of composite columns 28

Figure 4.13: Failure mode in a cellular beam – Vierendeel mechanism 30
Figure 4.14: Failure mode in a cellular beam – web post buckling 31
Figure 5.1: Relationship between density ρ and rate of combustion RC 33
Figure 5.2: Beams and columns before/after exposure to fire on three/four sides 34
Figure 5.3: Globe Theatre, London, UK 35
Figure 5.4: Temperature profile for heating on one side (width of residual section is greater than distance
required for temperature to fall to ambient) 35
Figure 5.5: Temperature profile for heating on one side (width of residual section is less than distance
required for temperatures to fall to ambient) 36
Figure 5.6: Effective cross-section when heated on three sides 36
Figure 5.7: Variation of Kmod,f with p/A 37
Figure 5.8: Temperature dependent strength and stiffness properties 37
Figure 6.1: Notre Dame de Paris 39
Figure 6.2: Resultant stress distribution in walls due to an external axial load and induced thermal stresses 40
Figure A.1: Sprayed protection applied to complex beam detail 51
Figure A.2: Board fire protection applied to columns 53
Figure A.3: Foil-covered fibre board applied to beams 53
Figure A.4: Pin-fixed blanket applied to truss 53
Figure A.5: Demonstration of intumescence 54
Figure A.6: Typical application of thin film intumescent coating 54
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viii
Glossary
Class 0: the highest product performance classification for wall and ceiling linings. It is not identified
in any British Standard test. Class 0 is met if any material or surface of a composite product
are composed throughout of materials of limited combustibility; or a Class 1 material has a
fire propagation index (I) of not more than 12 and sub-index (I1) of not more than 6. The
rating Class 0 limits fire spread over, and energy released from, linings
Compartmentation: separation of an area, an entire floor or building by enclosure within fire-resisting
construction
Conduction: movement of heat through a substance
Convection: heat transfer through gases (and liquids)
Emissivity: measure of efficiency of a surface as a radiator. A black body has an emissivity of 1
Fire compartment: space within a building enclosed by separating members (e.g. wall, floor) tested to the
required fire resistance. The space may extend over one or more storeys
Fire load: energy released by combustion of materials in a space
Flashover: relatively rapid transition between the initial fire (which is essentially localised around the
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items first ignited) and the general conflagration when all surfaces within the compartment
are burning
Free water: water remaining available in the concrete mix after absorption from raw materials in the
mix has taken place
Fully developed fire: fire stage after flashover. All combustibles within the compartment are burning
Green concrete: concrete which uses waste material as at least one of its components
Heat transfer: movement of heat energy from areas of high temperature to areas of lower temperature
by three means:
conduction, convection and radiation
Hygroscopicity: capacity of a product to react to the moisture content of the air by absorbing or releasing
water vapour
Natural fire: a fire occuring outside of a test environment which leads to a temperature-time
relationship dependent on the particular conditions
Radiation: heat transfer by electromagnetic waves
Standard fire: temperature-time relationship of the fire gases in a standard furnace test. The heating curve
is achieved by programming the test furnace through control of the rate of fuel supply
Seat of fire: area where the main body of the fire is located
Spalling: loss of surface material from a concrete element. Dependent on aggregate, moisture
content, stress level and temperature
Standard fire curve: temperature-time relationship of the fire gases in a standard furnace test. The heating curve
is achieved by programming the test furnace through control of the rate of fuel supply
Structural fire protection
strategy: general design approach for achieving structural fire safety
Temperature-time curve: gas temperature against time during a fire or in a furnace
Thermal diffusivity: measure of the rate of heat transported from the exposed surface to the inside of the
material and of the temperature rise at a depth in the material
Thermal expansion: tendency of matter to change its shape, area and volume in response to a change in
temperature
Thermal inertia: degree of slowness with which the temperature of a body approaches that of its
surroundings

Introduction to structural fire engineering | ix
Foreword
In 2003 the Institution published Introduction to the fire safety engineering of structures. It became essential guidance
on the subject — serving the built environment engineering community for more than 15 years.
Here, we have attempted to position ‘structural fire engineering’ as distinct from (but within the context of) more
general ‘fire engineering’, and it is structural engineers who are best placed to take on this role. Introduction to
structural fire engineering effectively updates and expands on the previous work — reflecting a steadily increasing
interest in the specialism, underpinned by significant research effort.
We have also seen the formal adoption of Eurocodes — replacing the former British Standards — and this guidance
reflects that progress. Historically, fire design has been strongly influenced by lessons learned from real-life disasters;
London’s Grenfell Tower tragedy will undoubtedly have the same effect. Indeed, there has already been a
fundamental review of the Building Regulations in the wake of that catastrophe, and significant changes are likely to
be introduced. However, at present the emphasis appears to be more on management and procedures rather than
technical detail.
We have witnessed significant uptake in the inclusion of fire engineers in the design team in recent years, and the
more specialist role of ‘structural fire engineer’ is increasing. It is imperative that we understand the responsibilities of
different members of the design, supply and construction team — and while these will vary from project to project,
we have included a useful ‘Roles and responsibilities’ table within the guidance.
Finally, I would like to thank the Task Group and correspondents (and in particular John Roberts for his help with
the section on masonry) who have contributed to the effort required to produce this challenging and topical
subject matter.
Roger Plank
Task Group Chair
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Introduction to structural fire engineering |1
1 Introduction
1.1 Background offered by their surveyors is followed. Guidance on
standards that may be applied by insurers is available via
Prescriptive fire regulation has developed over hundreds the Loss Prevention Council3.
of years as a result of momentous fire disasters. Testing
has long been part of improving the understanding of The design and understanding of the performance of
structural performance (e.g. the Hartley and Stanhope building structures during fire has developed at a
systems in the late 18th century1 and the British Fire significant pace in line with fire safety engineering as a
Prevention Committee tests for building components in whole. New procedures, advanced analytical methods
the 19th century). However, it was not until the early and improved risk assessment techniques are now
20th century that the concept of the standard fire test available to the experienced engineer to support
was introduced. performance-based design for the fire load case.
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One of the most significant developments was the fire This guidance should also benefit architects looking
grading of buildings — where the first real attempts to for alternative solutions, controlling authorities wishing
assess relative risks, the requirements for firefighting, to ask the right questions, and fire service
means of escape and limitations on compartment sizes professionals wanting to understand how structures
were made2. behave in fire. It should also enable contractors,
manufacturers and suppliers to appreciate the
Much of the early regulation on the control of buildings broader approach being adopted and to adapt their
related to non-combustibility and fire separation. It was products and development pipeline accordingly.
only when disciplines such as architecture and structural Frequent reference is made to UK and EU practice
engineering began to fully develop, that fire was no but much of the guidance is generic and applicable
longer the dominant factor in the design of buildings. more widely.
However, design for fire, other than by testing and
prescription, was not supported sufficiently by science In order to achieve these objectives, there is a need for a
until relatively recently. wide range of skills. The structural engineer or architect
will be able to adopt some of these fairly easily.
Over the past few decades, considerable change and However, other skills, which may involve the complexities
development has taken place in fire engineering of fire dynamics or the finite element analysis of heated
internationally. Methods have improved, research has structures, will require additional expertise. This guidance
turned into engineering practice, and performance-based provides a comprehensive introduction to the design of
standards are now readily applied. A careful approach is the primary structure during fire for all principal
needed to balance what is developmental, what is viable construction materials.
for the fire safety engineer, and what can be safely
adopted. Chapter 2 describes the common design approaches
adopted and introduces the reader to structural
1.2 Scope behaviour in fire.
This guidance has been prepared, primarily for the Chapters 3–6 give specific guidance and information for
structural engineering generalist, to promote safer and the four main construction materials — concrete, steel,
better value solutions for the structural performance of timber and masonry.
buildings during and after fire. There is considerable
opportunity for the design team and supply chain to With increasing focus on refurbishment and re-use of
work together to develop improved performance — existing buildings, Chapter 7 introduces the important
based on new/developing technology within a sensible concepts within existing building appraisal for fire.
regulatory framework. The guidance primarily addresses
building structures and does not consider special The final chapter considers how understanding and
structures such as tunnels. knowledge of structural performance in fire could help
firefighters in their operations.
Importantly, structural fire safety measures can make a
contribution to the protection of property and, as a In future, with the further development of fire safety
consequence, insurers’ premiums may reduce if advice engineering and the accessibility of this knowledge

2
there is an opportunity to reduce the fragmentation 1.4 Design responsibilities —

currently present in the procurement of fire protection
materials (and the provision of inherent fire resistance an overview
for some structures). This will come from the closer Clearly, to meet all requirements of the regulations,
cooperation of designers, suppliers, regulators and many inputs from different design professionals are
contractors, as evidenced in the UK by the 2019 necessary. Therefore, the responsibility for the fire safety
publication of an overarching proposal for an design needs to be clearly identified by the lead
industry-wide competence framework4. consultant (usually the architect) and client from the
outset. This responsibility should ideally cover the full
1.3 Building Regulations — design and construction cycle (and was a major
recommendation of the Dame Judith Hackitt review9 of
an overview the Building Regulations in 2018).
In most international jurisdictions, there is a need to
consider the fire safety of buildings holistically. The Depending on a project’s specific characteristics, a
principles are similar throughout the world — ensuring number of other professionals may also contribute to the
the risk to life of occupants and firefighters is structural fire engineering scheme. Typical roles and
minimised. responsibilities can be found in Table 1.1.
In England, control of fire safety is based on codes of Additionally, whatever fire protection measures are
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practice and standards which emanate from the adopted, it is important that they are maintained
functional performance requirements of the Building throughout the operational phase of the building. The
Regulations5; principally Approved Document B6, associated legislation is the Regulatory Reform (Fire
BS 79747 and BS 99998. Below these, sit other Safety) Order10 which makes the person operating the
standards which deal with structure, building services building responsible for the undertaking of regular fire risk
and architectural systems, and finally, there are sets of assessments; to ensure that the overall level of fire
material performance standards that enable delivery of protection to a building is not impaired.
the performance requirements.
The structural aspects of the overall fire strategy are
It should be noted that Building Regulations in Wales dependent on many factors. These include project size,
and Northern Ireland are almost identical to those of complexity, structural material, structural form, safety
England but Scottish regulations differ. Reference to the criticality, etc.
regulations in this guidance refer to those for use in
England. On smaller/less complex projects the architect may take
responsibility for the fire strategy, particularly if
There are five main functional requirements: prescriptive Code/Standard guidance is being strictly
adhered to. In such cases, it is simply a matter of
• Means of warning and escape ensuring each structural member has enough applied
• Internal fire spread (linings) protection or sufficient inherent fire resistance to meet
• Internal fire spread (structure) the specified structural fire requirements — usually stated
• External fire spread in the Code/Standard guidance.
• Access and facilities for the fire service
For most (particularly larger) construction projects
These requirements are paramount and any means however, the fire engineer will take the lead role in
of demonstrating compliance with them can be developing the overall fire strategy. From the outset, the
taken. The simplest way is to follow the mainly fire engineer should work with other key members of the
prescriptive provisions given within Approved design team to develop a scheme that will meet the
Document B or other specific guidance e.g. requirements of the relevant regulations while balancing
BS 9999. the functional, economic and aesthetic aspirations of the
project.
Alternative ways to demonstrate compliance are also
available; including fire safety engineering approaches Fire engineers come from a variety of technical
where solutions can be more tailored to the actual backgrounds and may not fully appreciate the technical
building circumstances and based on meeting certain complexity of the performance of various structural
performance criteria. elements and materials in fire. In such cases, the

Table 1.1: Roles and responsibilities — structural fire safety design
Role Responsibilities
Fire engineer Developing overall fire strategy — defining expected level of structural fire
performance and compartmentation requirements
Structural engineer Structural design; design and specification of primary structural elements
Structural fire engineer Identifying each primary structural element, its role in providing stability and
supporting the structure’s compartmentation
Demonstrating that fire performance meets functional requirements of Building
Regulations
Lead consultant Co-ordinating (with fire engineer as/when appointed) of overall approach to fire
(usually the architect) safety
Determining and specifying the method of fire protection, protecting each element
of structure requiring fire resistance
Liaising with fire protection manufacturer and installer to confirm appropriate design
of system
Specifying fire stopping
Client Ensuring relevant fire safety information is created and disseminated throughout the
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design, procurement and operational phases

Ensuring a fire risk assessment is undertaken to meet requirements of the
Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order10 during operational phase
In accordance with overall fire strategy, defining route towards structural fire
engineering performance-based design
Maintaining installed fire protection system
Quantity surveyor Assessing financial implications of structural fire engineering design and advising
client
Insurer Advising client regarding property protection and business continuity requirements
during construction and operational phase
Fire service Commenting on methodology and selected fire scenarios and providing
approval/refusal recommendation on proposed fire protection methods
Building control Reviewing overall structural fire engineering design and providing official approval
of it meeting requirements of relevant regulations
Third party reviewer Reviewing overall structural fire engineering design — particularly where
performance-based design techniques are used
Providing approval/refusal recommendation
Fire protection installer Installing and warranting of fire protection to primary elements in accordance with
product manufacturer’s recommendations
Fire protection Providing fire protection products in accordance with specification, designing fire
manufacturer protection system for required fire resistance and warranting fire protection product
performance (if installed) in accordance with its recommendations
Advising lead consultant on how to design to meet a minimum fire resistance rating

4
structural fire aspects may require the input of someone 1.5 Fire safety engineering —
who understands structural performance in fire as well as
the role of each structural element in providing vertical an overview
and lateral stability. This is likely to be a structural Here, the specific aspects of ‘structural fire resistance’
engineer who specialises in understanding the impact of are explained, within the wider context of fire safety
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fire on a structure. This role is referred to as the engineering.
structural fire engineer in this guidance.
Structural fire resistance is one of the most important
For every project, it should be clear ‘who is responsible concepts in the provision of overall fire safety. It is widely
for what’ in terms of providing adequate fire resistance regarded as a passive measure i.e. something that helps
for different parts of the structure. For example, in the a structure withstand a severe fire; rather than an active
provision of floor-to-floor compartmentation: measure which warns of, or intervenes to reduce the
effects of, a fire.
• the fire engineer is responsible for determining which
floors provide compartmentation and to what fire Figure 1.1 illustrates the relationship between active
resistance level and passive measures, over time. Actual fire
• the structural fire engineer is responsible for development is explained in more detail in Chapter 2
identifying the elements that make up or support that as it is mainly a function of available fire load,
compartmentation and specifying the fire resistance of compartment characteristics (size, layout, thermal
each component inertia, etc.) and available oxygen (ventilation) in the
• the lead consultant or architect is responsible for compartment.
determining the method of providing the fire
resistance, and any other detailing required (e.g. fire Fire resistance is defined as follows in Approved
stopping) to ensure that the requirements of the Document B:
compartmentation are met. Note: these requirements
are generally couched in terms of insulation, integrity Common to all of the provisions of Part B of the
and structural fire resistance (Section 1.5). Building Regulations is the property of fire resistance.
Fire resistance is a measure of one or more of the
Clearly, a dialogue between all design team members is following:
necessary for an appropriate outcome to be reached.
Figure 1.1: Temperature development and fire protection measures
Detection
Suppression
Fire protection measure
Smoke control
Escape routes
Compartmentation
Structural fire protection

Flashover
Increasing temperature
Initiation
Time

a. Resistance to collapse (loadbearing capacity), which cases, the inclusion of sprinkler systems to prescriptive
applies to loadbearing elements only, denoted R in the guidance (e.g. BS EN 1284511) can reduce the level of
European classification of the resistance to fire fire resistance required by the appropriate building
performance. regulations.
b. Resistance to fire penetration (integrity), denoted E in The reasons for providing fire resistance can vary
the European classification of the resistance to fire depending on the scenario, and are influenced by one or
performance. more of the following:
c. Resistance to the transfer of excessive heat • Life safety for means of escape and firefighting. This
(insulation), denoted I in the European classification of the tends to be more important in large/complex buildings
resistance to fire performance. where evacuation and firefighting operations take
longer
These are often referred to as the ‘stability’, ‘integrity’ • Protection of business continuity, heritage or special
and ‘insulation’ requirements respectively. occupancies like hospitals; where evacuation and
protection of property need special attention
Typically, most fires start small and, if left unchecked, will • Protection of adjacent buildings. This is achieved by
continue to feed the atmospheric temperature in a hot compartmentation, which limits the amount of building
gas layer under the ceiling (growth phase). Eventually, on fire at any one time and reduces resultant radiation
when the hot gas layer grows to reach conditions at on adjacent buildings. This aspect is covered by
which the radiation ignites everything else in the prescriptive guidance where compartmentation and
compartment, the atmosphere temperature rapidly the combination of fire resisting walls and openings in
increases (flashover). In the post-flashover phase, the elevations are controlled
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fire conditions come into equilibrium with available • Limitation of collateral damage resulting from the
ventilation, and temperature development flattens collapse of a structure. Prescriptive guidance covers
(typically 1000–1100°C). After most of the fuel load is this for the majority of buildings. However, in more
consumed, temperatures begin to subside (cooling complex and/or high-rise buildings there may be a
phase). need to adopt a risk-based approach. For example,
fire, explosions and other extreme events will need to
The prime objective of the fire engineer is to prevent, be established as part of the scenario planning, and
delay or reduce the effects of fire (mainly the production special events like terrorist attacks should be
of smoke, toxic gases and heat), to provide adequate considered12.
time for occupants of the building to escape and for
firefighters to safely fight a fire. Consequently, a
considerable amount of fire engineering is concerned 1.6 Structural fire design and
with the growth phase. In this phase, active fire
protection systems such as early detection, sprinklers
architectural solutions
and smoke control are defined (commensurate with The design of structures to perform in fire can strongly
building risk and occupancy) to permit early escape, influence architectural solutions, e.g.:
early control of fire growth and provision of protected
escape routes. • Environmentally sustainable schemes that often result
in a requirement for the exposed structure to provide
Compartmentation is a principal passive measure, both the thermal mass. Fire safety solutions may need to
to help maintain protected escape routes and to restrict be considered in greater depth and/or a fire safety
the fire to the compartment of fire origin. The latter engineered solution may be necessary
becomes important in the post-flashover phase. • An increasing use of exposed structure for aesthetic
Likewise, the provision of fire resistance, either inherent reasons (Figure 1.2). In these situations, the need for
or by the application of structural fire protection systems, an integrated approach and an enhanced knowledge
only becomes important in the post-flashover phase. In of fire safety is essential.
summary, structural fire resistance only becomes • The desire to minimise the depth of the combined
important in the event of a systemic failure of the active structure/service zone to reduce overall building
fire protection strategy in controlling the growth of the heights. This is one of the challenges that the
fire. architect and the engineer continually face as spans
increase and columns reduce in number. The
Good design of the active fire safety systems leads to a potential solutions are numerous and Figure 1.3 is an
lower number of severe post-flashover fires. In some example

