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CEN-306: Foundation Engg
Lecture-12; Shallow Foundations

Mahendra Singh
Department of Civil Engineering
IIT Roorkee, Roorkee- 247667, India
mahendra.singh@ce.iitr.ac.in; msingh.civil@gmail.com
2/16/2023 Mahendra Singh, IIT Roorkee 1

Loads on Foundations

Shallow and Deep Foundations: Load Transfer mechanism

Load transfer mechanism: Deep Foundations

Shallow Foundations

General Requirements :for Foundations

General Requirements… Location..Sloping Ground

General requirements: Adjacent footings on sloping
ground

General requirements: Existing structures

Terminology

Based on Settlement

Bearing Capacity of shallow foundations: Analytical methods
• Modes of Soil Failure under • General shear failure
shallow foundation
• General shear failure
• Punching shear failure
• Local shear failure

Modes of Soil failure
• General Shear Failure
• Well compacted, high relative density,
• Well defined peak, followed by sudden drop in load carrying
capacity Brittle failure
• Well defined shear planes
• Punching shear failure (Present theory not Applicable)
• Plastic type of soil
• Soil zones beyond loaded area being little affected (No
bulging)
• Significant penetration of wedge shaped soil zone beneath the
foundation
• Poorly defined shear planes
• Local shear failure
• Has characteristic of both general and punching shear failure
• Well defined wedge and slip surface ONLY beneath the footing
• Slight bulging adjacent to the foundation
• Jerks at failure

Types of failure mechanisms in sands

Mahendra Singh

Terzaghi’s Bearing capacity Theory
Assumptions
i. Footing – Long strip footing
ii. Soil stratu: Deep,
homogenous, isotropic
iii. Shear strength : c, 
iv. Plane strain conditions: Strip
footing
v. Failure- General shear failure
vi. Load: vertical
vii. Ground surface: horizontal
viii. Footing: Shallow
ix. Shear resistance of soil
between the surface and
depth Df is neglected

Zones
• Zone-I; Wedge zone (Elastic wedge)
• Subjected to high confining stresses
• Acts if it is a part of foundn- does not fail,
• Remains in elastic equilibrium
• Zone-II: Zone of radial shear
• Fails due to push from elastic wedge
• Boundary: logarithmic spiral.
• Two sets of shear planes- one set is radial
• Zone-II: Rankine passive zone of linear shear
• Shear planes at 45-/2
• Note: Failure zones do not extend above
horizontal at depth Df. Shearing resistance of soil
above this plane is neglected
• Df is considered as surcharge
• For DfB  Error due to this assumption may be
large  Theory is strictly applicable for shallow
foundations
Equilibrium of elastic wedge
• Wedge adb (slip at angle )
• Forces (at the time of failure)
• Fc: Component of shearing
resistance due to cohesion
Fc= c. ad. 1= c. (B/2)/cos()
• Pp: Passive resistance (due to
friction); direction of Pp will be
vertical
• Weight : W
• qu
𝑞𝑢 𝐵. 1 = 2𝑃𝑝 + 2𝐹𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 0.5𝐵(0.5 𝐵. tan )

𝐵
𝑞𝑢 𝐵 = 2𝑃𝑝 + 2 𝑐. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 0.5𝐵(0.5 𝐵. tan )
2 cos 
𝑞𝑢 𝐵 = 2𝑃𝑝 + 𝐵. 𝑐. tan  − 0.25𝐵2 tan 
Total passive pressure has three components
(Terzaghi): weight, cohesion and surcharge
𝑃𝑝 = 𝑃𝑝 + 𝑃𝑝𝑐 + 𝑃𝑝𝑞
𝑃𝑝 : Produced by weight of soil in shear zone
(Neglecting c and q)
𝑃𝑝𝑐 : Produced by cohesion (Neglecting weight and q)
𝑃𝑝𝑞 : Produced by surcharge (Neglecting c and weight)

