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21/07/2023 22:21 AMS :: Feature Column from the AMS
Welcome to the Feature Column
The Mathematics of Surveying: Part I

Posted May 2008.
Surveyors can work on a small scale (accurately siting the corners of a

building on its plot) or a very large one (charting the path of a proposed
highway) but their work always involves measurements in the field.
...

Tony Phillips
Print this article Stony Brook University
Surveying tony at math.sunysb.edu
and geometry
Tradition has it that geometry (literally, earth-measurement)
began when the ancient Egyptians had to re-establish boundary
lines between fields after the annual floods of the Nile; the United
Nations Food and Agriculture Organization still recommends
using a (3, 4, 5) triangle to set out right angles in survey work, a
procedure that may well go back to the pharaohs. Today, surveyors
continue to make explicit use of plane geometry and trigonometry
on a day-to-day basis. Along with their seafaring cousins, the
navigators, they may be the most geometrical of all professions.
My plan in this column is to sample some of the more elementary
current surveying procedures from a mathematical point of view,
using The Surveying Handbook (edited by Russel Brinker and Roy
Minnick, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1987) as my source.
www.ams.org/publicoutreach/feature-column/fcarc-surveying-one 1/23
It must be noted that at least one mathematician was a world-class

surveyor. Laplace had advised the Académie des Sciences in 1791
on a new survey of the Paris meridian from Dunkerque to
Barcelona (in order to establish the exact size of the earth and
hence the length of the meter; the French Revolution had washed
away, along with the traditional divisions of land, the units that
had measured them). But Gauss himself conducted a survey of the
state of Hanover between 1821 and 1825, and continued to direct
work on refinements of the grid. One of the nine volumes of his
collected works is entirely devoted to geodesy.
A detail of the triangulation of Hanover carried out under Gauss's supervision
between 1820 and 1850. The pink lines are part of the Hauptsystem (main system)
laid out by Gauss himself in 1821-1825. Collected Works, Volume 9, p. 347.
What is surveying?
According to the American Society of Civil Engineers, surveying is
(in part) "The science and art of making all essential
measurements in space to determine the relative positions of
points and/or physical and cultural details above, on or beneath
the earth's surface and to depict them in usable form." The words
"in space" are significant: surveying is an outdoor activity.

Surveyors can work on a small scale (accurately siting the corners
of a building on its plot) or a very large one (charting the path of a
proposed highway) but their work always involves measurements
in the field.
Some theorems in plane geometry

One essential surveying task is "to prolong a straight line forward
from an existing point." This is part of marking out on the terrain
what will be a straight line on the map. If all points are visible from
the starting point, line of sight may be used. But suppose a line has
been drawn from point A to point B (in sight), and must be
extended beyond B to a point visible from B but out of sight of A.
Here is the procedure: move the transit (the surveyor's telescope)
to B, backsight on A, "plunge" the transit (rotate it forwards in a
vertical plane) and sight a new point C. This procedure requires
two surveyors, one to look through the telescope and one to move
a marker until it lines up with the telescope's axis; once executed it
can be repeated to extend a line over hill and dale.
The
plunging,
although
described in
the
Handbook
only as
"more
Extending a line over irregular terrain. To extend the line AB to a point
out of sight of A: 1. Transit is positioned at B and back-sighted at A. 2. accurate"
Transit is "plunged" (rotated in vertical plane) to point forwards in than turning
terrain. 3. Point C is established in new transit line of sight.
180o
horizontally
is in fact
fundamenta
since a
straight line
on the
earth's
surface is the
intersection
of that
surface with
a vertical
plane (i.e. a
plane
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a segment of
a great circle
When the line needs extending through an obstruction, some more