6
Figure 1.2: External unprotected steel: Al Shaqab Equestrian Centre, Doha, Qatar
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Figure 1.3: Beam and services integration

2 Design methodology
2.1 Introduction design and construction. Issues likely to have the
greatest influence are:
Many factors influence the design approach to a
structure for fire safety. The most important are • Robustness — minimise potential damage of applied
associated with the risks inherent in the particular fire protection during construction, and in the
building, including: long-term by selecting a system that is suitably robust
for the given situation. Damage caused by
• Occupancy type — reflects the ease with which the maintenance and upgrading of building services is
building can be evacuated always a risk for most applied fire protection systems
• Expected fire severity — largely based on the • Integration and design coordination — a structural
expected fire load density for a given occupancy type solution that optimises the normal and fire load cases
and potential ventilation conditions while giving sufficient flexibility for services distribution
• Building height — influences the time required for i.e. minimum depth of structure/service zone
people to escape from the building, the difficulty of • Use of active fire protection systems, such as the
firefighting at height and on the consequences of any introduction of sprinklers — a trade-off against the
building collapse level of passive systems to be installed
• Basement provision — usually means the lack of • Selection of passive fire protection — minimising
ability to vent the fire, hence fire severity in terms of waste and time on-site by exploring off-site
intensity/duration and increased difficulty of firefighting applications
• Trying to take advantage of the inherent fire resistance
The adopted approach must conform to certain basic of certain construction systems — minimise or even
principles of fire safe design concerning means of eliminate the need to passively fire protect
escape, controlling internal and external fire spread and
ensuring safe firefighter access. As mentioned in the These considerations will impact the style of approach,
previous chapter, in the UK these principles are the engineering skills required and the resultant
enshrined in the functional requirements of the Building methodology adopted.
Regulations. It is not stipulated how these requirements
are met and it is up to the designer to demonstrate the
measures to be put in place to ensure compliance. There 2.2 Compartment fire behaviour
are two principal ways of demonstrating this:
There is value in developing an appreciation of natural
1. The prescriptive approach: following mainly fires in a building compartment and potential structural
prescriptive guidance published in approved Codes performance, as background to understanding the
and other documents. Strict adherence to all broader objectives and associated approach in any
elements of the guidance means the building or design methodology.
structure is deemed to satisfy the functional
requirements of the Building Regulations. This is the The behaviour of a compartment fire is heavily dependent
most common approach. on available ventilation. If there is insufficient air in the room
2. The performance-based approach: considering the for all combustibles to burn, the rate of burning is
fire risk for the particular structure in question and dependent on air supply. The duration of a fire is
applying advanced engineering methods to dependent on the total fire load. If the supply of air to a
demonstrate how it will actually perform in fire. This room is plentiful, the burning rate is dependent on the
approach is less common but for structural fire surface area and burning characteristics of the fuel. High
engineering, further information can be found in the levels of ventilation can also have a cooling effect on the fire.
Institution’s Guide to the advanced fire safety
engineering of structures 13. 2.2.1 Phases of fire
As mentioned in the previous chapter, the compartment
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For structural fire protection, the approach taken to fire process has three distinct phases:
achieve suitable fire-safe solutions is influenced by the
designer’s knowledge and the circumstances for a 1. The growth (or ‘pre-flashover’) phase
particular building. A holistic design approach to fire 2. The fully developed (or ‘post-flashover’) phase
safety should consider a number of issues relating to 3. The cooling phase

8
Figure 2.1: Progress of a well-ventilated natural fire Flashover

Flashover is defined as the relatively rapid transition
Post-flashover between the primary fire which is essentially localised
1000–1200°C
Pre-flashover around the item first ignited, and the general
Temperature
conflagration when all surfaces within the compartment

are burning. This transition period occurs as a result of
Flashover several mechanisms, each one contributing to the growth
~600°C of the fire to a size at which flashover becomes
inevitable. If there is insufficient fuel, ventilation or
propensity for fire spread then a compartment fire may
not achieve a rate of heat release sufficient for flashover
Natural fire curve
to occur. The relative duration of the three phases may
have a significant impact on the performance of
structural elements.
Ignition – smouldering Heating Cooling

Time Post-flashover
After flashover, high temperatures are sustained until the
fuel is almost completely consumed. The compartment is
engulfed with hot gases and products of combustion.
‘Flashover’ is a rapid transition between the growth Rate of heat release is at its highest. External flaming
phase and the fully developed phase. This is shown through the windows may also occur as the unburnt
in Figure 2.1, which illustrates the entire process in products of combustion in the fuel-rich atmosphere flow
terms of heat released against time. While still small out of the windows and burn in the presence of air
(during the growth phase) the compartment fire will (Figure 2.2). Extensive research into compartment fires
behave as it would in the open. As it grows, the has centred around the post-flashover phase, not only
confinement of the compartment begins to influence because the fire is most severe in this period but also
its behaviour. If there is sufficient fuel and ventilation because the compartment can be treated as one volume
the fire will develop to flashover and its maximum of uniform temperature, simplifying modelling. Many
intensity, when all combustible surfaces are burning. compartment fire models only consider this stage.
If the fire is extinguished before flashover, its growth
is contained by the presence of a suppression
system, or if the fuel or ventilation is insufficient there Figure 2.2: Post-flashover fire
will only be localised damage. The fire will remain
small around the items first ignited (left-hand dashed
line in Fig. 2.1). Post-flashover the whole enclosure
and its contents will be devastated.
Pre-flashover
During the growth phase of any fire the flames form
a buoyant plume above the items first ignited. In a
compartment, if the fire grows to a size where the
plume impinges over the ceiling, a ceiling jet will
develop, radiating outwards from the central axis of
the plume. When the flow of hot gases meets the
walls of the enclosure, a hot smoky layer builds up
under the ceiling, radiating heat back down towards
the lower compartment and the fuel below. The
development of the smoke layer is important for
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flashover. The radiative heat feedback from the

dense, hot smoke results in the ignition of many
more items in the room, which in turn increases the
level of hot gases near the ceiling. An understanding
of pre-flashover fires is very important for life safety,
in terms of time for evacuation. It can also be
important when considering a localised fire adjacent
to a critical piece of structure.

2.2.2 Potential structural performance reverse; the material will start to contract and also regain
We can now start to consider the way a structure may strength and stiffness.
respond to a post-flashover fire (post-flashover because
the structure is unlikely to get hot enough to respond if In the cooling phase, the tendency therefore is for the
such a fire is not allowed to develop). effect of contraction to reduce deflections. However, the
ability to recover deflections is based on the assumption
The way a structure potentially behaves in a fire is that the element has not gone into the nonlinear material
dependent on many factors. These include: range and invoked plastic or parasitic straining
(dependent on material). The effect of locking-in
• Structural form irrecoverable strain, along with restraint, is again to
• Structural material (and its thermal inertia, expansion) introduce additional forces —predominantly tensions in
• Structural element type this situation. Such tensile forces can be considerable
• Structural element connectivity and, depending on the material, may have a serious
• Load carried by individual elements impact on member connectivity.
• Temperature dependency of material properties —
strength, stiffness and thermal properties As with structural performance during the growth phase,
• Propensity of the structural material to contribute to there can be considerable complexity associated with the
combustion cooling phase.
As a fire develops, the structural elements close to the

seat of the fire will start to get hot, and two effects
2.3 Approach to design
predominate. Firstly, the structural material will start to Given this potential complexity, a degree of design
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expand which tends to manifest itself as an increase in simplification is required. A range of approaches can be
deflection. Secondly, the main structural material used to ensure satisfactory structural performance
properties will start to degrade with temperature during fire. These vary from simple prescription e.g. the
increase. The rate at which these two effects contribute required thickness of applied fire protection for steelwork,
to potential performance depends on the rate at which or the cover to reinforcement in concrete, to more
the structure heats. This is largely contingent on the complex analytical calculations. Approaches vary for
thermal inertia of individual elements. different structural materials, with some described in
Chapters 3–6.
Performance is also influenced by the way each element
is restrained within the overall structural form. If an Irrespective of the type of approach, a three-step
element is unrestrained, the loads carried within it remain procedure is usually followed:
largely unaltered and the response is dominated by
material degradation. If an element is restrained, the 1. Determination/assessment of an appropriate fire
restraint of the element’s expansion will give rise to exposure to apply to the structure
additional forces, predominantly compression and 2. Determination/assessment of the thermal response of
bending, which, added to the loads already carried, can the element/structure
lead to loss of load-carrying capacity earlier than an 3. Determination/assessment of the structural response
unrestrained element. In both cases, potential initiation of of the element/structure
element failure occurs when material strength degrades
to a point where element strength is less than the load Guide to the advanced fire safety engineering of
carried. structures gives further explanation of the methods used
in each step of the procedure.
With this in mind, and with the knowledge that restraint
to individual elements can vary and is likely to be The treatment of the structure as a series of single,
somewhere between restrained and unrestrained, independent elements is common to many design
structural performance during the growth phase is approaches. However, with increasingly advanced
potentially highly complex. guidance available, the designer has a greater range of
potential approaches, both in terms of various degrees of
However, as discussed in the previous section, the fire whole frame action and use of natural or calculated fires,
cannot burn indefinitely. After a period of steady-state in addition to prescribed fires. The degree of
burning, the atmospheric temperature will start to decay. sophistication adopted by the designer will depend
After a certain time-lag, the structural elements will start greatly on the particular circumstances, structural type,
to cool down. Now, potential effects start to go into performance requirements and overall design objectives.

10
Table 2.1: Level of design complexity
Extent of structure considered

Single Sub-frame Whole frame Less
element conservatism
Fire exposure Prescribed fire Simple/ Medium/ Complex/

curve tabulated calculated calculated
Experimental Medium/ Medium/ Complex/
fire tabulated calculated calculated
Calculated fire Medium/ Complex/ Very complex/

calculated calculated calculated
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Less conservatism
The various levels of sophistication can be categorised in Examples include:

order of increasing complexity (Table 2.1). As complexity
increases, conservatism generally decreases. • Where there is a need to maintain business continuity
in a separate compartment or floor
For single structural elements, the performance • Where escape routes may be affected in the later stages
requirements which may need to be met depend on the of a fire e.g. in phased evacuation of tall structures
nature of the element. For example: • Where slabs or beams may deflect onto compartment
walls — although interaction of the wall and slab
• Stability is required for all structural elements should not compromise compartmentation
including slabs, beams, columns and loadbearing • Cases where additional fire protection has only been
walls. In addition, insulation and integrity may be tested up to a certain deflection. The risk is that high
required to meet the recommendations of the building deflections could result in damage to the fire
codes protection unless additional evidence to the contrary
• Slabs require insulation and integrity to protect can be provided
compartments above and below the fire
• Compartment walls require insulation and integrity to Where deflection control is necessary, more
protect the adjacent space sophisticated techniques need to be adopted,
• Columns only require stability unless they are built into considering whole frame behavior and an appropriate
an element which requires insulation and integrity, exposure to fire.
such as a compartment wall
• Beams only require stability unless they are built It should be noted that where there is a departure from
into a slab or wall which requires insulation and the simplest prescribed methods, there is often a need
integrity for the designer and the regulator to examine the
robustness of a solution and the consequences of failure
Stability and insulation requirements for such elements as part of the risk assessment process. Although not
can be assessed using tabular methods (under the exhaustive, the engineer should consider the following in
standard fire exposure) or calculated under all exposures. their review:
However, dependent on material type, integrity can only
be determined via testing. • Robustness — in terms of performance and
maintenance. A fire protection measure with a
Where an adopted approach does not follow the usual managed certified maintenance routine is far more
prescriptive route and the referenced fire tests, it is reliable. Some solutions require little maintenance as
important that the performance of structural elements they are capable of withstanding the rigours of day to
is reviewed in terms of acceptable deflections, taking day use
into account the full fire strategy for the building. In • Ensuring adequate margin of safety where a high
many cases there will be no need to consider this degree of reliance is placed on a single fire protection
because escape happens at a relatively early stage in measure
the fire’s development. However, there are cases • Accepting lower factors of safety on the individual fire
where there may be a need to control deflection. protection measures where they combine to achieve

Introduction to structural fire engineering | 11
the required standard — since the probability of every Table 2.2: Load factors for fire limit state
fire protection measure failing at the same time is
fairly low. In a diverse solution, the likely result of a Load γf
single fire protection measure (active or passive) failing
is a reduction in the factor of safety but not a Dead load 1.0
complete failure to provide the required performance Permanent imposed loads 1.0
e.g. means of escape, compartmentation etc.
• Other fire protection measures that could be Non-permanent imposed loads:
‘traded-off’ with fire resistance — such as sprinklers a) residential areas 0.5
• The Qualitative Design Review (QDR) process within b) office areas 0.5
BS 79747 allows the design team to consider the c) shopping areas 0.7
fire protection measures to be adopted for a d) storage areas 0.9
particular building to provide an adequate level of fire
safety
in isolation. A building’s overall level of safety consists of
In summary, there are many design methodologies that a layered approach where provision of additional
can demonstrate structurally how the functional mitigation factors within one aspect of the fire strategy
requirements of most regulatory environments can be can compensate for reduction in fire protection in
met. These can be carefully tailored to the particular another. Therefore, it is important when developing the
circumstances and requirements of the overall fire structural fire protection strategy that all the provisions of
strategy. a particular document or code are followed.
In England and Wales, the prescriptive requirements

2.4 Load factors for the fire limit are outlined in Approved Document B6 or BS 99998.
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state It should be noted that in terms of the overarching fire

strategy all the prescriptive provisions of Approved
Regardless of the structural material and whether a Document B should be followed, or all the prescriptive
simple or advanced calculation method is adopted, the provisions of BS 9999 i.e. one cannot mix and match
loading conditions are a common aspect. Fire exposure guidance from different approaches. The specific
is defined as an ‘accidental limit state’, and BS EN 1991- project circumstances will determine the approach
1-214 presents rules for determining the corresponding taken.
design actions. In general, these are significantly lower
than for ‘ultimate limit states’ and are defined by For the prescribed approach, most countries adopt a
appropriate combination factors for both permanent and regulatory framework using the standard fire resistance
variable loads. The appropriate combination factors test to determine the fire performance of a single,
depend on the particular types of loading being independent element of structure. Put simply, the
considered. In practice the critical load combination for performance of an element needs to be at least as good
buildings at the fire limit state comprise dead load as the fire resistance level specified in the Building
(permanent) plus imposed load (variable). This leads to a Regulations and related documentation.
simplified interpretation of the load combinations, with
the accidental limit state design loading calculated as: The level of fire resistance is specified as a standard
time of fire exposure to an atmospheric temperature
Gk + ψ1Qk curve which follows BS 476-2116. It should be noted
that this measurement of time is not generally related
In effect, the characteristic permanent actions to the time a structural element is supposed to
(self-weight, services, partitions etc.) are used non- survive or the time required to escape a building. It is
factored, while the principal characteristic variable action a way of standardising the testing so the
(imposed loading) depends on the nature of the building. performance of products can be compared on a
The combination factor ψ1 is generally specified in the like-for-like basis.
appropriate National Annex and for the UK is 0.5–0.915
(Table 2.2). 2.5.1 Standard fire resistance test
The idea of a standardised approach to fire testing dates
back to the International Fire Prevention Congress held in
2.5 Prescriptive fire resistance London in 1903. In 1917 ASTM C19 (later altered to
As mentioned in the introduction, the many aspects of E11917) was issued. This document included a
the overarching fire safety strategy cannot be considered specification for a standard heating curve. The first

12
edition of BS 476 on fire resistance testing was published 2.5.2 Limitations of the standard furnace test
in 1932. Subsequent revisions have attempted to It is often incorrectly assumed that there is a one-to-one
harmonise both the heating curve (internationally through relationship between survival of single elements in a
the adoption of ISO 83418) and the control of furnaces standard fire resistance test and survival of actual
(within the European Union). The standard fire curve buildings in a fire. This is certainly not the case, as
has been adopted: already discussed, since a fire is not likely to follow the
time-temperature profile used in a standard fire test and
• to provide evidence of compliance to regulatory the building will not behave as a collection of individual
bodies elements. In reality, an element of construction within the
• to assist in product development context of a complete building may perform satisfactorily
• to provide a common basis for research into the for a longer or shorter period than indicated by the
effect of variables other than temperature standard test, depending on the characteristics of the
particular fire and structural configuration.
As such, it has proved to be remarkably successful over
a long period of time. It has the advantage of familiarity The standard temperature-time curve bears little
for both designers and regulators and there is a large resemblance to the temperature-time history of a fire as
body of experimental data available. It is simple to use, it has no cooling phase. It was designed to typify
clearly defined and allows for a direct comparison temperatures experienced during the post-flashover
between the performance of products tested under phase of most fires.
nominally identical conditions.
Figure 2.4 illustrates the temperature-time histories of
In the UK and throughout Europe the technique used to several fires of varying fire load and ventilation
establish fire resistance is to expose a structural element characteristics, and compares these with the standard
as outlined in BS 476-2019 or BS EN 1363-120 curve. It shows that the standard curve is generally a
(Figure 2.3). The standard curve in ASTM E119 is almost poor representation of fires in the post-flashover phase.
identical to that in the British Standard.
Temperatures in a standard furnace are relatively uniform
The results of the standard test are described in terms of when compared with those in a fire compartment. In a
a period of resistance (minutes) against each of the natural fire, temperature variations may develop in
appropriate performance criteria — stability, integrity and structural members which are not present during a
insulation. In Eurocode terminology, the performance
criteria are specified as R, E and I respectively.
Figure 2.4: Comparison of standard temperature-time
Therefore, a loadbearing beam withstanding the test for
curve with temperatures measured during
longer than 60 minutes but less than 90 minutes would
compartment fires
be classed as R60. Likewise, a non-loadbearing
compartment wall meeting integrity and insulation criteria
for 30 minutes but not 60 minutes would be classed as 1200
EI30.
1000
Standard curve
Figure 2.3: Standard temperature–time curves
Temperature (°C)
800
1400
600
1200 60 (½)
1000 30 (¼)
Temperature (°C)
400
30 (½)
800 15 (¼)
15 (½)
BS 476 200
600
ASTM E119
400
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
200 Time (minutes)
0 Note: 60 (½) implies fire load density equals 60kg/m2 of wood
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 (860MJ/m2) and ventilation is 50% of one wall etc.
Time (minutes) Derived /adapted from Butcher21.
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furnace test. Lack of furnace harmonisation is another • Building occupancy