𝑞𝑢 𝐵 = 2𝑃𝑝 + 𝐵. 𝑐. tan  − 0.5𝐵2 tan 
𝑞𝑢 𝐵 = 2(𝑃𝑝 + 𝑃𝑝𝑐 + 𝑃𝑝𝑞 ) + 𝐵. 𝑐. tan  − 0.25𝐵2 tan 
𝑞𝑢
2𝑃𝑝𝑐 2𝑃𝑝𝑞 2𝑃𝑝
= + 𝑐. tan  + + − 0.25𝐵 tan 
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5  𝐵𝑁
Three Components: Cohesion, surcharge & unit weight of
elastic wedge
Imp
Ultimate B.C. depends on : c, , B, Df and 
Nc, Nq and N  Bearing capacity factors (Charts and
tables are available)

Mahendra Singh

Terzaghi’s BC equation
General
𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5  𝐵𝑁
For sand c=0; Nc=0
𝑞𝑢 = 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5  𝐵𝑁
Foundations are designed for net loads
𝑞𝑛𝑢 = 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5  𝐵𝑁 − 𝑞
𝑞𝑛𝑢 = 𝑞(𝑁𝑞 − 1) + 0.5  𝐵𝑁
For saturated clay u =0; Nc=5.7; Nq=1; N=0
𝑞𝑢 = 5.7𝑐𝑢 + 𝑞 1
𝑞𝑛𝑢 = 5.7𝑐𝑢 + 𝑞 − 𝑞 =5.7𝑐𝑢

Local Shear Failure
• No theoretical solution for local shear failure
• Empirical adjustment are suggested by Terzaghi (1943)
cm=(2/3) c;
tan (m)=(2/3) tan 
Direct values (Nc’, Nq’ and N’) – Table / chart
Guidelines for Deciding Local shear failure
Sand (c=0)
a. Relative depth-relative density relationship (diag)
b. ’36  General shear failure,
c. ’ 29  Local shear failure,
d. ’= 29-36  Interpolate between general and local shear failure.
Also
a. If Relative density > 70%  General shear failure
b. If Relative density < 20%  Local shear failure
For c- soil: Check stress-strain curve
a. Small failure strain <5%  general shear failure
b. No well defined peak even after 10 to 20% strain local shear
failure

Modifications for Square and circular footings
• Square and circular footings :
Square : 𝑞𝑢 = 1.2𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.4  𝐵𝑁
B: least dimension
Circular: 𝑞𝑢 = 1.2𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.3  𝐵𝑁
B: Diameter
Effect of water table: considered through unit
weight of soil in q and 0.5BN terms
1. If Dw’>B (Depth of failure zone B)  No

effect  use bulk unit weight in both terms
2. From Dw’= B to Dw’=0, Linearly interpolate
unit weight from bulk to sub.
′
𝐷𝑤
 = 𝑠𝑢𝑏 + ( − 𝑠𝑢𝑏 )
𝐵 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘

Water table effect
• If water table rises above the base unit
weight in q changes
• If Dw= Df =𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘
• If Dw= 0 =𝑠𝑢𝑏
𝐷𝑤
 = 𝑠𝑢𝑏 + (𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 − 𝑠𝑢𝑏 )
𝐷𝑓
For Sands if water table is at ground surface
𝑞𝑛𝑢 = 𝑞′𝑁𝑞 + 0.5 ′ 𝐵𝑁 (Effective unit weight
and effective OB; considering 𝑠𝑢𝑏  0.5 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘
almost 50% reduction is BC
Alternatively
𝑞𝑛𝑢 = 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝐷𝑓𝑁𝑞 𝑅𝑤 + 0.5 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝐵𝑁 𝑅𝑤′
(Correction factors)