geometry comes into play. From the Handbook: "The transit is set
up at B and deflection angle α, no larger than needed to clear the
obstruction, is turned to locate C. Point C is occupied and an angle
2α is turned in the opposite direction from the first angle. D is
established on the resulting prolongation of AB at the same
distance as BC. Occupying D and turning a deflection angle α in
the same direction as angle B produces line ABD ahead to E."
The
collinearity
of A, B, D
and E
follows
from two
theorems in
plane
geometry.
The first
(equivalent
in fact to
the parallel
postulate)
To extend line AB beyond an obstruction: 1. Find appropriate
states that
point C at angle α from AB direction. 2. Turn angle -2α at C
and locate point D such that CD = BC. 3. Turn angle α at D to in a triangle
locate E and extension of original line.
each
exterior
angle is
equal to the
sum of the
other two
interior
angles. The
line AB
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angles with
BC, they are
not
parallel),
say at some
point D'.
The
theorem
guarantees
that
triangle
BCD' has
equal base
angles;
therefore,
by a second
theorem,
the two
opposite
sides are
also equal,
so CD' = BC
= CD and
D' = D, so
A, B, D are
www.ams.org/publicoutreach/feature-column/fcarc-surveying-one collinear. 8/23
collinear,
and so all
four points
are. The
Handbook
goes on to
say that
distance BD
may be
calculated
as 2 BC cos
α.
Lengths and angles

A typical survey results in a map (also called "a survey"): a 2-
dimensional representation of part of the earth's surface. A map
being flat shows all points on the same level; but the surface of the
earth is rarely flat. I am not referring here to the curvature of the
earth --which large-scale surveys must take into account-- but to
the local ups and downs that every cyclist is aware of. One of the
jobs of the surveyor is to convert measurements taken on the
undulating actual surface of the planet into data that represent
positions on the ideal, perfectly level plane of the survey. As the
Handbook remarks, "Considerable practice is required for field
personnel to do accurate taping in hilly or rolling terrain."
This is the first place where trigonometry is mentioned in the

Handbook. "In reducing slope measurements to their horizontal
lengths, ..., a correction must be applied to the measured distance
equal to the difference between the hypotenuse l and side d of a
right triangle having its vertical side h." Sometimes the height
difference h between two points can be measured directly. In that
case the correction is given as Ch = h2/2l + h4/8l3. At other times
the only possible measurement is the inclination from the
horizontal of the line between the points; in terms of this angle α
(the "vertical angle") the correction is Ch = l(1 - cos α).
Trigonometry also enters into the measurement of distances when

the operation is carried out optically, using stadia lines.
This procedure is called stadia tacheometry (or tachymetry),

referring to the speed with which it can be carried out. To measure
the distance from point A to point B, the surveyor at A focuses a
telescope equipped with stadia lines on a graduated vertical rule
held by the surveyor at B. The stadia lines are two short horizontal
lines drawn above and below a central horizontal line in the focal
The first
expression
for Ch = l - d
uses the
Pythagorean
Theorem:
l - d = l - (l2
- h2)1/2 = l -
l(1 -
(h/l)2)1/2
and
Newton's
binomial
expansion (1
- x)1/2 = 1 -
Correction for slope: the tape measurement l of the distance from A to B is x/2 - x2/8 +
corrected to give the horizontal distance d between them by subtracting a
... with x =
correction term Ch given either in terms of the height difference h between
the two points or in terms of the angle α between the tape and the (h/l)2 to
horizontal.
yield Ch =
h2/2l +
h4/8l3. The
second uses
the right-
triangle
definition of
cosine: cos
α = d/l, so
d=l cos α.
plane of the telescope; these lines appear superimposed on the

image and intersect a length S ("the stadia intercept") on the rule
held at B, which can be read off by the observer. The distance
between the stadia lines is such that if the observation is made

horizontally, the distance D between A and B is 100 times the
stadia intercept: D = 100 S.
Now suppose stadia tacheometry is carried out on a slope. The

angle α of the slope between points A and B will affect the stadia
intercept.
In the slanted perspective, points on the rule seem closer to each