drawback to the standard fire test. Although the relevant • Building height
test codes specify the same control temperature, the • Basement depth
heat flux experienced by the test specimen is dependent • Sprinklered/unsprinklered
on the form of construction of the furnace, the location
of the burners relative to the specimen, the method of The table shows that as building height or basement
temperature measurement and the type of fuel used. depth increases, the relevant fire resistance level required
Furthermore, private companies commission most tests for a given occupancy increases. There is also a subtle
and the results are therefore commercially sensitive and relationship to occupancy, based on expected fire load.
are not, in general, available to be scrutinised by For example, industrial premises can be expected to
researchers. Furnace testing is also expensive and the have larger fire loads and hence require greater fire
staged nature of the fire resistance grading system resistance levels than some other occupancy types.
(periods of 30 minutes) does not allow for an
optimisation of the test results. Generally, if sprinklered, a lower fire resistance rating is
permitted based on the lower probability of a severe fire
The physical limitations of standard furnaces mean that it in the presence of a functioning sprinkler system.
is not possible to test complex 3D structural behaviour. Sprinkler systems are designed to support activation of
The influence, beneficial or detrimental, of restraint one or two sprinkler heads in the event of a fire. The
provided by the surrounding structure cannot be taken sprinkler closest to the fire will be activated by the local
into account. The effect of restraint in standard tests has heat source, and all other sprinklers will remain inactive
been discussed extensively in the US where such tests unless the fire grows to a size where a second sprinkler
are frequently conducted. BS 476-20 and BS EN 1363-1 is affected. It is a common misconception that all
recommend that restraint conditions should represent sprinklers will operate on the floor of fire origin and flood
those met in practice. This is difficult to achieve in test the floor. One or two sprinkler heads have been shown
conditions as restraint cannot easily be measured and is to be effective in controlling, and in some cases
likely to change throughout the test. Commonly, extinguishing, fire in its early stages. The use of sprinklers
elements are tested unrestrained. also:
The nature of the test means that only idealised end • allows a degree of certainty over the design fire size
conditions can be used and only idealised load levels • performs the dual function of detection and
and distributions adopted. During a fire, some degree of suppression
load shedding will take place from the affected areas to • increases allowable compartment size
the unheated parts of the building. In the standard test • increases the time for untenable conditions and thus
no allowance can be made for alternative load carrying increases available evacuation time
mechanisms or for alternative modes of failure. • reduces the size of fire that firefighters would be
expected to tackle
The choice of arbitrary failure criteria adopted, so as to
restrict damage to the test furnace, is a further drawback Less typical is the approach adopted by BS 9999, where
in terms of predicting behaviour within a real building. ventilation, fire load and the presence of sprinklers also
feature in the recommendations. The method was
Although the shortcomings of the fire resistance test are formulated using a risk-based Monte Carlo approach to
significant, standard fire resistance tests are the only derive fire resistance periods based on statistical data on
universally recognised method for determining the fire fire load per occupancy type, occupancy risk profiles,
resistance of structural elements. etc. It is caveated by the inputs to the project on
ventilation conditions and height being within the bounds
2.5.3 Code-based levels of fire resistance of the study used to define the fire resistance ratings
The appropriate level of fire resistance (by country) is (Table 24 in BS 9999 and reproduced here as Table 2.4).
specified by that country’s code committee — according
to the general risk factors outlined in the introduction to While the standard fire test is very similar throughout the
this chapter. world, there can be distinct differences in fire resistance
ratings requirements across different jurisdictions. This is
In England and Wales the prescribed fire resistance largely due to the differences in the provision of other
recommendations are set out in Approved Document B elements of the overall fire strategy. For example, in
(Table 2.3 in this guidance) with the fire resistance level Hong Kong the fire resistance ratings are much lower
being dependent on key features associated with risk because the provisions for means of escape are much
factors. These key features manifest themselves as: more onerous than in the UK or US. In Hong Kong
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14
Table 2.3: Minimum periods of fire resistance
Purpose group of Minimum periods of fire resistance(1) (minutes) in a:

building Basement storey∗ Ground or upper storey
including floor over
Depth(m) of the lowest Height(m) of top floor above ground, in a building
basement or separated part of a building
More than 10 Up to 10 Up to 5 Up to 18 Up to 30 More than 30
1. Residential:
a. Block of flats
– without sprinkler 90min 60min 30min† 60min+§ 90min+ Not permitted(2)
system
– with sprinkler 90min 60min 30min† 60min+§ 90min+ 120min+
system(3)
b and c. Dwellinghouse Not applicable(4) 30min∗ † 30min† 60min(5) Not applicable(4) Not applicable(4)
2. Residential:
a. Institutional 90min 60min 30min† 60min 90min 120min‡
b. Other residential 90min 60min 30min† 60min 90min 120min‡
3. Office:
– without sprinkler 90min 60min 30min† 60min 90min Not permitted(6)
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system
– with sprinkler 60min 60min 30min† 30min† 60min 120min‡
system(3)
4. Shop and commercial:
– without sprinkler 90min 60min 60min 60min 90min Not permitted
system
– with sprinkler 60min 60min 30min† 60min 60min 120min‡
system(3)
5. Assembly and
recreation:
system
system(3)
6. Industrial:
system
system(3)
7. Storage and other
non-residential:
a. any building or part not
described elsewhere:
system
system(3)
b. car park for light
vehicles:
i. open-sided car park(7) Not applicable Not applicable 15min†# 15min†#(8) 15min†#(8) 60min
ii. any other car park 90min 60min 30min† 60min 90min 120min‡

Notes:
For single storey buildings, the periods under the heading ‘Up to 5’ apply. If single storey buildings have basements, for
the basement storeys the period appropriate to their depth applies.
∗
For the floor over a basement or, if there is more than one basement, the floor over the topmost basement, the higher of
the period for the basement storey and the period for the ground or upper storey applies.
† For compartment walls that separate buildings, the period is increased to a minimum of 60 minutes.
+ For any floor that does not contribute to the support of the building within a flat of more than one storey, the period is
reduced to 30 minutes.
§ For flat conversions, refer to paragraphs 6.5–6.7 of Approved Document B Volume 1 regarding the acceptability of
30 minutes.
‡ For elements that do not form part of the structural frame, the period is reduced to 90 minutes.
# For elements that protect the means of escape, the period is increased to 30 minutes.
(1) Refer to note 1, Table B3 of Approved Document B for the specific provisions of test.
(2) Blocks of flats with a floor more than 30m above ground level should be fitted with a sprinkler system in accordance
with Appendix E of Approved Document B. Note: Sprinklers only need to be provided within the individual flats, they
are not required in the common areas such as stairs, corridors or landings when these areas are fire sterile.
(3) ‘With sprinkler system’ means that the building is fitted throughout with an automatic sprinkler system in accordance
with Appendix E of Approved Document B.
(4) Very large (over 18m in height or with a 10m deep basement) or unusual dwellinghouses are outside the scope of the
guidance.
(5) A minimum of 30 minutes in the case of three storey dwellinghouses, increased to 60 minutes minimum for
compartment walls separating buildings.
(6) Buildings within the ‘office’, ‘shop and commercial’, ‘assembly and recreation’, ‘industrial’ and ‘storage and other
non-residential’ (except car parks for light vehicles) purpose groups (purpose groups 3–7(a)) require sprinklers where
there is a top storey above 30m. The sprinkler system should be provided in accordance with Appendix E of Approved
Document B.
(7) The car park should comply with the relevant provisions in the guidance on requirement B3, Section 11 of Approved
Document B.
(8) For the purposes of meeting the Building Regulations, the following types of steel elements are deemed to have
satisfied the minimum period of fire resistance of 15 minutes when tested to the European test method:
i. Beams supporting concrete floors, maximum Hp/A = 230m−1 operating under full design load.
ii. Free-standing columns, maximum Hp/A = 180m−1 operating under full design load.
iii. Wind bracing and struts, maximum Hp/A = 210m−1 operating under full design load.
Derived/adapted from Table B4 in Approved Document B.
allowable travel distances are shorter and evacuation of of buildings where regulatory requirements may not be
the entire building is simultaneous. In the UK, the sufficient to meet the client’s needs.
concept of phased evacuation is generally adopted in
taller buildings where occupants on the fire floor and the The prescribed approach is the most common — used
floor above are evacuated first. A decision is then taken worldwide to demonstrate satisfactory performance in
about whether to evacuate other floors. As the escape fire. It has the benefit of being simple to apply and is
stairs are sized for phased evacuation, they are generally underpinned by a large body of test data developed by
fewer or narrower. However, this requires generally researchers and the fire protection industry over more
higher fire resistance requirements. As an example, the than 100 years. Despite its limitations it does provide an
fire resistance requirements in various countries for a enhanced level of overall fire resistance to buildings; but
multi-storey office block greater than 30m are given in in itself is no guarantee of overall structural performance
Table 2.5. in fire — which can often be dependent on the form of
construction.
It is important to note that building regulations are only
intended to ensure reasonable standards of health and
safety for persons (including firefighters) in, or in close
2.6 Form of construction
proximity to, the building. They are neither designed to Each form of construction and construction material has
prevent structural damage nor to minimise financial advantages and disadvantages. An understanding of
losses arising from fires, although clearly some of the these will enable the designer to plan for any
provisions do provide some degree of protection. This shortcomings in performance. Some typical
has important implications for the fire engineering design characteristics that will inevitably influence the designer
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16
Table 2.4: Fire resistance periods for elements of structurea
Risk Minimum periods of fire resistance (minutes)b

profile
Height(m) of top occupied storey above access level
Not more Not more Not more Not more Not more More than
than 5m than 11m than 18m than 30m than 60m 60m
A1 15 30 30 60 75 90
c
A2 30 30 60 90 120 150
A3 60 60 90 120 300 300
B1 30 30 30 60 60 75
B2 30 30 60 75 90 120
B3 30 45 75 105 135 180
Cii1, Ciii1 30 30 30 45 60 60
Cii2, Ciii2 30 45 60 75 90 105
Notes:
a
Based on ventilation conditions provided in Table 25 of BS 9999. If ventilation conditions in Table 25 cannot be met,
Table 23 of BS 9999 should be used instead.
b
Where a product or system is not available to meet the specific classification recommended in this table, then a product
or system should be used that has the next highest available classification category.
c
Reduced to 15min when ground floor area is less than 1000m2.
For storage, car parks and all basements with occupancy characteristic A, the fire resistance periods are as given in Table 23
of BS 9999.
Table 24 of BS 9999 is not suitable for application in atria or light-wells.
Derived/adapted from Table 24 of BS 9999.
are provided in brief here (although Chapters 3–6 provide monolithic. The continuity provided is often accounted
more detail on specific materials): for in ambient temperature design so there is potentially
less additional benefit during the fire case. One issue is
• Reinforced concrete structures are rarely analysed for the difficulty in predicting spalling (Section 3.4.2), which
fire conditions, although potential complexity in fire can may expose reinforcement, reducing strength. However,
be similar to other structural forms. For an in situ the fire design rules for concrete are well prescribed and
reinforced concrete structure with suitable reinforcement covered in design codes
detailing, the connections are generally close to • Steel structures generally lose strength on heating
and therefore often need additional fire protection.
However, it is possible to develop solutions where
Table 2.5: Country comparison of typical fire
additional fire protection can be minimised. For
resistance ratings
example, where steel structures are used in
conjunction with precast concrete slab elements,
Country Fire resistance rating(minutes) for a
the concrete can be located in such a way as to
multi-storey office block (over 30m)
provide partial protection of the steel elements which
Australia 120 will enhance structural performance. A range of
proprietary and design solutions are available to
UK 120 effectively shield the steel in this way (Chapter 4)
Hong Kong 60 • Composite steel and concrete structures have
good inherent fire resistance and can perform well in
Sweden 90 fire; especially when the full 3D behaviour of the
frame is considered — taking account of the end
Singapore 120 restraint conditions provided, and alternative load
US 120 paths available to individual members (Section 4.6).
This benefit is not realised in standard testing
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• Timber structures perform in a substantially different enter tall buildings and may have to remain there for a
way from concrete or steel and are either protected considerable period of time
with fire resisting boarding, particularly for small • Conventionally, fire exposure has been based on the
section sizes, or designed to rely on sacrificial standard temperature-time curve followed by the
charring of the outer part of the timber. There are furnace test in ISO 834, BS 476 or ASTM E119. The
circumstances where the performance of real standard furnace test has shortcomings but it is still
structures can be very different to the prescribed the only universally accepted method of
solution. This has become apparent when systems of demonstrating fire resistance
joists and boards, taken from an existing building, • Natural fires are very different in peak temperature
performed to a higher standard than expected from and duration from the standard fire curve
simple charring calculations • The development of fire is dependent on fuel load,
• Loadbearing masonry tends to be very robust in its ventilation, compartment shape and the thermal
fire performance if it is tied to the structural floors. properties of boundary wall materials. Occupancy
However, care needs to be taken to assess the influences the type of fire load present in a particular
potential for unprotected steel roof beams to expand building
and push out the top storey, putting firefighters and
others at risk. Design of walls is nearly always based
on prescriptive guidance
These are just a few of the many considerations. Recent

research has demonstrated that, when exposed to fire,
entire structures can behave quite differently from the
way individual members might respond to the same
conditions. This may be for a number of reasons, but
especially:
• Structural ‘continuity’ (through tensile membrane

effects or moment continuity in composite floor slabs
and connections respectively), which facilitates the
exploitation of alternative load paths inherent in the
highly redundant structural frame
• ‘Free’ thermal expansion, which can cause
deformations and additional (second order) stresses
and restraint to free expansion, which can lead to
induced forces (axial and bending)
The effects of continuity are generally beneficial, while

those of expansion (free and restrained) are generally
detrimental. The effects of continuity and expansion can
be very significant, and it may be necessary to consider
the building’s behaviour in relation not only to structural
performance but also to the integrity of other building
components e.g. non-loadbearing walls. A more
advanced engineering approach will be required to deal
with structures in this way.
2.7 Summary
• Fire resistance design is traditionally based on fire
resistance testing using a standard time-temperature
curve. The objective is to ensure that the performance
in the test is greater than the prescribed requirement
• The prescribed fire resistance requirements are
related to building height and occupancy. Building
height is generally used because firefighters have to
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18
3 Concrete
3.1 Reaction of reinforced concrete from 1200–1900kg/m3 but they can be as low as
1000kg/m3. NWC ranges from 2000–2900kg/m3.
to fire Densities show only slight temperature dependence,
Concrete covers a vast array of different materials, all of mostly due to moisture losses. Limestone concretes are
which are formed by the hydration of Portland cement. an exception — they show a significant drop in density
The hydrated cement paste accounts for less than 50% at about 800°C due to decomposition of the
by volume of the materials present so that the aggregate aggregate23.
used has a significant effect on the properties. The three
common aggregates are siliceous (gravel, granite and Specific heat of NWC increases with temperature
flint), calcareous (limestones) and lightweight (sintered whereas specific heat of LWC is almost constant. All
fuel ash). concretes with free water experience a sudden rise in
specific heat as water evaporates at around 100°C.
Steel — either bars or high strength steel prestressing
strands — provides the ‘reinforced’ component. The Moisture in concrete
concrete provides an insulating role to such elements, Free water evaporates from concrete at 100–150°C in
with the impact on their strength and stiffness being a the absence of pore pressures, while chemically bound
function of their temperature within the concrete. water remains until temperatures reach 450°C. Moisture
absorbed by the concrete significantly increases its
A detailed review of structural behaviour is given in thermal conductivity because the conductivity of air is
Performance of concrete structures in fire 22. lower than that of water. In LWC an increase in moisture
content of 10% increases the conductivity by 50%.
3.1.1 Thermal properties However, the conductivity of the water is less than half
Concrete has excellent fire resisting properties (Figure 3.1). that of the hydrated cement paste, so the lower the
Compared with steel it has a very low conductivity, thus water content of the mix, the higher the conductivity of
low thermal diffusivity. A major disadvantage of concrete the hardened concrete23.
however, is ‘spalling’ (Sections 3.1.2 and 3.4.2).
Modelling heat transfer in concrete
Lightweight concretes (LWCs) have the best thermal Heat transfer to concrete is complicated by moisture
properties, with half the thermal conductivity of normal evaporation, water migration, reinforcing steel and heat
weight concrete (NWC). Typical densities of LWC range transfer by radiation and convection in the pores.
Nomograms based on the standard fire test have been
produced for concrete sections (Figure 3.2). To calculate
Figure 3.1: Office fire during construction showing the heating effect of fires, numerical heat transfer analysis
damage to green concrete (note distortion of props using software is very often necessary.
used to support timber framework)
3.1.2 Mechanical properties
Thermal expansion
Thermal expansion is a measure of a material’s ability to
expand (or contract) in response to changes in
temperature. Like all other properties of concrete, it is
complicated by the nature of the composite material.
It is dependent upon stress level, type of aggregate,
% volume of cement paste and rate of heating23–25.
Cement paste expands up to 150°C but contracts
between 150–400°C. This is associated with water
evaporation and chemical changes. However, the
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
aggregates may still expand22.
Transient creep
Creep is significant in concrete above temperatures of
400°C. It consists of the creep of the cement paste and

Figure 3.2: Isotherm profiles

b/h = 160/230mm b/h = 300/600mm
100 100
80 80
°C
t = 30 min
60 100 60 °C
100
40 40
200 200
20 300 20 300
400 400
0 500 0 500
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
mm mm
100 100 °C
100
80 80
°C
t = 60 min
60 60 200
300
40 400 40 300
400
500 500
20 600 20
700 600
0 800 0 700
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
mm mm
100 100
°C
80 80 200
°C
t = 90 min
60 60 300
500
400
40 600 40 500
700 600
20 20 700
800 800
0 900 0 900
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
mm mm
100 °C 100
°C
80 500 80 200
t = 120 min
300
60 600 60
400
40 700 40 500
600
800 700
20 20 800
900
900
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
mm mm
the creep of the aggregate. The reason concrete does The stress-strain-temperature behaviour of concrete with
not disintegrate at high temperatures as a result of no preload is described by a set of equations in
differential thermal expansion (between the cement BS EN 1992-1-226. Figure 3.3 shows compressive
paste and the aggregate) is the ability of the paste to stress-strain data for concrete at elevated temperatures.
creep25. High temperature creep above 400°C is included
implicitly. Both steel and concrete lose strength and
Stress-strain relationships elasticity when heated. For concrete, loss in compressive
Stress-strain behaviour of concrete is radically different in strength starts to occur at around 350°C for siliceous
compression and tension. In tension, concrete is often aggregates and at slightly higher temperatures for
assumed to have zero tensile strength. Strength is calcareous and lightweight concrete (Figure 3.4). Most of
affected by type and size of aggregate, % cement paste, the strength is lost by around 800°C although the loss is
preload, and water-to-cement ratio at ambient and less severe for non-siliceous aggregate concrete. Loss of
elevated temperatures. tensile strength and elasticity is more severe — starting
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20
Figure 3.3: Stress-strain curves for concrete at high Concrete is non-combustible and because of their typical
temperatures size, individual elements have a high thermal inertia which
results in relatively slow rates of temperature increase
1.0 through the cross-section (Figures 3.2 and 3.5). This also
20°C
100°C helps to keep the steel reinforcement temperatures
200°C sufficiently low, preventing significant softening and
0.8
300°C weakening.
400°C
Figure 3.5: Temperature distribution in slabs exposed
0.6
σc(θ) to fire on one side
fc (20ºC) 500°C
1200
0.4
a
h
600°C 1000
0.2 700°C h = 200mm
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Temperature (°C) h = 600mm