Skempton’s B.C Analysis
(Clay u=0; For any depth)
• It was observed that Nc increases with depth
𝐷𝑓
Strip footing: 𝑁𝑐 = 5 1 + 0.2 7.5
𝐵
𝐷𝑓
Square footing: 𝑁𝑐 = 6 1 + 0.2 9.0
𝐵
Rectangular :
𝐷𝑓 𝐵 𝐷𝑓
𝑁𝑐 = 5 1 + 0.2 1 + 0.2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2.5
𝐵 𝐿 𝐵
𝐵 𝐷𝑓
𝑁𝑐 = 7.5 1 + 0.2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 > 2.5
𝐿 𝐵

Meyerhof’s Analysis: Alos used in IS :6403
For any depth, shape, inclination: Shearing of soil above
base level considered
qu = c Nc sc dc ic +q Nq sq dq iq + 0.5  B N s  d  i 
s,d,i = empirical correction factors for shape
(Rectangular, square, circular), depth and inclination :
Tables are available
Nc = cot  ( Nq – 1)
Nq =eptan tan2(45+/2)
N = (Nq-1) tan (1.4)

Meyerhof/ IS code

Footing with eccentric load
• Strip footing effective B’=B-2e
• Rect Footing
• B’=B-2ex
• L’=L-2ey
• Effective area = L’ x B’ is used in
place of area LxB
• e should be within B/6 or L/6

Mahendra Singh

Bearing Capacity based on Standard Penetration Test (Sand)
i. Get corrected N values
ii. Consider depth = 1.5 to 2 B
iii. Get Nav
iv. While calculating average N, discard N
wich are more than 50% of Nav.
v. However all values recorded in loose
or soft pockets are considered.
vi. Minimum of average values of
different bore holes is used in design
vii. Use N to get ’
viii. Get bearing capacity factors and
compute qu.

SPT N vs bearing capacity factor chart

Bearing capacity of granular soil from cone resistance
• Static cone resistance qc is obtained in the
field,
• Bearing capacity factor N is expressed as
𝑞𝑐 𝑘𝑔
• 𝑁 = ( )
0.8 𝑐𝑚2
• Get N  get  get Nq get qu
IS: 6403-1981  see FIG

Bearing capacity in layered soils
Only few layers are there
Case 1: If lower layer is stronger
 design will based on upper layer (weaker)
Case 2: If lower layer is weaker  Check, it
should not fail due to stresses imposed
(2V:1H dispersion is assumed)
If there are large number of layers: Weighted

average values are used
𝑐1𝐻1+𝑐2𝐻2+⋯..
cav =
𝐻1+𝐻2+⋯.
𝑡𝑎𝑛1 𝐻1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝐻2+⋯..
tan(av) =
𝐻1+𝐻2+⋯.

Factors affecting Bearing capacity
Cohesionless soil Cohesive soil
𝑞𝑢 = 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5  𝐵𝑁 • 𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐 𝑢𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞

Factors: Mainly depends on cu; surcharge
only adds up to ultimate B.C.
i. Relative density / ’
ii. Width of footing
iii. Depth of footing
iv. Unit weight of soil
v. Position of WT

Lecture-16; Settlement -Shallow
Foundations
Mahendra Singh

Settlement: Shallow Foundations
• Total settlement: Three components
• Immediate settlement: Si –Time independent
• Immediately after placing the load (1 week)
• Sand: elastic
• Clay: distortion settlement; may be negligible in
saturated clays
• Primary consolidation settlement

• Gradual dissipation of excess PWP  expulsion of
pore water
• Secondary compression settlement
• Even after dissipation of Excess PWP the settlement
continues due to re-arrangement of soil particles

A. Immediate Settlement
• Theory of elasticity is used
• Elastic parameters : E and 
1 − 2
𝑆𝑖 = 𝑞 𝐵 𝐼𝑓
𝐸
q: net foundation pressure
: Poisson’s ratio
If: Influence factor
• Rigid foundation: Very stiff compared
to soil (Concrete)
• Flexible foundation: soft; steel tank ,
earth fill, Ballast, Rock fill