other than they are, so the apparent stadia intercept is too large;
multiplying it by a factor of cos α has the same effect as turning the
rule to be perpendicular to the line of sight, and corrects the
distortion due to the angle. The straight-line distance from A to B
is then D =100 S cos α. The horizontal distance from A to B will
require an additional factor of cos α , as above, while the vertical
distance is given by h = 100 S cos α sin α = 100 S (1/2) sin 2α, as
recorded in the Handbook.
Areas
From the Handbook: "Land is ordinarily bought and sold on a
basis of cost per unit area. For this reason as well as many others,
an accurate determination of tract area is often necessary." The
surveyor measures angles and distances. Once a "closed traverse"
has been accomplished, i.e. a series of line segments that comes
back to its initial point, the enclosed area (the "traverse area") may
be computed. The Handbook explains three methods: the DMD
Similar
triangles
give the
geometrical
basis for
this
procedure:
the stadia
lines are
mounted in
the
telescope
so that the
distance s
between
them is
1/100 of
their
distance d
to the
eyepiece.
The similar
triangles in
the
diagram
yield that
the ratio
D/S
between
the
distance D
to the
measuring
rod and the
observed
stadia
distance S
must equal
the ratio
d/s = 100.
Hence D =
100S.
method (for Double Meridian Distance), the coordinate method

(both of these require a rectangular coordinate system), and the
measurement of area by planimeter.
The DMD method. First some terminology: The latitude of a line

segment is "its orthographic projection onto the north-south axis
of the survey. North latitudes are considered positive, south
latitudes negative" its departure makes analogous use of the east-
west axis. In the DMD method we associate to each segment of the
traverse its meridian distance: the perpendicular distance from its
midpoint to the north-south axis. The DMD method calculates the
traverse area by mutliplying the latitude and meridian distance of
each line in the traverse, summing those products, and taking the
absolute value of the sum. (The Handbook uses the double
meridian distance, somewhat handier to calculate from the
departures of consecutive lines, and then divides by 2 at the end;
hence the name DMD).
The latitude of
line AB is minus
the length of ab,
since the line
runs south.
Hence the
product of its
latitude and its
meridian
distance is
minus the area
of the trapezoid
ABba. On the
other hand line
EF runs north,
so its latitude is
(plus) the
length of ef, and
the product:
latitude times
meridian
distance is equal
to the area of
the trapezoid
EFfe. When the
trapezoid areas
are added with
their signs, the
total gives
exactly the area
enclosed by the
traverse. If the
computation
had proceded
clockwise (e.g.
AFEDCBA), or
if the traverse
had been west
of the north-
south axis of the
survey, the total
would have
given minus the
area. The
absolute value
built into the
procedure takes
care of that
minus sign.
The coordinate method. This method uses (x,y) coordinates for all
the corners in the traverse. The procedure is "to multiply the x-
coordinate of each corner by the difference between adjacent y-
coordinates, add the resulting products, and take half the absolute
value of the sum." The Handbook gives the formula:
A = [x1(y2 - yn) + x2(y3 - y1) + ... + xn(y1 - yn-1)]/2.
The planimeter method. This method will be discussed more in

detail in next month's column. Here let me remark that the
underlying mathematics is directly related to the coordinate
method. Suppose we want to evaluate the area enclosed by a
The expression
for A may be
rewritten, by
rearranging the
terms,
A = (x1y2 -
x2y1)/2 + (x2y3 -
x3y2)/2 + ... +
(xny1 - x1yn)/2.
Suppose the
corners of the
traverse are A =
(x1,y1), B =
(x2,y2), etc.
Then the
expression x1y2 -
x2y1 is the vector
cross-product A
x B; the cross-
product is twice
the area of the
triangle OAB,
and is positive if
the smallest
turning from A
to B is counter-
clockwise. Our
rewritten
expression for A
is (A x B)/2 + (B
x C)/2 + ... (F x
A)/2 in this
example. The
contribution
from AB is
positive, since B
is counter-
clockwise from
A; but the
contribution
from DE will be
negative, since E
is clockwise
from D. When
the triangle
areas are added
with their signs,
the total gives
the area
enclosed by the
traverse.

The Handbook
recommends
writing all the
corner
coordinates in a
rectangular
array thus:
x1 x2 x3 ... xn-1
xn
y1 y2 y3 ... yn-
1 yn
taking the sum

determinantwise
of all the
downward
diagonal
products
(including xny1),
subtracting the
sum of all the
upward diagonal
products
(including ynx1),
and dividing by
2.
traverse given parametrically as x = f (t), y = g(t), for t running

from a to b, with f(a) = f(b) and g(a) = g(b). We can approximate
the curve with an n-segment polygonal line by taking Δt = (b -
a)/n, setting t0 = a , t1 = a + Δt, t2 = a + 2 Δt, ... tn = a +n Δt = b,
and considering the traverse with corners at (f(ti), g(ti)), i = 1 ... n
(note that 0 and n give the same corner) and with enclosed area
An. The Handbook's formula for the polygonal area gives
(distributing the 1/2)
An = [f(t1)[g(t2) - g(tn)]/2 + [f(t2)[g(t3) - g(t1)]/2 + ... + [f(tn)[g(t1)