800
0.0
m
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 600 inu
tes
εc(θ) in %
240
400
180
60 120
Figure 3.4: Plot of strength as a function of 200
30 90
temperature
0
0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
a (mm)
Percentage loss in strength
20
Therefore, in situ reinforced concrete structures in fire
40 are relatively unproblematic. This is also due, in part,
to the monolithic nature of the construction, and to the
existence of alternative load paths should part of the
60
structure lose strength and stiffness. The actual
continuity in a structure also allows a far higher
80 Malhotra (1956) redistribution of moments from the ambient condition to
Abrams (1968)
the fire condition, than the marginal difference between
100 tabular data for simply supported and continuous
0 200 400 600 800 elements would suggest. Equally there will be a
Temperature (°C) three-dimensional dispersion of loading which may not
Note: Derived/adapted from Malhotra27 and Abrams28. have been completely utilised in the ambient condition,
thus enhancing load-carrying capacity.
almost immediately with no obvious threshold Spalling

temperature. Spalling is the loss of surface material from a concrete
element and is dependent on aggregate, moisture
The deterioration of steel depends on the type, with content, stress level and temperature. This is distinct
prestressing steel suffering a more severe strength loss from ‘aggregate splitting’ which is the splitting and
than reinforcing steel. This is entirely due to metallurgical bursting of silica containing aggregates, due to physical
changes during the production of prestressing steel29,30. changes in the crystalline structure at high temperatures.
The concrete cover to the reinforcement insulates the This is a surface effect and as such has little effect on
steel from extreme temperatures. The thickness of the structural performance.
cover therefore affects the rate of temperature increase.
However, it is the reduction in the strength and the Explosive spalling is characterised by pieces of concrete
stiffness of the steel as it increases in temperature that being violently expelled from the surface often exposing
has the largest impact on the loadbearing capability and reinforcement, thus reducing the loadbearing capacity of
deflection of the reinforced concrete section. the structure. NWC is much more susceptible to spalling

than LWC. Spalling is associated with differential i.e. the distance from the fire-exposed face to the
expansion and thus can occur under heating or cooling. centroid of the reinforcing bars (Figure 3.6).
The onset and amount of spalling will be influenced by
the intensity of the fire, the type of aggregate, size and Figure 3.6: Distance from fire-exposed face to
shape of element and stresses to which the element is centroid of reinforcing bars
subjected.
Measures to control spalling become increasingly

important with the use of higher strength concretes
which typically have a lower porosity and water-cement
Axis
ratio than normal strength concrete. distance
Cover
While there may be damage during a fire due to various
types of spalling and thermal expansion, these rarely
cause more than local failure.
Thus for fire design, BS EN 1992-1-2 specifies minimum
axis distances to the main reinforcing bars, while
3.2 Current practice durability is addressed by minimum cover requirements.
Current practice is set out in BS EN 1992-1-2. For the For low standard fire periods (up to 90 minutes) durability
non-specialist, this provides both a deemed-to-satisfy will be the design criterion for cover (and hence axis
approach and simple calculation methods — where the distance). However, the designer should bear in mind
maximum fire design moment is compared to the that any reduction in size of reinforcement in the detailed
moment resistance, accounting for the reduction of design stage of a project, e.g. through rationalisation, will
strength in the reinforcement as temperature increases. reduce the axis distance. So while durability cover is
unaffected, the fire design may be affected and should
There is also a step-by-step procedure for assessing the be rechecked.
structural response of reinforced concrete in fire using
simple statics. The procedure enables profiles of thermal A method for calculating the average axis distance where
strain to be calculated for a particular cross-section and bars of different sizes are used in a layer, or where multiple
so describe the behaviour under fire conditions. layers of bars are used, is given in Clause 5.2(15) of
BS EN 1992-1-2.
BS EN 1992-1-2 also provides general guidance on the
pertinent approach when producing advanced heat The BS EN 1992-1-2 ‘deemed-to-satisfy’ approach is
transfer and mechanical response calculations. The that the fire resistance of concrete elements is met by
methods should be based on the acknowledged providing minimum concrete width (in the case of beams,
principles and assumptions of heat transfer and structural ribs, columns and walls), thickness (in the case of slabs),
mechanics. These recommendations typically relate to and cover to the reinforcement as dictated by an axis
finite element modelling. distance (e.g. Table 3.1).
With regard to tabular data, the following should be

3.3 Design considerations noted:
For reinforced and prestressed concrete structural
elements there are two main considerations — insulation • There are particular issues, related to the higher
and stability. The integrity of the concrete element is probability of spalling, associated with the use of high
deemed acceptable if the insulation and stability strength (performance) concretes. BS EN 1992-1-2
requirements are met. defines such concretes as having a compressive
strength fck in the range C50/60 < fck ≤ C90/105
Knowledge of the fire resistance of concrete elements is (cylinder/cube strengths in MPa), and provides
generally based on standard testing. In many furnace additional rules (Section 6 of the code) to address this
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tests on fully loaded reinforced concrete members, failure • Tabular data for minimum dimensions for beams and
occurred when the temperature in the reinforcement slabs does not account for the loading, and make
reached 500–550°C, and for prestressed members only small adjustments for continuity. For beams,
400–450°C. From these tests, the cover to the main whether isolated or part of beam and slab
reinforcement was considered to be the controlling construction, there is some flexibility on member
factor. Only with the advent of calculation methods was sizing by trading off increased cover against reduced
it realised that the controlling factor was the axis distance web widths

22
Table 3.1: Minimum dimensions and axis distances for reinforced and prestressed
concrete solid flat slabs
Standard fire resistance Minimum dimensions(mm)
Slab thickness hs Axis distance a
1 2 3
REI 30 150 10a

REI 60 180 15a
REI 90 200 25
REI 120 200 35

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REI 180 200 45
REI 240 200 50

Notes:
a
Usually the cover required by EN 1992-1-1 will control.
Derived/adapted from Table 5.9 of BS EN 1992-1-2.
An overview of the structural design methods in In addition to separation and insulation, a loadbearing
BS EN 1992-1-2 is provided in guidance published by wall is also required for strength. As such, both wall
The Concrete Centre31. thickness and minimum axis distance requirements need
to be observed and are a function of whether the wall is
3.3.1 Provision for beams and floor slabs exposed on one or two faces.
As with all structural concrete members, both the
minimum required thickness and the axis distance In the design of columns, BS EN 1992-1-2 recognises
increase for longer fire resistance requirements. that the load level should also be taken into account, as
this has a significant impact on fire resistance and also
For beams, the deemed-to-satisfy approach allows the on the economies that may be achieved in the design
engineer to ‘trade’ an increase in section width to allow process.
axis distance to be reduced, or vice versa.
Note that in BS EN 1992-1-132 a wall is defined as a
For precast prestressed concrete floor slab units, there is member whose length is greater than 4× its
potentially an additional problem not identified in thickness. However, this is a somewhat arbitrary
‘deemed to satisfy’ clauses in design codes; namely loss distinction, and the treatment of a wall in fire,
of bond strength or shear capacity at the support. This is including buckling, should be considered by the
entirely due to the prestressing tendons (or wires) being engineer in addition to the codified requirement for
placed close to the soffit of the unit, therefore heating loadbearing walls. Conversely, a fin column (i.e. one
quickly and losing strength fairly rapidly. In the absence that by virtue of its aspect ratio could be classed as
of shear links, the prestress contributes to the shear a wall) must still be considered as a column for
resistance, which decreases due to loss in both design purposes.
prestress and the tensile strength of the concrete. The
problem is only likely to be of importance for longer fire In considering the behaviour in fire, and how to classify
resistance periods and short spans. Manufacturer fire a member, the distinction between a wall and a
test data should be used to validate such systems. column might be better thought of in terms of
exposure to fire. A wall is typically only going to be
3.3.2 Provision for walls and columns exposed on one side while in most situations a column
The distinction is made between non-loadbearing and will be exposed on all sides.
loadbearing concrete walls. In the former instance,
the wall is only required to provide separation and
insulation from the fire and is therefore defined by the
3.4 Construction and detailing
minimum thickness required to achieve these There are generally two issues that need to be
functions. considered — anchorage (and laps) and spalling.

3.4.1 Anchorage 3.6 Summary

For flexural members where continuity is required in the
fire limit state, laps and anchorage must be detailed to • The thermal and mechanical properties of concrete
allow for the resultant shifts in the points of contraflexure depend on aggregate type, moisture content and mix
towards the supports. This has the most impact on the • Concrete has a low thermal conductivity and thus
top (‘hogging’) reinforcement. controls the rise in temperature of embedded
reinforcement and readily reduces heat transfer
3.4.2 Spalling through floor slabs and walls
Spalling is a complex process and is aggravated by • Reinforcing steel and concrete lose strength and
excessive cover. The use of supplementary mesh to stiffness at high temperatures
control spalling may be recommended in design codes, • Prestressing steel suffers a more severe strength loss
but in practice it can be difficult to fix at the mid-depth of than reinforcing steel due to its metallurgical
the cover where it is most effective. An alternative is the properties
introduction of polypropylene fibres in the concrete mix • Cover or axis distance to the reinforcing steel is the
to mitigate spalling. This is essential in high-strength most important aspect of reinforced concrete
concrete. elements for fire design
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
• Prescriptive design is essentially based on tabulated

It should also be noted that for beams and slabs, severe data for minimum dimensions and cover or axis
spalling can still occur without unduly affecting fire distance
performance33, provided there is adequate continuity • Spalling is dependent on aggregate, moisture content,
with properly detailed reinforcement to ensure such stress level and temperature, and is very often a
continuity can be mobilised34. localised effect
• Anchorage of reinforcement is important for continuity
The measures taken to control spalling become more at the fire limit state
important as the strength of the concrete increases, with • BS EN 1992-1-2 allows fire resistance to be
high-strength concrete requiring additional measures calculated using simple analytical techniques
(Section 6.2 of BS EN 1992-1-2). incorporating loss of material properties at high
temperatures
BRE guidance provides a risk-based approach to • Research-based solutions are likely to focus on high
spalling35. strength concrete and an understanding of the 3D
behaviour of whole frame structures in fire
3.5 Further engineering methods
For any structure where the fire load is low, calculation of
the equivalent fire resistance is likely to be beneficial by
demonstrating that axis distance (or cover) or member
thickness may be reduced below the values required for
normal ambient design.
For structures requiring a standard fire resistance of less

than 90 minutes, there is little to be gained by deviating
from the deemed-to-satisfy approach of BS EN 1992-1-2.
For 120 minutes where there is continuity there may be a
case for evaluating beam or slab response in more detail.
For cases where greater resistance is required,
calculations for beams and slabs may provide a more
economical solution for flexural reinforcement
requirements. The case with columns is less clear as the
analysis is more complex and must allow for
redistribution of forces within the structural frame induced
by the effects of fire. Calculation methods may be of
benefit where there is change of use (and fire resistance)
of an older structure, in order to reassess its
performance.

24
4 Steel and composite

4.1 Reaction of steel to fire rearrangement of the crystal structure. The shrinkage is
about 15% of the expansion from 20–700°C. For design
Steel loses strength when heated in a fire, so for many purposes an average thermal expansion is assumed.
years, steel required to have fire resistance has been
protected by insulation. At typically 500–600°C (higher if Figure 4.2: Thermal expansion of steel with increasing
stresses are low) steel has reduced in strength to the temperature
point where the reserve of strength, which provides the
factor of safety assumed for standard (cold) design, has
Expansion (x 10–3 mm/mm)

12
been lost (Figure 4.1). As bare steel can quickly reach 726
these temperatures in fire, some form of fire protection 10
890
(or allowance for high temperatures in some other way) 8
is necessary. 6
4
Traditional fire protection of steelwork is usually achieved
2 Heating rate: 10°C/min
with an insulating material. However, it is not always
necessary to use applied fire protection to ensure the 0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
necessary fire resistance. Tabular design and simple Temperature (°C)
calculations for the load resistance of common element
types have been developed and are described in later
sections. Stress-strain relationships
Figure 4.3 shows stress-strain relationships for hot-rolled
steel with increasing temperature. At ambient
Figure 4.1: Variation of effective steel strength with temperature there is a well-defined yield between the
temperature elastic and plastic portions of the curve. With increasing
1.0 temperature this is lost, and the stress-strain behaviour
0.9 becomes highly nonlinear, with both strength and
stiffness decreasing.
Strength retention factor
0.8
0.7
0.6 Figure 4.3: Stress-strain curves for typical hot-rolled
0.5 steel at elevated temperatures
0.4 °C
0.3 500 200 320
0.2 24
400 100
Stress (MPa)
24°C 430
0.1
300 480
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 540
Temperature (°C) 200
600
650
100
The mechanical properties of steel (typically thermal 0.06 0 0.08 0.02 0.04 0.10 0.12
expansion, stress and strain) all vary with increasing Strain
temperature. Note: Derived/adapted from Harmathy36.
Thermal expansion The total strains induced in a structural element during a

The coefficient of thermal expansion α is defined as the fire are a combination of thermal and mechanical strains.
expansion of a unit length of material when its Thermal strains depend on the temperature and thermal
temperature is raised by 1°C. Figure 4.2 shows the expansion of the material. Mechanical strains are a result
influence of temperature on the coefficient of thermal of applied loading or restrained thermal movement.
expansion for steel. The rate of thermal expansion
remains constant up to 700°C when there is a temporary A bilinear representation of the stress-strain behaviour is
sudden change in behaviour. This is caused by the used for design at ambient temperature. The steel is
phase transformation from pearlite to austentite and a assumed to behave in a linear-elastic manner up to yield,
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`

at which point it is allowed to strain infinitely with 4.1.3 The heating of steel
constant stress. In general, a bilinear model of steel does The response of a steel structure in a fire can be
not adequately represent the highly nonlinear relationship influenced by: the maximum temperature attained;
at higher temperatures. its degree of exposure to the fire; the load it carries;
the degree of support and restraint, and the
BS EN 1993-1-237 presents nonlinear relationships for temperature-dependent mechanical properties of the
steel stress-strain curves based on reduction factors for steel. The increase in temperature of a steel beam or
steel stress-strain behaviour at high temperatures. The column depends on its ‘section factor’, defined as the
curves include strain hardening below 400°C. ratio of exposed surface area to volume of member per
unit length A /V in unit of m−1 (Figure 4.6). It was
4.1.2 Thermal properties previously calculated as heated perimeter divided by
The rate of heat transfer into a particular material is cross-sectional area Hp/A in the UK.
dependent on three properties — thermal conductivity k,
specific heat c and density ρ. Steel is an exceptionally Typical values of section factor are 100–250m−1 for the
good conductor; at ambient temperature it has a thermal size range of hot-rolled I-sections. Sections with low A /V
conductivity of 54W/mK which has decreased to half this factors will take longer to heat and, therefore, achieve
value at 800°C. Beyond 800°C it remains constant higher periods of fire resistance than sections with high
(Figure 4.4). BS EN 1993-1-2 assumes a constant value A / V factors (Figure 4.7). Some unprotected sections with
of 45W/mK. very low A / V factor, heat so slowly that they can
achieve 15–30 minutes’ fire resistance with no applied
At 20°C the specific heat of steel is about 450J/kgK protection.
increasing to 700J/kgK at around 600°C (BS EN 1993-1-2
assumes a constant of 600J/kgK). At 730°C steel
undergoes a chemical transformation from ferrite-pearlite Figure 4.6: Concept of section factor
to austentite. This is associated with a huge increase in
specific heat (Figure 4.5).
High A Low A
The density of steel is approximately 7850kg/m3,
decreasing slightly with increasing temperature.
Low V High V
Figure 4.4: Thermal conductivity of steel with
increasing temperature Fast Slow
heating heating
60
Thermal conductivity (W/mK)
50 Notes: Section factor = A / V where:

A = surface area of steel exposed to fire per unit length
40 V = volume of the section per unit length
30
20
Figure 4.7: Heating rates of protected and
10
unprotected steel beams
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1100
Temperature (°C) 1000
900 Standard fire Protected, A/V = 200
Figure 4.5: Specific heat of steel with increasing 800
Temperature (°C)
Unprotected, A / V = 200
temperature 700
Unprotected, A / V = 100
600
5000 500
Specific heat (J/kg K)
400
4000 Protected, A / V =100
300
3000 200
100
2000 0
045 15
60 75 30 90 105 120
1000 Time (minutes)
0 Notes: A / V = 100m–1 457×191×89 UB.
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 A / V = 200m–1 305×102×28 UB.
Temperature (°C) Typical 20mm board protection.