Cohesive soil
• Flexible footing:
• Soil pressure will be uniform (settlement
will be non-uniform)
• Settlement will be maximum at centre;
minimum at corners
• Rigid footing:
• Settlement will be uniform (Contact
pressure will be non-uniform)
• Soil pressure will be maximum at corners
and minimum at centre

Granular soil
• E increases with confinement
• Flexible footing:
• Soil pressure will be uniform (settlement will be
non-uniform)
• Settlement will be minimum at centre; Maximum at
corners
• Rigid footing:
• Settlement will be uniform (Contact pressure will be
non-uniform)
• Soil pressure will be minimum at corners and
maximum at centre

Rigid / Flexible foundations
• Flexible footing: Soil pressure will be uniform
(settlement will be non-uniform)
• Rigid footing: Settlement will be uniform
(Contact pressure will be non-uniform)

E and : Saturated clay
Saturated Clay
• Deformation occurs under constant volume
 =0.50
• E: Secant modulus from undrained triaxial
tests over the range 3 = 0 to 0.5 BC
• Typical ranges of Modulus E

E and : Granular soil

Consolidation settlement
• Saturated clays
• Divide the subsoil strata into number of layers (depth 
2B)
• Consider the mid layer of clay layer
• Compute effective overburden above the nmid layer
before construction of footing
• Compute increase in effective pressure due to
construction of footing (dispersion 2V:1H)
• Settlement of individual clay layer
𝐻 ′0 + ′
𝑆𝑐 = 𝐶𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑔
1 + 𝑒0 ′0
or
𝑆𝑐 𝑒
=
𝐻 1 + 𝑒0

Corrections to consolidation settlement
• A: Correction for effect of three dimensional
consolidation
• Consolidation settlement
Assumption  One dimensional consolidation
There was no lateral movement of water
Excess PWP is taken equal to applied stress
This is not true in reality (water moves laterally
also)
Actual induced excess PWP applied stress
Actual settlement < Computed settlement
• Actual settlement =  x computed settlement

Corrections to consolidation settlement
B: Correction for depth of embedment
• Calculated settlement is by assuming the foundation at
surface
• Corrected settlement = computed settlement x Depth factor
(See Chart)
C: Correction for rigidity of foundation

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• 𝑅𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 0.8
𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒
• For rigid foundations the computed settlement is reduced to
0.8 x computed settlement

Seat of settlement
• Defined as stressed zone beneath a
foundation within which the stresses induced
are large enough to cause significant
settlement
• Out side this zone stresses induced are very
small
• Generally taken as zone bounded by 20%
vertical stress contour.
• Square footing  1.5 B
• Strip footing  3B
• For important structures- 10% contour
• Square footing  2B
• Strip footing  6B

Settlement of Foundations on Granular Soils
• Clays  Laboratory tests
• Sand Lab tests are difficult
In-situ tests
• Plate load test
• SPT
• SCPT

PLT: Settlement Computation (Granular soil)
Cohesion less soil: For same load intensity
2
𝑆𝑓 𝐵𝑓 (𝐵𝑝 + 0.30)
=
𝑆𝑝 𝐵𝑝 (𝐵𝑓 + 0.30)
𝑆𝑓 =Settlement of footing; 𝑆𝑝 =Settlement of plate at same load
intensity
Water table correction (If WT rises after the test)
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Corrected settlement = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
• Peck, Hanson and Thornburn, (1974)

𝐷𝑤
𝐶𝑤 = 0.5 + 0.5 ; Dw=Depth of water table below ground surface
𝐷𝑓 +𝐵
• IS Code (IS 8009, part-1, 1976)

𝐷𝑤′
𝐶𝑤 = 0.5 + 0.5 1; Dw’: Depth of water table below base of
𝐵
footing

Settlement from SPT (Granular soil)
• IS: 8009, Part-1 (1976)
• Get Nav
• For given N and foundation width, read
settlement per unit pressure
• Obtain settlement for net pressure
• Correct settlement for water table
𝐷𝑤′
𝐶𝑤 = 0.5 + 0.5 1; Dw’: Depth of
𝐵
water table below base of footing