- g(tn-1)]/2.
In the i-th term, the factor [g(ti+1) - g(ti-1)]/2 can be written, as a

first order approximation, as [g'(ti) (2 Δt)]/2, giving An
approximately as f(t1)g'(t1) Δt + ... + f(tn)g'(tn) Δt. In the limit as n
goes to infinity these sums converge to the integral
which planimeters are designed to compute.
Volumes
Often in construction projects large quantities of material must be
excavated at one place (a "borrow pit") to be filled in at another.
The Handbook gives a procedure for estimating the amount of
material that has been removed: The surveyors set up a horizontal
grid over the area to be excavated (grid lines lines are typically 30
or 40 feet apart). Height measurements in feet are made at all the
grid points before and after the excavation. The points are labelled
1, 2, 3 or 4 according to the number of grid rectangles they abut,
and the volume estimate is given schematically by the formula
V = (A/4) (Σ h1 + 2Σ h2 + 3Σ h3 + 4Σ h4)
where A is the area of a grid rectangle, and Σ h1 represents the sum

of all the height differences coming from grid points abutting only
1 square, Σ h2 is the sum coming from points abutting 2 squares,
etc. The Handbook's formula has an extra 27 in the denominator
to give a result in cubic yards.
Next month, Bill Casselman will have Part II of the mathematics of

surveying.
The volume
over the grid
is estimated
as a sum of
"prisms"
obtained by
linear
interpolation
between the
four heights
given at the
corners of
each grid
square. The
use of these
prisms is a 3-
dimensional
analogue of
the trapezoid
rule for
estimating
integrals of
functions of
one variable.
Each one has
volume V =
A(z1 + z2 + z3
+ z4)/4 ,
where A is
the area of
the base and
z 1, z 2 , z 3 , z 4
are the
heights at
the four
corners.
When the
volumes of
all the
prisms are
summed up,
each corner
height zi will
occur once
for each
prism that its
edge abuts,
so 1, 2, 3, or
4 times
according to
the position
of its base
point in the
grid, leading
to the
formula in
the
Handbook .
Tony Phillips
Stony Brook University
tony at math.sunysb.edu

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21/07/2023 22:21 AMS :: Feature Column from the AMS

Welcome to the Feature Column

The Mathematics of Surveying: Part I

Surveyors can work on a small scale (accurately siting the corners of a

It must be noted that at least one mathematician was a world-class

A detail of the triangulation of Hanover carried out under Gauss's supervision

laid out by Gauss himself in 1821-1825. Collected Works, Volume 9, p. 347.

"in space" are significant: surveying is an outdoor activity.

Some theorems in plane geometry

When the line needs extending through an obstruction, some more

Lengths and angles

This is the first place where trigonometry is mentioned in the

Trigonometry also enters into the measurement of distances when

This procedure is called stadia tacheometry (or tachymetry),

plane of the telescope; these lines appear superimposed on the

between the stadia lines is such that if the observation is made

Now suppose stadia tacheometry is carried out on a slope. The

In the slanted perspective, points on the rule seem closer to each

method (for Double Meridian Distance), the coordinate method

The DMD method. First some terminology: The latitude of a line

A = [x1(y2 - yn) + x2(y3 - y1) + ... + xn(y1 - yn-1)]/2.

The planimeter method. This method will be discussed more in

taking the sum

traverse given parametrically as x = f (t), y = g(t), for t running

An = [f(t1)[g(t2) - g(tn)]/2 + [f(t2)[g(t3) - g(t1)]/2 + ... + [f(tn)[g(t1)

In the i-th term, the factor [g(ti+1) - g(ti-1)]/2 can be written, as a

where A is the area of a grid rectangle, and Σ h1 represents the sum

Next month, Bill Casselman will have Part II of the mathematics of

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