26
In practical terms, the section factor is a measure of how vermiculite, calcium silicate and lightweight cementitious
quickly the steel section will heat in a fire, and therefore materials, in spray or board form. In the UK, ‘deemed
how much fire protection is required — the higher the to satisfy’ requirements for generic protection materials
section factor, the greater the required thickness. Fire are given in a now archived but still useful BRE
protection manufacturers present information on their publication39.
products in terms of the necessary thickness to protect
a steel section of a given section factor, to provide a Intumescent coating systems are classified as either
given fire resistance. In the UK, Fire Protection for thin film, which account for the vast majority of
Structural Steel in Buildings 38 (also known as the ‘Yellow systems used in general construction, or thick film,
Book’) provides this data. This publication, produced by sometimes referred to as ‘mastics’. The materials are
the Association for Specialist Fire Protection, is based on reactive, swelling to about 50× original thickness when
fire resistance testing to a critical steel temperature of exposed to fire, with the resultant char insulating the
550°C, although some manufacturers now test materials underlying steel substrate. Thin film intumescent
to steel temperatures of 620°C. coatings can provide up to 120 minutes’ fire
resistance. Guidance on the measurement of coating
thickness is available from the Association of Specialist
4.2 Current practice Fire Protection40. Intumescent paint provides the
Fire resistance ratings of steel elements of construction necessary level of fire resistance to a steel section, but
are derived from testing or calculation. The international does not account for fire integrity and insulation.
standard for fire resistance testing is ISO 83418. Where any fire-separating wall forms a junction with
the steel structure, there may also be a need to satisfy
4.2.1 Protected steel the fire integrity and insulation criteria of the entire fire
Various generic and proprietary fire protection systems wall division — so additional protection may be
are used to protect structural steelwork (Figure 4.8). required to the steel section to meet these additional
Manufacturers and/or specialist contractors offer criteria, and/or to address any fire-stopping
comprehensive information on characteristics of requirement between the junction of the protected
materials, test results, advice about suitability for steelwork and the wall.
particular applications and installation procedures.
A summary of the most common forms of protection is Penetrations in the fire-protective casing of a steel
provided in the Appendix. column or beam, e.g. to accommodate mechanical or
electrical services, must be properly sealed with a
Fire protection materials suitably fire-rated material for the specific fire resistance
Many forms of proprietary structural fire protection required. Products used to seal penetrations should be
materials are available from manufacturers worldwide. carefully researched, selected and installed to ensure that
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Examples include those based on mineral wool, the fire resistance rating of a structural element is not
compromised.
Figure 4.8: Examples of three- and four-sided 4.2.2 Partially protected steel
protection Some types of steel beam or column, notably those
where the steel is partially encased in concrete or
masonry, may be used without applied fire protection
and achieve up to 60 minutes’ fire resistance. Fully
exposed I or H steel sections can only achieve
30 minutes’ fire resistance in certain limited cases where
the loading is low and/or the section is very large. Their
use is generally impractical.
Profile Box Solid
(with or without A Steel Construction Institute (SCI) publication describes
gap over flanges) the engineering aspects of the use of unprotected steel
members in building frameworks to achieve up to
60 minutes’ fire resistance41. In order to use the
published design information, familiarity with simple
calculation methods is often necessary. The guidance is
usually based on either the load ratio/limiting
Profile Box Solid
(with or without temperature method or the calculation of moment
gap over flanges) resistance.

Lightweight steel construction Figure 4.10: Types of slimfloor beam

Modular construction using light steel framing has
become popular for some types of multi-storey building.
This uses cold-formed steel sections for loadbearing
walls and floors, as well as non-loadbearing partitions.
The cold-formed sections are typically C sections,
70–250mm in depth with thicknesses typically
1.0–2.4mm. Light steel framing in the form of lattice
trusses is also commonly used for supporting composite
slabs.
The limiting temperature of cold-formed steel sections is a) Universal column with plate welded to bead
approx. 550°C for typical load levels37. The required fire
protection is typically provided by 1–2 layers of
plasterboard or similar material. In general, for more than
90 minutes’ fire resistance, three layers of plasterboard
are required. The steel itself has very little inherent fire
resistance so once the protective layer has been
breached, failure can occur very quickly. Careful detailing,
e.g. of the joints between individual boards, is essential.
Composite construction
Unprotected downstand steel beams, acting compositely
with the supported floor slab (Figure 4.9), will generally b) Asymmetric steel beam
achieve 15 minutes’ fire resistance. It is possible for the
fire resistance of such beams to be increased to
30 minutes, but this typically involves ‘overdesigning’ the
section so that it is stressed to a lower level at the fire
limit state.
One method of increasing the fire resistance of steel

beams consists of incorporating them within the depth of
the concrete floor slab. These are generally referred to as
‘slimfloor’ beams, and some examples are shown in
Figure 4.10. Such beams can readily achieve 60 minutes’
fire resistance, with the bottom exposed flange
unprotected.
c) Rectangular hollow section with plate welded to bottom flange
Figure 4.9: Typical composite floor slab

Shear studs Another form of composite beam, commonly used in
Concrete slab
continental Europe, consists of infilling between the webs
Mesh
of the beam with reinforced concrete (Figure 4.11). The
fire design of this form of construction is given in
BS EN 1994-1-242 and up to two hours’ fire resistance
can be achieved. For fire resistance periods of 30 and
60 minutes it may be possible, depending on the load
level, to use unreinforced concrete. However, a light
mesh is recommended to control any risk of concrete
spalling. The concrete is usually placed before erection,
with connection areas left exposed, and covered
following erection. If reinforcement is required, the links
need to be welded to the steel beam, or bars passed
Profiled steel decking
through the web to ensure composite action between
the concrete infill and steel beam. Such beams are
Universal beam relatively expensive, and their use in the UK is rare.
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

28
Figure 4.11: Partially encased composite beam reinforced concrete (Figure 4.12b–c). The design of the
column with unreinforced concrete is covered in a SCI
design guide43 where, in a fire, it is assumed that the
load is transferred from the steel section to the
concrete by shear connectors and welded plates.
Such composite columns can achieve 60 minutes, fire
resistance and provide good impact resistance, making
Reinforcing them an attractive option for structures such as car
bar parks. The design of the steel column with reinforced
concrete infill is covered by BS EN 1994-1-2 and, like
the infill composite beams, is popular in continental
Links welded
Europe.
to web
4.2.3 Unprotected steel
There are many situations where it is desirable to use
structural elements without applied fire protection. For
In-filled steel sections example when:
A practical form of composite column consists of a
circular, square or rectangular steel hollow section filled • exposed structure is part of the design objective
with unreinforced or reinforced concrete (Figure 4.12a). • it may be cost effective to design elements in such a
These types of columns have a good inherent fire way that they are not fully exposed to fire and require
resistance, with the steel shell being left unprotected for no additional protection
up to two hours’ fire resistance. In a fire, the load carried • it may be more reliable to design members so they
by the outer steel shell is redistributed to the inner do not need fire protection as an alternative to an
concrete core which remains cooler and loses strength applied fire protection system, because an applied
and stiffness at a lower rate. Considering this behaviour, system can be damaged or removed during the life of
greatest economy is achieved by minimising the a building
thickness, and hence load-carrying capacity, of the steel
shell. This is offset by an increase in the load-carrying BS EN 1993-1-2 contains simple calculation methods
capacity of the concrete core which loses relatively little which are similar to those used by engineers at standard
strength in fire. This approach typically results in larger temperature. The only difference is that lower partial
column cross-sections compared with traditionally factors are used at the fire limit state, and the strength of
designed sections where the steel shell is protected with materials is reduced. Some methods involve little more
some passive material to achieve the required fire than the use of standard tabular data.
resistance.
The simplest method is the load ratio and limiting
Another form of composite column consists of infilling temperature method. A technique commonly used for
between the column webs with unreinforced or beams and floor slabs is to calculate the bending
resistance at an elevated temperature. The calculation of
bending resistance is the basis for published design
Figure 4.12: Forms of composite columns tables for many types of proprietary beam and
composite floor system.
Utilisation factor and critical temperature

The strength of steel reduces with increasing
temperature, so it follows that the load a member can
support will also reduce. For protected members, the
amount of protection required will reduce as the applied
load reduces and the failure temperature increases.
BS EN 1993-1-2 permits use of the critical temperature
method for tension members and restrained beams but
not for columns or unrestrained beams. The critical
temperature of a member is the temperature at which
a) Concrete filled b) Partially encased c) Partially encased
the isolated member in fire conditions under
steel section steel column steel column consideration will no longer meet the required fire test
(unreinforced) (reinforced) criteria under its given loading. The critical temperature
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

for steel sections can be calculated based on a utilisation engineering method’44. The simplified method, which can
factor which is defined as: be used for up to two hours’ fire resistance, is
predominantly based on test results, with the mesh
load or moment at time of fire
Degree of utilisation = reinforcement carrying the load during fire. The method
member strength at 20°C specifies limits on overall slab and steel deck
thicknesses, size and position of mesh reinforcement and
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The utilisation factor is a useful concept because it allows maximum allowable design load. The method is only
elements of varying size to be considered in the same valid for slabs that are continuous over at least two
way. A 200mm deep beam will fail at approximately the spans.
same temperature as a 400mm deep beam if they are
both working at the same utilisation factor. In practical If the composite slab is outside the limitations imposed
designs the load ratio will be 0.45–0.55. Load ratios by the simplified method, the fire engineering method
much higher than 0.6 are very rare although the can be used; which consists of placing additional
maximum value could be as high as 0.7 for an element reinforcement bars in the ribs of the slab and over the
purely carrying the dead load of the structure. In most supports. The method involves calculating the
practical situations, the load ratio will not exceed 0.6 temperatures through the cross-section of the slab,
and, if the thicknesses of fire protection is being taken followed by a plastic analysis that allows for the reduced
from the Yellow Book, no check of load ratio and limiting strength of the reinforcing bars and concrete due to
temperature is required. elevated temperatures. Any contribution from the steel
deck is ignored in the design, due to its high
Table 4.1 lists critical temperatures for various types of temperature and observed behaviour in fire where the
utilisation factor. deck debonds from the concrete.
Composite floor slabs Deep decks, with the steel deck typically 210–225mm,
Composite floor slabs (Fig. 4.9) comprising profiled steel are generally used with slimfloor beams (Fig. 4.10). The
deck, concrete and mesh reinforcement have a good resulting composite floor, which is assumed to be
inherent fire resistance, without the need to protect the simply-supported between beams, is designed in fire
steel deck. In fire, the reduced design loads are using the fire engineering method. Reinforcing bars of
assumed to be resisted mainly by the mesh or any 16, 20 or 25mm are placed in the ribs of the slab and
additional reinforcement, placed in the concrete slab, any contribution from the steel deck is ignored in the
with the exposed steel deck being largely sacrificial. design.
In the UK, most composite floor slabs are designed for

fire using either the ‘simplified method’, or the ‘fire 4.3 Fire design method
BS EN 1993-1-2 and BS EN 1994-1-2 recognise
Table 4.1: Critical temperature values of utilisation standard fire resistance testing as a means of assessing
factor structural behaviour of a steel element in fire design —
but also allow consideration of natural fires and three
μ0 θa,cr μ0 θa,cr μ0 θa,cr levels of structural analysis:
0.22 711 0.42 612 0.62 549
• Single member analysis
0.24 698 0.44 605 0.64 543 • Analysis of portions of the structure
• Global structural analysis
0.26 685 0.46 598 0.66 537
0.28 674 0.48 591 0.68 531 In terms of fire protection, BS EN 1993-1-2 recognises
the benefits of shielding and states that any method
0.30 664 0.50 585 0.70 526 which limits the temperature rise of the steel (e.g. water
filling or partial protection) can be used.
0.32 654 0.52 578 0.72 520
0.34 645 0.54 572 0.74 514 Codes utilise calculation methods to achieve the required
degree of fire resistance of the steel/composite section.
0.36 636 0.56 566 0.76 508 Structural analysis is based on loadbearing function. The
effect of actions on the structure should be less than the
0.38 628 0.58 560 0.78 502 design resistance of the member. The design resistance
0.40 620 0.60 554 0.80 496 of a steel section is calculated as time t taking account
of the temperature distribution in the cross-section and

30
the appropriate reduction in yield strength with • Radiative and convective heat loss from steelwork to
temperature. Three levels of calculation method are given ambient surroundings
in BS EN 1994-1-2: • Size and location of structural steelwork
• Through draught conditions
• Tabular methods are used for direct design, with
certain parameters relating to loading, geometry, Fire protection for steelwork may be reduced or even
reinforcement, etc. Design tables are often relatively eliminated, depending on the steelwork’s proximity to
restrictive, but cover common cases any openings and its distance from the building
• Simple calculation methods are based on well- envelope.
established principles, such as plastic analysis of
sections. They are used for general design and will
lead to more economic design than tabular methods
4.4 Cellular beams
• Advanced calculation models are used only in Cellular beams are the modern version of the traditional
understanding frame behaviour. The models are more ‘castellated’ beam. In practice, web openings
appropriate for computer analysis and not for general substantially reduce the shear capacity and flexural
design strength of the beam compared with a section of the
same overall size with no openings. In addition, web
4.3.1 Simple calculation models openings significantly affect the stress distributions within
As discussed previously, BS EN 1993-1-2 allows design the web, and can give rise to unique beam failure
to a critical temperature based on a utilisation factor — modes. A web opening produces an additional
the ratio of the ‘design effect of actions’ to ‘design Vierendeel moment across the length of the opening due
resistance at ambient temperature’. to the relative vertical displacement at the ends. This can
result in the formation of four plastic hinges at the
The heat transfer to unprotected and protected steel can ‘corners’ of an opening in the region of high shear force
be calculated using the equations in BS EN 1993-1-2. (Figure 4.13).
These are simple lumped mass heat transfer models.
Input data includes the thermal properties discussed in Equally, shear forces transferred across the web posts
Section 4.1.2 and the appropriate ‘section factor’ between openings can result in local buckling
introduced in Section 4.1.3. The position of the steel (Figure 4.14). This type of failure mode generally occurs
member is taken into account by calculating a resultant at regions close to concentrated loads or reaction forces.
emissivity value of 0.3–0.7. An emissivity of 0.3 relates to The loss of strength and stiffness of structural steel in
a member which is remote from direct fire exposure. fire depends on its temperature; the elastic modulus of
0.7 is associated with a member totally engulfed in steel reduces more rapidly than its strength, which
flames. results in more rapid reduction of capacities based on
buckling than those based on strength. Hence, the
BS EN 1994-1-2 provides a simple calculation model for buckling capacity of web posts reduces more rapidly
composite slabs, beams and columns. A full method is
presented for calculating fire resistance of composite
sections based on the load-carrying capacity i.e. moment Figure 4.13: Failure mode in a cellular beam –
resistance and buckling resistance. This approach will Vierendeel mechanism
usually require data for temperature distribution across
the cross-section of the element. If the temperature data
is known, the fire resistance can then be calculated. For
some types of composite section, BS EN 1994-1-2
provides rules to obtain the temperature distribution.
4.3.2 Heat transfer to external steelwork

Where steelwork is placed on the outside of buildings,
BS EN 1993-1-2 allows heat transfer calculations
developed by Law and O’Brien45 to assess the need for
fire protection. The calculations are based on steady
state fire conditions and consider:
• Radiative heat flux from fire compartment

• Radiative and convective heat flux from external
flames through windows
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Figure 4.14: Failure mode in a cellular beam – web required for composite beams. This is generally based on
post buckling a tabulated method which uses a range of design
parameters to estimate limiting bottom flange
temperatures, from which the protection requirements of
cellular beams may be obtained. These tables only exist
for beams with circular web openings, and limit the
positions and sizes of the openings. SCI guidance47
presents the design procedure for such beams,
considering the common failure modes of global bending
at midspan, global bending at web openings, vertical
shear and Vierendeel bending across the openings, and
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
web post bending and buckling. For design at elevated

temperature, the method determines the failure mode
and provides the critical temperature for this mode. The
critical temperatures are intended for use with fire
protection materials that have been tested and assessed
for use with cellular beams in accordance with the
protocol published in the Yellow Book.
with temperature than those based on other failure Some cellular beam manufacturers will also supply critical
types. Therefore, web post buckling tends to be the temperatures for their products. The ASFP publishes
critical mode of failure in fire, even for beams with low details of the test protocol which thin film intumescent
web-slenderness ratios. coating manufacturers must follow if their material is to
be used on cellular beams40.
Like any structural beam element, cellular beams are
required to maintain adequate resistance when exposed
to fire, according to the building’s construction 4.5 Robustness of steel and
requirements. Generally, the temperature in the web of a
solid beam is higher than that of the bottom flange, due
composite framed structures
to the difference in thickness between these elements. BS EN 1991-1-748 defines robustness as:
For beams with web openings, the web posts between
adjacent openings along the beam length have been the ability of a structure to withstand effects like fire,
observed to experience a further increase in temperature explosions, impact or the consequences of human
compared to the equivalent solid web beam. Moreover, error, without being damaged to an extent
concern has also been raised that for an intumescent disproportionate to the original cause.
protected cellular beam, the web post temperature
experienced is higher than expected46. In design, the fire resistance of a steel member is based
on the isolated member behaviour in which the steel is
The method of calculating section factor for cellular assumed to be either pinned or fixed and where there is
beams differs from that employed for solid web beams. no axial restraint. These idealised boundary conditions
An approach for determining the thickness of cannot faithfully represent structural behaviour in fire
intumescent coating required for the perforated structure when the whole steel structure is considered. To deal
has been introduced47, which must be derived based on with the complex interactions between different steel
a nominal section factor for the lower T-section: members, the behaviour of joints plays the most critical
role.
1400/(thickness of lower web) [m−1]
In most design guides or codes, the joints are assumed
The SCI recommends that this equation should be to a have higher fire resistance than the connected
applied to beams formed from rolled sections and structural members because of the lower temperatures in
welded plate. the joints. However, in severe fire conditions, a
connected beam’s temperature may be higher than its
Produced for the Association for Specialist Fire limiting temperature and the beam may develop catenary
Protection (ASFP), SCI publication RT 135647 offers action when the beam’s axial shortening from large
design guidance for the fire protection of beams with deflections becomes greater than the beam’s thermal
web openings. The approach provides detailed guidance expansion. This beam catenary action force could
to determine dry film thicknesses of intumescent coating fracture the joints, increasing the risk of progressive

32
collapse. There is little guidance on connection design to

ensure robust behaviour in fire conditions, but in general,
joint details providing good flexibility will perform better
than those with limited ductility.