Settlement from Static Cone Penetration Test
• Divive stratum into layers
• Get average value of cone penetration
resistance for each layer
• For mid of each layer
• Compressibility coefficient
𝑞𝑐
C = 1.5( ′ )
0
• Settlement of each layer
𝐻 ′0 + ′
S = 2.3 log( )
𝐶 ′0

Allowable settlement
• Modes/types of
settlements
• Uniform
• Non uniform /
Angular distortion
(Differential
settlement)
• Tilt

Permissible Settlement

Allowable bearing ressure
• Maximum bearing pressure such
that the two fundamental
requirements (shear failure and
settlement) are satisfied:;
• Generally “settlement” governs
the design
• Peck, Hanson and Thornburn
(1974) CHARTS
• Combined both bearing capacity
and settlement computation
• Initial straight line  Safe
bearing capacity (FOS=2),
horizontal portion gives safe
bearing pressure for permissible
settlement of 25 mm.

• Allowable bearing pressure from
settlement consideration
• qa-net = 0.44 Cw N Sa KN/m2
𝐷𝑤
• 𝐶𝑤 = 0.5 + 0.5 ;
𝐷𝑓 +𝐵
Dw=Depth of water table below
ground surface

Proportioning of Footings
• Obtain dead load , Live load and other loads (wind loads,
seismic loads)
• Clay: only about half of live load (not permanent) is considered (long term
settlement)
• Coarse grained soils (instant load) maximum live load is considered
• Square footing  only axial load (no moment), otherwise 
rectangular
• Assume dimension of the footing (Strip, square, rectangular)
• Obtain net loading intensity (qn)
• Compare qn with qa-net
• If qn>qa-net unsafe redesign
• If qn<qa-net safe  OK
• If qn<<qa-net Over safe  redesign
• Compute differential settlement  should be within limits
• Check against sliding (FOS>1.75) and overturning (FOS>2.0)
• Apply special checks (footing on slopes)

Lecture-16; Vertical stresses below applied loads
Mahendra Singh

Boussinesq Equations
• Based on theory of elasticity
• Point load; Consider element at radial distance R; Angle from vertical

• Element dimensions: R. d x dR
• Due to point load: Face (1) displaced by amount s
• Face (2) displaced by s1
If R is small  displacement will be large
If R is large  displacement will be small
• displacement 1/R
• If =0 disp = large
• If =90 disp = small (zero)
• Disp cos()
cos()
• Disp  cos()/R=C
R
cos() cos()
• s=C ; s1=C
R R+dR
s−s1 cos() 1 1 cos() cos()
• strain= =C − =C 2 C
dR dR 𝑅 𝑅+𝑑𝑅 𝑅 +𝑑𝑅 𝑅2
E C cos()
• Stress R =E x strain = 2 𝑅

E C cos()
• R = 𝑅2
• Vertical component of load on
annular ring
• dQ=2  (𝑅 sin ) 𝑅. 𝑑 𝑅 cos()
Put value of R
dQ=2  𝐸𝑐 sin  𝑐𝑜𝑠 2  𝑑
/2
Q= න 2  𝐸𝑐 sin  𝑐𝑜𝑠 2  𝑑
0
2 𝐸𝑐 3𝑄
𝑄 =  E c = 2
3
𝑧
R =
E C cos()
=
3Q cos() z=R cos R = 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑅2 2  𝑅2
3𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 
Vertical component: 𝑧 = 2 𝑧 2
z = 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2  𝟑𝑸 𝟏 𝟓/𝟐 𝑄
 𝒛 = 𝟐𝒛𝟐 𝟏+ 𝒓/𝒛 𝟐 = 𝑧 2 𝐾𝐵
3𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 
𝑧 = KB=Boussinesq Influence factor
2 𝑅 2
𝟑 𝟏 𝟓/𝟐
=𝟐 𝟏+ 𝒓/𝒛 𝟐