Design codes, fire safety engineering codes and design
guides published by organisations such as the SCI, BRE
and the steel industry provide other potential
opportunities. These generally cover two aspects —
structural design and fire design. The former is
concerned with the design of the structure to resist the
appropriate applied loads at the fire limit state, while the
latter uses fire safety techniques and codes such as
BS EN 1991-1-2. As outlined in Chapter 2, a natural fire
often has a less severe effect on a structure than a
standard fire — resulting in the possible reduction of fire
protection provision. The two approaches are often used
in tandem. Analytical calculations which allow designers
to combine structural design with fire design can be
found in the literature24,49–55.
More advanced calculation methods are available for

steel fire design. These vary in scope and complexity,
up to fully fire-engineered modelling of the fire and
structural response based on finite element analysis13.
4.7 Summary
• Steel loses strength and stiffness at high
temperatures and often needs to be protected to
reduce the rate of heating
• Steelwork can be protected with lightweight materials
such as intumescent paint, boards, sprays and
blankets, or with traditional materials like concrete,
or by partially shielding it with other construction
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
elements
• Relatively simple structural calculations for single
elements enable fire resistance to be calculated,
often allowing reduced fire protection
• There are various levels of design guidance given in
the Eurocodes which recognise simple and advanced
engineering methods
• There have been significant advances in design
guidance for 3D behaviour of entire frame structures
in fire

5 Timber
5.1 Construction forms and of an insulating char. For laminated members such as
cross-laminated timber (CLT), avoiding delamination is
reaction to fire critical to ensure that fresh areas of timber are not involved
Traditional construction forms of timber are ‘light timber’ in the fire, increasing the charring rate of the section and
and ‘heavy timber’. The former consists of thin and the potential for secondary flashover58. This is often
achieved through the use of a fire-resisting glue that has
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
lightweight timber elements, while heavy timber

construction consists of elements with a relatively large been shown experimentally not to lead to delamination.
cross-sectional area. Due to the limited strength of Note the current version of BS EN 1995-1-259 does not
lightweight timber, it is commonly found in low-rise provide guidance for such laminated members, and
construction. Timber and wood-based materials consist various tests methods are currently being developed in
mainly of cellulose and lignin, which themselves are Europe and the US for the certification of such products.
formed from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen56. They are
therefore combustible (flammable), and it is almost 5.1.1 Effect of density on fire performance
impossible to make them totally non-combustible. As The time taken for wood to ignite and for combustion to
such, exposed timber (depending on the amount) can spread is primarily dependent upon the wood’s density
contribute to the fire severity within a compartment — (Figure 5.1). Density is one of the fundamental
through increased fuel load and, potentially, secondary characteristics of wood, varying significantly according to
flashover in the event that the timber delaminates and the botanical order, class, family, genus and even
does not experience self-extinguishment57. species of the tree from which the timber is produced60.
Thus, different species, and the various wood composite
It has been shown, primarily based on experiments in types that are produced from them, vary considerably in
small rooms representative of residential use, that the their behaviour under the influence of fire61,62.
increase in fire load due to the timber being exposed
could lead to increased fire durations and external Broadly, the higher the density, the slower the
flaming from the openings of the compartment. combustion rate. This effect has been well known, at
No experiments are believed to have been carried out to least empirically, for centuries. In the early days of
date for large compartments such as open plan offices. underground railway development for example, it was
When timber is used in the external wall of a building, soon realised that dense hardwoods such as Jarrah
it can also support the potential for vertical fire spread. (Eucalyptus marginata) were ideal for use as sleepers in
Careful consideration is required in the use of timber for tunnels because of their slow charring response to hot
buildings where facade flammability needs to be tinders.
restricted.
It was also known empirically that there is a varying
The structural fire performance of timber is based on the propensity of different species of an approximately similar
temperature profile and the charring depth of the wood
— which can increase even during the cooling phase of Figure 5.1: Relationship between density ρ and rate of
a fire. In general, for most common forms of timber and combustion RC
wood-based panel products, their charring behaviour
under the more common compartment fires can be 200
predicted. Procedures, codes and standards have been 180
established for their design and specification under 160
fire-loading conditions, although current guidance does 140
RC (%/min)
not consider non-uniform fires in large compartments. 120

100
It is common for lightweight timber, given that it burns 80
rapidly and has low inherent fire resistance, to be 60
encapsulated within a protective material such as 40
plasterboard. Conversely, although heavy timber can be 20
encapsulated, due to the desire for exposed timber and
0
also due to its large cross-sectional area, it can often 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300
provide inherent fire resistance through the development ρ (kg/m3)

34
weight to ignite and subsequently burn. This is due to can continue to affect the capacity of the structure even
the varying natural chemical contents of the wood during the cooling period. Current codes assume that
(volatiles, extractives etc.) according to species, but is the charring rate is relatively unaffected by the chemical
masked by the overriding significance of density itself. composition of the timber.
Wood density also has an effect on the charring Modern structural timber elements are frequently
development of a timber section (Section 5.1.4). composed of multiple sections glued together. The
glue layer used could fail during elevated temperatures,
5.1.2 Influence of hygroscopicity and moisture allowing for timber sections to char faster or detach
content on fire performance from the rest of the sections (delamination)58. This
Hygroscopicity — the affinity of wood to water, both at could leave the remaining timber sections fully exposed
the molecular and at higher levels — is another i.e. without an insulating char layer, and could lead to
fundamental property of timber. Moisture content has a further loss of timber. In certain cases, delamination
profound influence on all aspects of physical and can also lead to increased fire severity in a
mechanical performance, including behaviour in fire. compartment.
5.1.3 Effect of shape and fabrication on fire Figure 5.2 shows central sections insulated from heat
performance by the outer, exposed layers, which convert to charcoal
Combustibility is not only dependent on the inherent and are gradually consumed. Central, or ‘residual’
material, but also on the surface-to-volume ratio of the sections are relatively unaffected. In simple methods of
specimen or element. The greater the combustibility design, they are treated in effectively the same way as
rating, the more easily ignition starts, and the faster the ‘cold’ material. Fire barrier materials e.g. gypsum
flames spread. Consider the rate of combustion of a plasterboard are also shown. Provided these are
sheet of paper, compared with that of a match, of satisfactorily constructed, they alter the pattern of
approximately equal mass and moisture content. exposure and consequent charring, as suggested in the
figure.
In timber structural elements, sharp corners and coarse
surfaces enlarge this surface-to-volume ratio, resulting in Figure 5.2: Beams and columns before/after exposure
less favourable behaviour in fire. ‘Fissures’ (the generic to fire on three/four sides
term for all forms of crack, shake and split in timber)
also exacerbate the effects of fire by causing larger
surface-to-volume ratios. Hence, for example, the fire
performance of glulam, laminated veneer lumber (LVL)
and other structural timber composites63, tends to be
better than that of solid sawn timber, which is more
liable to fissuring. Urea, resorcinol and melamine
adhesives tend to ensure good performance, having
very thin bond lines that are generally treated as
equivalent to the parent material. Epoxy-based
adhesives behave less well but are usually installed
in situations where there is considerable surrounding Remaining cross-section
sacrificial timber. In the absence of current guidance and
certification, appropriate testing needs to be carried out Charred timber
to ensure delamination does not occur wherever this is Fire protective cladding
necessary.
London’s Globe Theatre is an example of a timber
5.1.4 Charring depths building where the large dense timbers provide the
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Charring is a phenomenon that is fundamental to necessary fire resistance without any additional fire
understanding the behaviour of timber structures in fire61. protection (Figure 5.3).
The effective remaining depths — beneath the insulating
charred layer — for members exposed to fire, are 5.1.5 Use of fire retardant
calculated by means of the charring rate. Simple Fire retardant can be used to improve the surface spread
calculations assume a linear relationship for the standard of flame characteristics, with impregnation methods
temperature time curve between the charring advance being preferable unless maintenance of surface
and time, with the latter calculated directly from the time treatments can be provided. The retardant does not
of exposure to the fire. It is worth reiterating that charring contribute to the loadbearing fire resistance, because

Figure 5.3: Globe Theatre, London, UK For timber elements covered by combustible panel or
diaphragm materials such as laminated decking, that are
to be included in calculations, more advanced design
procedures, probably supported by testing, are likely to
be required64. Note that current design procedures are
primarily based on the use of the standard fire. Research
into the application of the methodologies described, for
more realistic compartment fires (in particular large
compartments) is ongoing. In addition, the current
guidance in BS EN 1995-1-2 does not explicitly cover
laminated members such as CLT (although their inclusion
in a forthcoming revision is expected).
5.2.1 Temperature profiles

The temperature at a char line in softwood timber is
typically about 300°C. The char line temperature relating
to the elementary expression:
dchar = β0t
is approximately 200°C where:

dchar = char depth(mm)
β0 = charring rate (subscript 0 indicates base case)
t = time(min)
For a fire exposure of more than 20 minutes, ambient

temperatures are reached at a distance below the char
line which stay constant for the remaining exposure time
even though the timber is treated to be less combustible (Figure 5.4).
it will still char in the event of a fully developed fire. Some
retardant processes may have an adverse effect on Figure 5.4: Temperature profile for heating on one
standard cold strength properties, although responsible side (width of residual section is greater than distance
manufacturers will advise on this. Fire retardants have required for temperature to fall to ambient)
also been criticised by researchers for being toxic to the
environment during a fire event.
20 + ∆θm
θ(°C)
5.2 Current practice
Three levels of calculation method are recognised by
BS EN 1995-1-2 — and detailed application rules are
provided for the first two. In increasing order of
complexity, these are:
1. Effective cross-section method

2. Reduced strength and stiffness method 20°C
3. General calculation methods
The effective cross-section and reduced strength and

stiffness methods are useful to obtain approximate
dchar Half the width of
results for fire resistance. They may well be sufficient to residual section
avoid costly full-scale testing. Neither method is
adequate if the fire resistance period needs to be
calculated very precisely, or if second order effects such This distance is about 30mm beneath the ‘actual’ char
as reductions in element stiffness leading to significant line, and for the char line computed with:
short-term local instability risks, are anything other than
dchar = β0t
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,
negligible.

36
is approx. 25mm. Gradients are modified when thin design situation of fire exposure, should be introduced in
cross-sections are used, and when fire exposure occurs accordance with BS EN 199065.
on two opposing faces of the element (Figure 5.5).
5.2.3 Reduced strength and stiffness method
Figure 5.5: Temperature profile for heating on one This method is also derived from research and testing of
side (width of residual section is less than distance temperature profiles in timber. The approach resulting in
required for temperatures to fall to ambient) the application rules was to carry out integration of
temperatures within the profiles, giving averages that can
20 + ∆θm be used in calculations. The load-carrying capacity is
θ(°C) calculated for the residual cross-section in a similar
manner to the effective cross-section method but
provides slightly more precise results.
Due to an almost linear relationship between

temperature, strength and stiffness properties, an
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
expression was found in which the reduction factor can

20°C be calculated as a function of the perimeter of the
fire-exposed cross-section p and the area of the residual
cross-section Ar.
dchar
Width of residual section
In lightweight timber frame construction (e.g. platform
frame66) structural connections, typically using nails, bolts
5.2.2 Effective cross-section method or timber connectors such as split rings and shear plates,
Here, the period of fire resistance depends on the tend to be fully protected by the usual lining materials and
loadbearing capacity of the uncharred remaining frame assembly systems. Full-sized building tests,
cross-section. It is necessary to calculate the effective employing fires in lightweight multi-occupancy medium rise
cross-section (Figure 5.6) using an elementary expression construction67 have confirmed that fire protection does
of the form: indeed exist at all of the conventional panel junctions
commonly used in this type of building.
deff = dchar + k0d0
To improve productivity and quality, factory-fitted
where the constant d0 is obtained from test calibrations interlocking connections are commonplace. In designing
and experience. A simple explanation of its basis is given and assessing these, and other innovations that are
by Hartl61. The coefficient k0 is obtained from tables in intended to speed up fabrication and assembly, attention
BS EN 1995-1-2. It depends on factors such as the should be paid to the almost fortuitous protection offered
protection of the surfaces affected by the fire, and the by the better-established methods. Additional fire
duration of resistance required. Representative values of protection may be required, where the traditional
variable mechanical actions, accounting for the accidental overlapping of protective layers and linings (e.g. gypsum
board) may not occur.
The fire resistance of exposed connections may need to

Figure 5.6: Effective cross-section when heated on
three sides be calculated or tested. There are well-established
design procedures and details e.g. steel connecting
plates buried within the timber elements. These are held
by tightly-fitted steel dowels, whose heads may, if
necessary, be protected by plugs of wood or wood-
dchar based materials. These can be designed to provide
effective cover, using the standard timber engineering fire
deff
design principles. An introduction to achieving fire
resistance of such connections is described by Hartl68.
Remaining cross-section
Charred timber The fire resistance of the unprotected connection,
determined through a table of values that depend on
Fire-protective cladding
fastener type and geometry, is modified/improved using

an expression that depends on the charring rate of the Figure 5.7: Variation of Kmod,f with p/A
plugs or cover material. Guidance is provided on the
length of protective plugs, other fixings and geometry. As 1.0
mentioned, connections with inserted steel plates are a
common technique in timber engineering for larger 0.8
structures. Protected connection design methods for t, E
these are also provided in BS EN 1995-1-2 and its 0.6
kmod,f
supporting documents. These methods generally rely on m
bonded-in metalwork or adhesively-fastened edge strips 0.4
t = tension
or other fire-resistant or sacrificial covers, placed over the m = bending
0.2 c = compression
slits provided for inserted plates. c
E = modulus of elasticity
0.0
Another technology being applied by timber engineers 0 20 40 60 80 100
for very large structures, including stadia and bridges,
p/A (m–1)
is bonded-in steel rod connections69. Because of the
deep embedment of the rod-like fastening devices
within the structure, these have excellent fire Figure 5.8: Temperature dependent strength and
resistance, although demonstration testing of this stiffness properties
capability is at present somewhat limited70. Restoration 1.0
and upgrading applications are other examples of
these bonded-in rod techniques, and some full-sized 0.8
fire resistance testing has also been undertaken in this E, ft
context71. 0.6
kmod,f
fm
Note that not all problems related to fire resistance are 0.4 fc
ft = strength value for tension
calculable. Fire testing remains an important approach in fm = strength value for bending
relation to structural floor and wall design for domestic 0.2 fc = strength value for compression
and medium-scale structures. E = modulus of elasticity
0.0
0 40 80 120 160 200
5.4 Further engineering methods Temperature (°C)
Only a brief introduction to general calculation methods is

For deflections (serviceability limit states) the stiffness
provided here. More advanced approaches take into
values are derived from the mean moduli given in
account the temperature and moisture content at any
standard design properties tables, using a similar
point in the cross-section. Also, the relationship between
approach to that previously described. Criteria for
strength and stiffness properties and temperature and
deformation limitations are far more liberal than with
moisture content are employed. Therefore, an increase in
standard cold design, again reflecting the accidental and
the amount of design work is inevitable. However, such
relatively transient nature of fire safety assurance in
complex methods lead to more economical forms of
general.
construction. They are also required, alongside
techniques such as fire modelling, to derive design
principles and application rules for innovative elements, 5.5 Summary
connections and components.
• Timber is a combustible material – rate of combustion
For load-carrying (strength) verification, the design dependant on ratio of surface area to volume, timber
strength and stiffness values are determined using kmod,f density and moisture content
coefficients, in a very similar format to standard design, • For laminated members, occurrence of delamination
where comparable expressions are applied for load affects combustion rate and charring depth and
duration, for example. Another k coefficient is included to increases likelihood of secondary flashover
adjust cold material properties to equivalent mean values, • Exposed timber can influence fire dynamics in a
because less reliability is required during what is compartment due to increase in fuel load, typically
regarded broadly as an accident/emergency period for resulting in increased fire duration and external flaming
the structure. The reducing factor kmod,f takes a value • Density varies greatly from species to species and as
reflecting the influence of temperature and moisture a result each species responds differently to fire
content on strength and stiffness in case of fire • Presence of fissures accelerates fire growth because
(Figures 5.7 and 5.8). they increase surface area
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

38
• The natural chemical process of charring provides an

insulating layer which can protect an unexposed
cross-section of timber below char layer
• Fire retardants are available to reduce surface spread
of flame but they do not provide loadbearing fire
resisting performance
• There are simple design solutions for timber in fire;
treating uncharred timber as ‘cold’ by allowing for a
‘zero-strength’ layer
• More sophisticated methods of design also exist,
providing greater accuracy and more economic
solutions
• Careful consideration has to be given to connection
and detailing to achieve fire resistance, especially with
modern factory-fitted interlocking connections
• Further engineering methods for fire resistance
consider temperature and moisture content at any
point in the cross-section, taking into account material
degradation with increasing temperature
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

6 Masonry
6.1 Reaction of masonry to fire However, they are widely found in many historic
buildings, and if these are exposed to fire an appraisal
‘Masonry’ is taken here to be an assemblage of masonry may be necessary. If so, a qualitative approach will be
units laid in a specified bond pattern and jointed with needed, recognising that the type of stone will influence
mortar; predominantly of single-leaf or cavity its behaviour.
construction. The masonry units covered here are bricks
or blocks of fired brickearth, clay or shale, calcium As passive materials, masonry units are classified as
silicate, dense and lightweight aggregate concrete, Class 0 spread of flame. Following initial drying-out after
autoclaved aerated concrete or manufactured stone. construction, walls will generally contain moisture — the
amount varying with ambient conditions. Some of this
Masonry units and the mortar used to build masonry water is chemically-bonded to the constituent materials,
walls are non-combustible. This was well demonstrated while the remainder is located in the pores of the
by the catastrophic fire at Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris material, as liquid or vapour, known as ‘free water’. Both
in 2019 which caused extensive damage and destruction move in response to applied high temperatures, affecting
of the timber roof, whereas fire damage to the masonry heat transfer through the material and thus the insulation
was limited (Figure 6.1). Although this is a natural stone performance of walls.
structure — a type of masonry not covered in this
guidance — it demonstrates the fire resistance of The behaviour of walls in fire is affected by the temperature
masonry generally. In fact, there are no quantitative distribution and thermal stresses in the wall. In fire,
design methods for natural stone loadbearing structures, masonry walls are predominantly subjected to heating on
which are not commonly used for new construction. one face, giving rise to a thermal gradient through the
thickness of the wall. For low thermal conductivity
Figure 6.1: Notre Dame de Paris materials such as masonry, the temperature distribution
through the wall will be nonlinear and thermal stresses will
be induced. The thermal gradient leads to deflection of the
wall towards the fire, resulting in further stresses due to
the eccentricity of the load (Figure 6.2). Provided the
extent of deflection is less than the wall thickness, the
resulting eccentricity, while imposing higher compressive
stresses, is unlikely to promote failure.
In general, for a given material type, fire resistance

increases with:
• Thickness
• Thermal resistance of the body material
• Absorbed or combined water content
• Any non-combustible applied finishes, especially
insulating plasters and renders
6.2 Current practice

Walls may be required to act as structural support to
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
transfer vertical or horizontal forces, or may act as

barriers to a fire in order to restrict spread and minimise
damage.
Fire resistance of masonry is always based on tests

carried out on the element e.g. brickwork or blockwork
walls, columns etc. There are no provisions for individual
masonry units or for the bonding mortar.

40
Figure 6.2: Resultant stress distribution in walls due to an external axial load and induced thermal stresses
Axial load
Compression
Tension
(+)
Direct and flexural
stress resulting
from axial force
and horizontal
displacement
due to thermal
curvature
(=)
Stress due to (+)

nonlinear
thermal
distribution
through wall
(=)
Resultant
stress
distribution Compression
Tension
In the UK, current assessment of the performance of the fire resistance rating of a construction should be
masonry walls is based on either: carefully checked to ensure that it demonstrates
compliance adequate for and applicable to the intended
a) a specific result obtained to determine the use. Small differences in detail, such as fixing methods,
performance of a particular wall construction in joints and dimensions may significantly affect
accordance with the requirements of British performance. For example, the use of polypropylene wall
Standards72–77, or: ties, which are likely to be destroyed during fire, will have
b) the use of tables which detail the fire resistance of an impact on the assessment78.
various walls and forms of construction which can be
used to satisfy design requirements. These tables are The tables list the minimum thickness of walls of various
based on wall test results from standard fire tests types of construction, required in order to provide a
carried out over a period of more than 50 years. stated fire resistance period; ranging from 30 minutes to
4 hours.
Approved Document B6 to the Building Regulations
provides practical guidance on meeting the fire safety 6.2.1 BR128 approach
requirements, and contains details intended to cover Specific reference is made to this BRE report39 as an
some of the more common building situations, while NCCI (Non-Contradictory Complementary Information) in
allowing alternative ways of demonstrating compliance. the UK National Annex to BS EN 1996-1-279. Part II of
Appendix B of the Approved Document draws attention the BRE report tabulates periods of fire resistance of
to the fact that any test evidence used to substantiate masonry walls.
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

The tables detail the information for masonry walls and periods of fire resistance. Separate tables are provided
include data for reinforced and unreinforced concrete for different materials — clay, calcium silicate, dense and
walls. Other tables relate to framed internal and external lightweight aggregate concrete, autoclaved aerated
walls. Table 1 of BR128 applies to solid loadbearing and concrete and manufactured stone masonry — and for
non-loadbearing walls required to resist fire from one non-loadbearing walls, loadbearing single-leaf walls, and
side at a time. Table 2 applies to hollow masonry walls cavity walls with one leaf loaded.
required to resist fire from one side, and Table 3
provides information on loadbearing and non-loadbearing For loadbearing walls, the minimum thicknesses also
cavity walls required to resist fire from one side. A typical depend on the value of α, where α is the ratio of the
table for solid, loadbearing masonry walls, extracted from load carried to its resistance NRd/average γf , where NRd
Table 1 of BR128, is reproduced here as Table 6.1. is the loadbearing capacity, taking into account the
effects of slenderness and eccentricity, and γf is the total
As a simple example, consider a standard 2.65m high characteristic load divided by total design load to
single-leaf loadbearing wall, 102.5mm thick. Table 6.1 BS EN 1996-1-181. Minimum wall thicknesses are quoted
indicates that the clay masonry wall would achieve a fire for values of α ≤ 1 and ≤0.6.
resistance of 120 minutes.
BS EN 1996-1-2 provides the models for these tables
These tables limit information to achieving a maximum of with only recommended values for the commonly used
4 hours resistance for all wall types. This is usually range of units, grouping, mortar density and load levels
sufficient to meet all practical requirements of the of — allowing each country to insert its own required values
Building Regulations and any additional insurance in its National Annex. The UK National Annex to
stipulations. BS EN 1996-1-2 provides tables (which meet the
requirements of the Approved Document) for both
6.2.2 Eurocode approach single-leaf and cavity walls with a separating function i.e.
BS EN 1996-1-280 assesses fire resistance by providing those complying with criteria for integrity E, and thermal
tables giving minimum thicknesses of masonry for stated insulation I. Both loadbearing walls i.e. those which
Table 6.1: Masonry walls: solid loadbearing — required to resist fire from one side at a time
Nature of construction/materials Minimum thickness(mm)

excluding any finish, for a
fire resistance(mins) of:
30 60 90 120 180 240
Bricks of clay, brickearth or shale
a) without finish 90 90 100 100 170 170
b) with 13mm lightweight aggregate gypsum plaster 90 90 90 90 100 – --`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Bricks of concrete or calcium silicate

a) without finish 90 90 100 100 190 190
b) with 13mm lightweight aggregate gypsum plaster 90 90 90 90 100 –
Blocks of dense concrete
a) without finish 90 90 100 100 – –
Blocks of lightweight concrete
a) without finish 90 90 100 100 140 150
Blocks of autoclaved aerated concrete (of density 480–1200kg/m3)
a) without finish 90 90 100 100 140 180
Blocks of autoclaved aerated concrete (of density 400–479kg/m3) 100 100 120 130 160 200
Note: Derived/adapted from Table 1 of BR128.

42
additionally comply with criteria for resistance R and thicknesses are quoted. The top row of figures defines
non-loadbearing walls are included. Separate tables are the resistance for walls without a suitable surface finish,
provided for different masonry types (clay, calcium whereas the lower row of figures (in brackets) is for walls
silicate, concrete, autoclaved aerated concrete, and having a suitable applied finish of minimum thickness
manufactured stone masonry) as follows: 10mm on both faces of a single-leaf wall, or on the
fire-exposed face of a cavity wall. Suitable finishes are
• Non-loadbearing single-leaf walls, separating defined in Clause 4.2(1) of BS EN 1996-1-2 and include:
function EI — Tables NA 1.1, 2.1, 3.1, 4.1 and 5.1.
Note the maximum height-to-thickness ratio for • Gypsum premixed plaster in accordance with
non-loadbearing walls should not exceed 40 BS EN 13279-182
• Loadbearing single-leaf walls, separating function REI • Plaster type LW or T in accordance with BS EN 998-183
— Tables NA 1.2, 2.2, 3.2, 4.2 and 5.2
• Loadbearing cavity walls with one leaf loaded, separating For cavity and untied walls, the surface finish is only
function REI — Tables NA 1.6, 2.6, 3.6, and 4.6 needed on the outside faces of the leaves, and not
between the leaves.
Where neither leaf of a cavity wall carries a load,
performance is equivalent to the sum of the fire An extract from Table NA 1.1 of the UK National Annex
resistances of the individual leaves; the UK National to BS EN 1996-1-2 is shown in Table 6.2, covering
Annex applying a maximum performance of 240 minutes. loadbearing single-leaf walls constructed using clay units.
The table in the National Annex also contains data for
In the tables, the thickness referred to is that of the calcium silicate, autoclaved aerated concrete, aggregate
masonry itself, excluding finishes. For each case two concrete and manufactured stone units.
Table 6.2: Clay masonry minimum thickness of separating non-loadbearing walls (criteria EI ) for fire resistance
classifications
Row no. Material properties: gross density Minimum wall thickness(mm) tF for
ρ (kg/m3) fire resistance classification EI for time(minutes) t5,d
30 60 90 120 180 240
1.S Group 1S units
1.S.1 Mortar: general purpose, thin layer, lightweight

ρW 1200
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1.S.1.1 65 65 90 100 170 170
1.S.1.2 (65) (65) (90) (100) (100) (140)
1 Group 1 units
1.1 Mortar: general purpose, thin layer, lightweight
ρW 1000
1.1.1 65 100 100 100 170 200
1.1.2 (65) (65) (90) (100) (140) (170)

2 Group 2 units
2.1 Mortar: general purpose, thin layer, lightweight

ρW 700
25% < perforation u 40%
2.1.1 100 130 215 215 240 240
2.1.2 (100) (130) (215) (215) (215) (240)

Note: Derived/adapted from NA to BS EN 1996-1-2.

Data contained in design tables take account of recent The width of individual recesses in non-loadbearing walls
research test data obtained by the material producers. should not be greater than twice the required minimum
Masonry materials and unit types are referenced in thickness of the wall (including finishes).
relation to their respective European EN product
standards. Where movement joints or edge clearances are specified
in walls required to resist fire, they should be filled with a
If the information from Table 6.2 is used for the same non-combustible material, such as mineral wool, allowing
example as that in Section 6.2.1, for solid units with a the movement joint to continue to function. Consideration
gross dry density ρ that exceeds 1200kg/m3 and no should be given to non-combustible cover strips fixed to
applied surface finish, we can see by inspection that a both faces of the wall on one side of the joint. Joints in
100mm minimum thickness of clay masonry achieves a walls, or between walls and other fire-separating
standard fire resistance of 120 minutes. members, must be designed and constructed to meet
the required fire resistance.
The loadbearing capability of the wall will need to be
separately verified by calculation to BS EN 1996-1-1. 6.3.1 Applied fire protection
This comprises vertical load determination from a It is not usually necessary to enhance masonry wall
consideration of masonry strength and slenderness. In performance with protective surface finishes, but where
this case NRd divided by average γf gives the maximum used for decorative reasons, they can enhance
vertical load capacity of the wall. performance.
The slenderness ratio of the wall also needs to be Design tables allow for enhancement of performance
checked. In this example the wall dimensions are using vermiculite gypsum plaster. Insulation layers of
2650mm high with a thickness of 102.5mm, so the non-combustible materials e.g. mineral wool can also
slenderness is 2650/102.5, i.e. 25.9, which is less than improve performance when compared with a wall having
the 27 limit used in the UK for vertically-loaded no surface finish.
unreinforced walls.
Combustible thin damp-proof materials incorporated into
a wall may be ignored when assessing fire resistance.
Construction and detailing of masonry walls for fire
relates mainly to compartmentation requirements. The
requirements for masonry walls are readily met. Although masonry constructions have been satisfactorily
Guidance is given in the Building Regulations on aspects used for many years, more advanced design methods
relating to the passage of pipes and services through and computational techniques, using its properties at
separating walls, and in particular, the need for high temperature to predict performance, have not been
fire-stopping. developed. Only limited work has been carried out on
the structural and thermal properties of masonry at high
Recesses and chases, which are permitted in temperatures.
loadbearing walls without the need for separate
calculation, can be assumed not to reduce the fire BS EN 1996-1-2 provides an introduction to alternative
resistance performance of the wall. For non-loadbearing procedures for calculation of structural fire resistance.
walls, vertical chases and recesses should leave at Currently, such procedures are not considered to have
least: developed sufficiently to justify their codified use. The
method has not yet been sufficiently calibrated over the
• Two-thirds of the required minimum thickness of the entire European test database to ensure its reliability for
wall (including any applied fire-resistant finish such as design Europe-wide.
plaster)
• 60mm Such procedures seem likely however, to provide a
future alternative basis for assessment of the fire
Horizontal and inclined chases and recesses should not resistance of masonry. Research is now being carried
be positioned within the middle one-third height of the out to develop calculation-based methodologies in order
wall, and in non-loadbearing walls should leave at least: to provide a credible alternative to the use of tabular
data. Future application of the results of such research
• Five-sixths of the required minimum thickness of the will offer a method for fire-resistance design of masonry
wall (including any applied fire-resistant finish) which is less restrictive than current practice, and may
• 60mm provide the potential for some economies in design.
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

44
6.5 Summary
• Masonry walls have been shown to have excellent
performance in fire
• Thermal and mechanical properties of a particular
type of masonry are dependent on the material of the
masonry units and mortar
• Thermal gradients through the depth of a masonry
wall can result in deflection of the wall towards the
fire, giving rise to eccentric loading and additional
stresses
• If the extent of wall deflection is less than the wall
thickness, the resulting eccentricity is unlikely to
promote failure
• There is very little research into the effect of fire on
masonry. As such, design is based on testing and
experience of natural fires (historical performance).
Information is very often in tabular form
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

7 Appraisal
7.1 Introduction have an impact on design for fire safety and on the
appraisal of existing structures. Where practical, aspects
Refurbishment and reuse of structures are becoming of these ongoing changes have been included here,
more prevalent so there is a need for established particularly where it aligns with best practice. The
procedures to assess and compare the performance of landscape is continuously evolving though and it is
an existing structure against a background of increasing important to keep abreast of recommendations and
fire safety standards. This chapter primarily sets out the requirements as they are published.
context and approach with respect to legislation and
guidance. Some technical detail relating to principal
structural materials is provided here, but more
7.2 Approach
information is available in Appraisal of existing The following is an introductory extract from Appraisal of
structures 84. existing structures — and reference should be made to
this guidance for further background and the overall
Appraisal of the fire performance of an existing building processes for effective appraisal of existing structures:
may be required for two main reasons:
There is no absolute measure of adequate safety.
1. Prediction of future fire performance However, there does exist a generally accepted level of
There is often a need to predict the future performance safety provided by design and construction in
of an existing structure because of changes in accordance with current regulations and codes of
occupancy, changes in ownership or the desire to practice. This level of safety may provide a useful datum,
comply with current standards in an old structure. but, when assessing existing structures, mature
Knowledge of the materials used and the assumptions engineering judgement may need to take precedence
made at the time are useful, but there is great benefit in over compliance with the detailed clauses of codes of
being able to reinterpret the structure — using a modern practice for structural design. Serviceability is even more
fire engineering approach to check for any weak points subjective, although some aspects can be measured.
or establishing whether there is any beneficial Serviceability is second in importance to safety.
redundancy that can be accounted for to demonstrate a
higher performance. Appraisal in the context of the UK’s The processes for design of new structures and for
Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order (RRO)10 is appraisal of existing structures are also quite different.
explained later in this chapter. The philosophical basis for appraisal needs to be
different from that adopted in the design process, even
2. Appraisal postfire though many of the detailed calculation steps may be
Determining the degradation of materials is important similar. It is often necessary to work from first principles.
because it is possible that some/all of the structure can be
reused. All structures exposed to a substantial fire are likely The assessment of the fire performance of existing
to deflect substantially or suffer damage. Even if a structure structures is never straightforward due to the number of
has been fire-protected in accordance with codified rules, uncertainties associated with the materials used
it does not mean that repairs will be unnecessary, (especially if they are historic) and a lack of information
because a structure may have deflected and have a regarding the original structural design assumptions.
reduced loadbearing capacity postfire. However, it is There may also have been changes, not only to the
important to put the cost of structural repairs into context. building but also in occupancy or ownership. It is
In a highly serviced building with lifts and expensive therefore important to collect as much data as possible
cladding which have been affected by fire, it is likely that from site visits and, where appropriate, to conduct
the structural repair costs will be relatively small compared material testing — at elevated temperatures if necessary.
with other elements of the building. Consultation with It may also be useful to review fire test data of old forms
insurers is essential as this could have a significant impact of construction.
on the decisions relating to repairs. Postfire appraisal is not
covered in any detail here, and reference should be made
to Appraisal of existing structures.
7.3 Legislation and guidance
When liasing with a client or presenting an approach to
London’s Grenfell Tower fire in June 2017, the controlling authorities, it is important to set out a clear
subsequent Hackitt Report9 and the ongoing inquiry will
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

46
strategy that aligns with the following technical detail and potentially make a building less safe structurally; more at
legislation: risk from fire or less accessible for disabled people than
required by the Building Regulations that applied at the
In England and Wales, the Building Regulations set out time the work was originally carried out.
the legislative requirements for appraising existing
buildings, which can result in some relaxation from 2.56 Where building work can be considered a material
current standards. Clauses 2.55–2.57 of the Hackitt alteration, the person doing the refurbishment work is
Report (reproduced at the end of this section) illustrate subject to building control oversight. An assessment will
the requirement. To put this into context, reference then be made about the extent to which those parts of
should be made to BS 99998, which describes the style the building being refurbished will impact more generally
and philosophy for appraising existing buildings and on whole building. There is no requirement to generally
structures in a reasonable and balanced manner. The improve the fire safety provisions in the building, merely a
following extract from BS 9999 illustrates this: requirement that the work should not make the building
less compliant in meeting those standards. This is
In both new construction and upgrading existing generally referred to as the ‘non-worsening provision’.
buildings, the various aspects of fire precautions are
interrelated and weaknesses in some areas can be 2.57 Whilst there is a rationale for non-worsening and
compensated for by strengths in others. A higher more generally for not imposing the latest modern
standard under one of the areas might be of benefit in building standards on old buildings (which may quickly
respect of one or more of the other areas. BS 9999 make continued occupation, or any refurbishment activity
provides a level of flexibility that allows the fire protection uneconomical) large numbers of existing high-rise
measures and the risks to be assessed to enable buildings have increasingly out-of-date fire safety
reasonable practical solutions to be designed. precautions. There is also the potential for some
refurbishment work to escape the net of scrutiny and be
Fire precautions in all premises — however old — need carried out in such a way as to compromise the fire
to be seen as a whole, a package aimed at achieving an safety of the building.
acceptable standard of fire safety. In modifying existing
structures, if the new work can be shown not to have a
negative impact on the remainder, it is possible that no 7.4 Information and management
work will be needed on the remainder, although it might
be possible to offer improvement as good practice.
for fire safety
Whilst existing buildings need not be retrospectively Many major fire events have resulted from a series of
subject to the same standards as new buildings, failures in a building’s design and management
however, it is important that designers apply the general procedures — usually a combination and not one single
principle that the safest practicable design is to be factor. For new and refurbished buildings alike, each of
sought, and that the prior existence of an unsafe the following stages need to be delivered successfully:
situation is not allowed to persist if it is practicable to
provide remedy. • Performance specification
• Design
Nevertheless, reference should be made to BS 9999 and • Subcontractor design/supply
other documents for the detail necessary to allow for • Contractor construction
practical interpretation of these broader requirements. • Commissioning/testing of installed systems
• Ongoing maintenance and operation by the owner
Clauses 2.55–2.57 of the Hackitt Report are generic in
nature and illustrate the requirements of the current At any project stage it should be clear who is
Building Regulations. However, it should be noted that responsible for overall fire safety so that coordination and
structural performance does not appear to have been a information transfer is delivered successfully. The effective
significant factor at the Grenfell Tower fire: handover of information from one stage to another is
also very important.
2.55 Existing buildings are not currently required to meet
current regulations on building safety. Rather, a set of An engineer requires data and information to carry out an
complex legal provisions are applied to such work. effective appraisal. Increasingly there will be a
Currently, when a building is refurbished, the Building requirement for owners/managers of buildings to
Regulations (including building control arrangements) are preserve building information and make it available,
applied where the work represents a ‘material alteration’. particularly where it has been handed over from the
Building work represents a material alteration if it would construction phase. A typical non-exhaustive list of the
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

types of information that should be recorded, made • Tall buildings (particularly older buildings) with
available and maintained for existing buildings is: lightweight board or sprayed systems of fire
protection, which might be sensitive to fast moving
• Size and height of the building lifts, vibrations and wind effects, etc.
• Structure • Damaged fire-stopping products, or new fire-stopping
• Fabric requirements as a result of new/updated building
• Means of escape services systems
• Compartmentation
• Systems in operation
• Permanent fixtures and fittings
This requirement is likely to be progressively implemented

as the Hackitt Review and impacts of the Grenfell Inquiry
start to be implemented. Referred to as the ‘golden
thread’ — the passing of information down the line. Any
structural appraisal should be part of this thread.
7.5 Appraisal under the Regulatory

Reform (Fire Safety) Order
The RRO applies to all non-domestic premises and
includes requirements for fire safety arrangements,
structural fire performance, firefighting, fire detection,
emergency routes and exits and treatment of dangerous
substances. Failure to comply may result in enforcement
action by the fire service, which could include prohibition
of use, pending alteration.
Fire Risk Assessments (FRAs)85 carried out under the

RRO should include a structural fire appraisal. This can be
challenging in an existing occupied building where access
is difficult and/or structural information is not available.
Quite frequently fire risk assessors, without formal
structural engineering qualifications, carry out this work as
part of a more general inspection of fire extinguishers,
doors, smoke seals, etc. The RRO relies on fire risk
assessors to identify when they need help if a particular
matter is beyond their skills and capability. This is quite a
challenging position, so it is important that building
owners/managers, who are responsible under the RRO,
consider when an appraisal by a suitably qualified
structural engineer is advisable. Although not exhaustive or
prescribed, the following scenarios may suggest that an
appraisal carried out by a qualified structural engineer is
the most appropriate course of action:
• Five years or more since last appraisal was carried

out by a structural engineer
• A change of use has been applied
• There is a possibility that installed fire protection
systems are compromised during the life of the
building – perhaps there have been significant
changes/refurbishment, which could have resulted in
damage
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48
8 Structural fire performance for

firefighter safety
8.1 Introduction • General layout
• Activities/processes undertaken in the building
This chapter describes how a knowledge of structural fire • Materials stored or used
performance can significantly enhance the safety and • Passive fire protection provided
overall effectiveness of firefighting operations. • Active fire protection systems provided
• Fire service facilities provided
It is essential that the Fire and Rescue Service work as a
team and follow established operating procedures, Aside from the type and number of occupants, all of
influenced by a dynamic risk assessment. These these can, both individually and in combination, have
procedures, combined with general and specific considerable impact on the rate at which fire develops.
knowledge about buildings and structures, are supported Consideration of the following would provide useful
by training, to enable them to respond to the constantly additional information:
changing risks associated with fires in the modern built
environment. • What is the type of primary structure (Section 8.4)?
• What is the ability of the structure to support on-
The interactions between individual materials, systems going firefighting operations?
and elements can have a significant impact on the overall • What is its natural robustness during an extended
performance of a building structure during a fire. The fact firefighting scenario (Section 8.3)?
that modern systems increasingly use a combination of • Is there significant additional fire load in the primary
different materials means the fire performance of structure?
complete structures cannot be easily judged on the basis • Is there significant additional fire load in the secondary
of the results of tests on individual elements. Therefore, construction?
the rapid development of new materials and building • What if there is no information?
systems makes it increasingly difficult for the firefighter to • Cores, bracing and firefighting shafts, which provide
make accurate assessments of the building performance overall building stability as well as the basic access
during firefighting operations. for means of escape and firefighting
• The on-going ability of the building structure to deliver
The guidance in this chapter is an outline of the the design performance over its life — accounting for
approach that could be beneficial to the Fire and Rescue deterioration and the impact that maintenance and
Service. Legislation and guidance will inevitably develop other minor changes have on the building
further as the implications and recommendations • Roof structures, which may expand and push over
resulting from the Grenfell Tower disaster start to impact. walls, or may collapse relatively early as they rarely
Nevertheless, some fundamental information relating to have fire-resisting performance
the robustness of structures during fire can equip the • The performance of active fire systems ultimately
Fire and Rescue Service with valuable insight. impacts significantly on the overall performance of a
building and access for firefighting
8.2 What information does the • Interior non-loadbearing walls and partitions, which
can progressively fail as the fire develops and spreads
Fire and Rescue Service need? • The presence of voids in ceilings, floors, walls and
Individual Fire and Rescue Services already have systems roofs, which present a path for potential fire spread
for recording data on buildings, including their • Some forms of construction are more susceptible to
occupancy, materials stored and used, processes and poor maintenance and change
associated risk. The information proposed in this section
is intended to add to and support those systems. The extent of combustible material within the structure/
construction and the stage at which it contributes to the
Operational decisions are informed by a number of scale and intensity of a fire (or results in secondary fires)
building-related factors, including: is a critical factor. Combustible materials could be
contained in the external cladding or within the internal
• Type and number of occupants construction, which may or may not be loadbearing.
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

This information can be obtained at various points in the factors determining the safety of firefighters, alongside
design/construction/use of the structure, including: the necessary training. The main materials used for
primary structures include:
• Primary design
• Subcontractor design • Traditional brick/stone crosswall construction
• Procurement characterised by traditional domestic construction
• Operational stage (via the routine risk assessment/ since the 19th century
appraisal process, see Chapter 7) • Traditional hot-rolled steel frame with composite
concrete floors
• Lightweight steel frame
8.3 Robustness of the primary • Reinforced concrete frame
structure • Pre-tensioned/post-tensioned concrete frame
• Traditional timber frame
The robustness of a structure and its ability to perform
• Lightweight modern methods/special structures where
during a fire is fundamental to firefighter safety and will
more information is required
influence operational decisions made by the Fire and
Rescue Service. A simple approach to define the relative
Irrespective of the materials used, it is not safe to
robustness of different forms of construction will support
assume that a modern structure will perform to the same
the systematic gathering of data and subsequent
standard as a traditional structure (or indeed, to assume
training. The following categories distinguish between
that it will perform better or worse). Design methods, and
buildings with good, moderate and poor inherent
the nature or composition of materials may have
robustness (Groups A, B and C respectively):
changed, so it is important to account for these
variations when assessments are undertaken.
• Group A: High degree of natural robustness during
fire
A structure that has inherent resistance to sudden 8.5 Summary
collapse and results in a steady, controlled increase in
Much of this chapter has been derived/adapted from a
deflection when exposed to fire. Heavier steel/
currently unpublished document86 that sets out an
composite structures, substantial timber structures,
approach for codifying buildings — to enable information
and some types of concrete structures will be
to be rapidly transmitted, understood and used by
‘Group A’
operational firefighting teams. Although not currently
• Group B: Intermediate between A and C
adopted, it provides a basis for future development along
• Group C: Limited natural robustness during fire
with associated training plans, and has been introduced
Some structures, once the added fire protection has
into the post-Grenfell response.
been exposed to fire beyond its design performance,
fail very quickly — adversely affecting firefighting
Providing the Fire and Rescue Service with structural fire
operations and firefighter safety in the later stages of
performance information can have a significant impact on
a fire. Examples include structures comprising thin
the way firefighting is approached, leading to a safer
sheet steel, light timber framing and relatively thin
firefighting operation.
concrete structures.
Formal procedures for dealing with this have not yet
The appraisal of robustness and fire performance during
been fully developed but may well become a requirement
the fire case requires considerable expertise by a suitably
in the future.
qualified engineer. Typically, the datum level of expertise
could reasonably be expected from a Chartered
Structural Engineer who has additional experience
regarding the fire performance of structures.
8.4 Types of primary structure

A simple knowledge of the primary structure will benefit
the Fire and Rescue Service in the approach they take to
fighting the fire. Primary structures have the greatest
influence on a building’s ability to remain standing in fire.
Therefore, a basic understanding of structural type and
an appraisal of its fire performance will be the primary
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50
9 Conclusions
This guide provides a detailed introduction to the design Institution’s Guide to the advanced fire safety engineering
of structures for fire. The content is aimed primarily at of structures 13 should be consulted.
structural engineers and other built environment
professionals seeking a deeper understanding of this Research into the behaviour of structures in fire has been
engineering specialism. It is also serves as an important ongoing for decades but in recent years it has expanded
reference source for controlling authorities; particularly dramatically and substantial progress has been made,
those with a responsibility for firefighter safety. By especially in composite (steel and concrete) frame
considering the structural fire engineering aspects in the design. By considering both the fire and the structure in
early stages of design, a balanced solution (between the a more sophisticated way than simply a determinate
fire and normal load cases) can be achieved. structure heated in a furnace, the fire community is
beginning to achieve substantial reductions in the use of
Structural fire engineering is just one aspect of fire safety passive fire protection materials and savings for the
design for any building. It is generally of importance in construction industry in terms of time spent on site. The
the post-flashover stage when construction materials can new understanding is growing at a rapid rate because of
reach very high temperatures. This guidance focuses on the advances in computing capabilities. These
the performance of structures and does not offer detailed developments can only lead to more consistent safety
information on aspects of fire safety management, means levels, designs which are potentially more robust, and
of escape etc. although these will form part of the overall increased innovative design opportunities. At a time of
fire strategy. rapid change, practitioners should continuously check
the latest guidance relevant to their juristiction.
Traditional design is prescriptive and is based on fire
resistance testing in a standard furnace. The design fire The design of structures for fire will continue to develop at
exposure is based on the standard temperature-time a considerable pace and despite there having been no
curve followed by the furnace test in ISO 83418, concerns expressed to date, regarding the structural
BS 47619,16 or ASTM E11917. There are many issues performance of London’s Grenfell Tower which suffered a
concerning the suitability of the furnace test to represent major fire in 2017, the tragic loss of life will undoubtedly
adequately the performance of structures in natural fires, lead to further significant changes in practice.
but principally:
• Natural fires are very different in peak temperature

--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and duration from the standard fire curve and are

dependent on fuel load, ventilation, compartment
shape and the thermal properties of the boundary
wall materials
• Single unrestrained elements such as columns,
beams or slabs are tested, and the results are used
to determine the fire resistance of real structures
As an alternative to testing, there is a range of design

methodologies; from simple calculations to more
sophisticated analytical techniques incorporating natural
fire data. The most complex design method includes
modelling of whole building structures using finite
element codes for heat transfer analysis and structural
behaviour.
As a direct result of the shortcomings of the fire

resistance test there is a great deal of scope for
innovative design, involving all relevant parties in the
design team, as detailed in the Eurocodes. For those
interested in even more advanced approaches, the

Appendix: Fire protection materials

A.1 Generic fire protection The coatings appear textured and are often susceptible
to mechanical damage. Some may require additional
materials surface protection to prevent air erosion when used, for
Guidance on the fire performance and use of generic example, behind plenum ceilings or to meet cleanliness
materials such as concrete, brickwork, blockwork and requirements. When mechanical retention is required,
certain types of plasterboard or gypsum plaster steel chicken wire, weld mesh or expanded metal lath
is presented in BRE report BR12839. (EML) is mechanically-attached to the surface. Guidance
on the use of sprayed cementitious or gypsum-based
coatings, including thickness measurement, is provided
A.2 Proprietary fire protection in BS 8202-188.
materials
Many forms of proprietary structural fire protection Figure A.1: Sprayed protection applied to complex
materials are available. Such materials should have been beam detail
fire tested to the requirements of BS 47619,16 or
equivalent. For steelwork, the thickness of fire protection
material required to satisfy a specific fire resistance
period in the UK can be selected from authoritative
material performance data38.
The types of fire protection system available can be

classified into three main product groups; sprays,
boards and intumescent coatings. The latter is almost
exclusively used for steelwork, but sprays and boards
can be used to provide additional protection for other
structural materials. A summary of the main factors
affecting product selection for each group is given in
Table A.1.
A.3 Sprayed cementitious or

gypsum-based coatings
Cement or gypsum-based materials containing mineral
A.4 Boards and blankets
wool, expanded vermiculite, expanded perlite and/or Boards (semi-rigid and rigid) and blankets are used as
other lightweight aggregates or fillers, are generally the dry forms of fire protection installed in situ as either
least expensive forms of fire protection. These coatings profile or boxed protection (Figure A.2). Base materials
can provide up to 240 minutes’ fire resistance and, in the include ceramic fibres, calcium silicate, rock fibre,
UK, are usually are defined as non-combustible in gypsum and vermiculite. Most are only suitable for
accordance with BS 476-487. interior use or limited external exposure during
construction. However, a few board systems can be
Mineral fibre-based materials are delivered dry to the subjected to full external exposure.
spray head, where they are mixed with water and
compressed air. Vermiculite or perlite sprays are usually Up to 240 minutes’ fire resistance can be provided and
premixed with water before being pumped to the spray many materials are defined as non-combustible —
head. Surfaces should be clean, and any primer should therefore meeting the requirements of Class 0.
be compatible with the protection material. While most
coatings are applied in situ (Figure A.1), some can be Calcium silicate and vermiculite boards are hard and
used externally and may be applied prior to site smooth in appearance but also vulnerable to impact
assembly if suitable care is taken during subsequent damage. Mineral fibre boards (Figure A.3) are softer to
handling. the touch while the blanket materials are fully flexible.
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52
Table A.1: Characteristics of fire protection systems
Sprayed cementitious or Boards and blankets Intumescent coatings

gypsum-based coatings
Relative cost Low to medium Low to high Medium to high
Wet or dry Wet Mainly dry Wet. Thick films may be
preformed
Application Messy, with protection Relatively clean, labour If applied on-site,
required to adjacent surfaces intensive protection required to
adjacent surfaces —
otherwise use off-site
Tools required for Specialist equipment Simple application tools Application by paint
application sprayer for thin films.
Specialist equipment for
thick films.
Internal/external Internal and external Internal use. Additional Internal (with some
use materials available. Not all protection required for external systems)
suitable for external use external use
Preparation No primer required for Contact surfaces for Compatible primer
internal use, but surfaces to noggins etc. to be clean and required on cleaned
be clean and compatible compatible surfaces
Robustness Relatively brittle and may be Some rigid boards relatively Similar to paint systems.
vulnerable to mechanical brittle and may be Thick film very tough and
damage. Some coatings vulnerable to mechanical durable
unsuitable for use behind damage. Batts and blankets
plenum ceilings or in clean may require additional
areas covering
Finish Textured Variable. Boards mainly Smooth or slightly
smooth with joints visible textured surface. A
unless a wet finishing coat coloured decorative finish
is applied. Batts and can be applied
blankets are textured with
fixings visible
Mechanical Necessary where no Usually requires some Mesh retention required
retention re-entrant angles available or mechanical retention at higher thicknesses
thickness is high
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Thickness range 10–75mm Multiple layers used. Thin film 0.3–6.5mm

Boards 6–100mm Thick film 2.0–32mm
Batts/blankets 12–76mm
Maximum fire 240 mins 240 mins Thin film 120 mins
resistance Thick film 240 mins
Class 0 surfacea Yes Usually Possibly
a
Note: Class 0 is the highest product performance classification for wall and ceiling linings. It is not identified in any
British Standard test. Class 0 is met if any material or surface of a composite product is composed throughout of
materials of limited combustibility; or a Class 1 material has a fire propagation index (I) of not more than 12 and
sub-index (I1) of not more than 6. The rating Class 0 limits fire spread over (and energy released from) linings.

Figure A.2: Board fire protection applied to columns

--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Potential problems associated with loose fibres may be Longer fire resistance periods often require the use of
minimised by an outer sheathing of aluminium foil or multiple layers of boards. In this case the joints in the
similar, and by the use of taped joints. Visual appearance layers are staggered. Where only a single layer of board
will vary with the system chosen. is required, joints are normally backed by noggins or a
fillet of the same material as the board.
Flexible blanket materials are typically fixed with steel
weld pins (Figure A.4) and non-return washers, wire ties Figure A.4: Pin-fixed blanket applied to truss
and chicken wire. Rigid boards may be retained using
pins, nails, special spiral screws or sometimes a bonding
agent to a timber subframe. When noggins are
friction-fixed, contact surfaces may need to be clean and
unpainted. As an alternative to a timber subframe,
lightweight galvanised mild steel internal framing
members may be used with plasterboard and calcium
silicate board encasement systems.
Figure A.3: Foil-covered fibre board applied to beams

54
A.5 Intumescent coatings Figure A.6: Typical application of thin film intumescent
coating
Intumescent coating systems are classified as either
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
‘thin film’, which account for the vast majority of systems
used in general construction, or ‘thick film’ (sometimes
referred to as ‘mastics’). The materials are reactive,
swelling to many times their original thickness when
exposed to fire, with the resultant char insulating the
underlying steel substrate (Figure A.5). They are by far
the most common form of fire protection for structural
steelwork — having previously been considered
uneconomical and rarely used.
Figure A.5: Demonstration of intumescence
Intumescent
char
Thin film intumescent coating systems are similar in

appearance to conventional paints and are applied either
by airless spray, brush or roller (Figure A.6). They may be
solvent based or water-borne, and usually include
compatible primers, the intumescent coat and a ‘top’ or
sealer coat which is often available in a range of colours. Thin film intumescent coatings can provide up to
Surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned before the paint is 120 minutes’ fire resistance. General guidance on the
applied. selection and use of intumescent coatings can be found
in BS EN 1662389. Guidance on the measurement of
Most coatings are suitable for interior or limited exterior coating thickness can be found in the ASFP’s TGD 1140.
exposure during construction, although some may be
used externally. Application is increasingly towards It should be noted that there are a number of
off-site, especially where construction programmes are misconceptions about intumescent coatings, particularly
short and/or site access is restricted. This has the for situations which are not straightforward. It is therefore
advantage of removing fire protection from what is advisable to discuss requirements with manufacturers at
sometimes the critical path in the construction an early opportunity.
programme.
It is common when considering off-site application to use

simple fire engineering methods to ensure that required
protection can be achieved using only a single coat. This
limits the drying time and hence the throughput of any
paint facility. Increasing the weight of steel to reduce the
number of coats will often be economical. The use of the
load ratio/limiting temperature method is very important
in achieving this goal.

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Introduction to structural fire
engineering
This guidance updates and expands on Introduction to the fire
safety engineering of structures (2003) and includes chapters
on structural appraisal and firefighter safety.
The more specialised role of ‘structural fire engineer’ is now

commonplace within the industry. This guidance will help
readers understand the responsibilities of different members
of the design, supply and construction team. It has been
prepared primarily for the structural engineering generalist,
to promote safer and better value solutions for the structural
performance of buildings during and after fire.
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Introduction To Structural Fire Engineering

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Introduction To Structural Fire Engineering

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Introduction to

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Published by The Institution of Structural Engineers

First published (version 1.0) January 2020

ISBN 978-1-906335-38-0 (Print)

© 2020 The Institution of Structural Engineers

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4 Steel and composite 24

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7.3 Legislation and guidance 45

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Figure 4.12: Forms of composite columns 28

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there is an opportunity to reduce the fragmentation 1.4 Design responsibilities —

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Table 1.1: Roles and responsibilities — structural fire safety design

design, procurement and operational phases

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Figure 1.1: Temperature development and fire protection measures

Structural fire protection

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Figure 2.1: Progress of a well-ventilated natural fire Flashover

conflagration when all surfaces within the compartment

Ignition – smouldering Heating Cooling

flashover. The radiative heat feedback from the

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As a fire develops, the structural elements close to the

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Table 2.1: Level of design complexity

Extent of structure considered

Fire exposure Prescribed fire Simple/ Medium/ Complex/

Calculated fire Medium/ Complex/ Very complex/

The various levels of sophistication can be categorised in Examples include:

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In England and Wales, the prescriptive requirements

state It should be noted that in terms of the overarching fire

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furnace test. Lack of furnace harmonisation is another • Building occupancy

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Table 2.3: Minimum periods of fire resistance

Purpose group of Minimum periods of fire resistance(1) (minutes) in a:

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Table 2.4: Fire resistance periods for elements of structurea

Risk Minimum periods of fire resistance (minutes)b

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These are just a few of the many considerations. Recent

• Structural ‘continuity’ (through tensile membrane

The effects of continuity are generally beneficial, while

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aggregates may still expand22.

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Figure 3.2: Isotherm profiles