Vertical stress distribution diagrams
A: Pressure bulb /Isobar
• Line joining points of equal vertical stress below
ground surface.
To get isobar of 10%
5/2
3𝑄 1
0.1 𝑄 = 2
2𝑧 2 𝑟
1+
𝑧
B: VERTICAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION ON A PLANE AT
DEPRTH Z
• z is constant; r varies from – to + 
• For r= 0; z= maximum; r, z0
B: VERTICAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION WITH DEPTH

• Keep r = constant
• Increase z

Vertical stress below Loaded Area:
A:At depth z Below the center of a
line load
𝒒
𝒛 =
𝒛

Line load
B: At depth z and offset x away
from line load
𝟐𝒒
𝒛 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟒 β
𝒛

Uniformly loaded circular area
𝟏
𝒛 = 𝒒 𝟏 −
(𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐/𝒛𝟐)𝟑/𝟐

Under corner of a rectangular footing
z=q I
I influence value

For a point inside area
I = I1+I2+I3+I4
For a point outside area - A

1254= A713-A746-
A823+A856

Newmark’s chart
• Graphical solution of Boussinesque equation
(For irregular area)
• Elemental areas (nearly square) Influence
areas
• A uniform load q over one influence area
produces stress equal to influence value xq
• To get vertical stress at depth z below an
irregular area– Draw the plan such that the
distance AB represents depth z (Use tracing
paper)
• Outline of the plan area is superimposed over
the influence chart such that point O
coincides with the centre of the chart.
• Count the enclosed influence areas- N
• z= N x q x influence value
Lecture-18; Pile Foundations
Mahendra Singh

Pile Foundations
• Shallow foundations: Cheaper
• If adequate capacity is not available/suitability (scouring) 
Deep foundations  Pile / well
Pile: Small diameter shaft which is “driven” or “installed” into the
ground by suitable means
• Generally they are provided in groups;
• Subjected to vertical, horizontal loads or combination.
SOME CONDITIONS THAT REQUIRE PILE FOUNDATIONS
A. One or more upper soil layers are highly compressible or too
weak to support the load
a. hard stratum is available  End bearing pile End bearing pile
Weak
b. Hard stratum is not available at reasonable depth  layer
friction pile,
Rock

SOME CONDITIONS THAT REQUIRE PILE
FOUNDATIONS…. Contd
B. Horizontal forces – Tall buildings/ Erath
retaining structures  Laterally loaded
piles Bending of piles
C. To resist uplift forces
Transmission towers
Off shore structures
Basement below water table
D. Bridge Pier/ Abutments/ Erosion

Load to be transferred below maximum
scour depth

Functions/ Uses of piles
• End bearing: Resistance is offered due to
bearing
• Friction pile:
• Laterally loaded pile
• Batter pile: not vertical; driven at some angle
with the vertical
• Compaction pile: small piles to densify the
loose deposits/ landslide site
• Tension pile: to resists uplift
• Anchor pile: to provide anchorage against
horizontal pull
• Anti slide pile: landslide site

Types of piles D. Mode of Load Transfer
• Bearing
• Friction
A: Based on material • Tension
• Steel pile • Anchor
• Concrete E. Method of construction/ installation
• Pre-cast • Driven: Timber, steel, pre-cast concrete
• Bored cast in-situ • Bored cast in-situ
• Cased pile: steel casing is driven; • Concrete pile is cast at site
reinforcement is place; and filled with • Driven cast in-situ
concrete • Casing is driven and filled up with concrete
• Uncased pile: Casing is withdrawn E. Effect of Installation of Pile
B. Based on Cross section • Displacement
• Circular • Soil gests displaced Initially Loose/ dense????
• Square • For sand 2=(1+40)/2 Thumb rule
• Hexagonal • Non displacement pile
• I section • No displacement of soil occurs  A void is formed
• H section
and filled with concrete
C. Based on shape • Walls of void may be supported temporarily (drilling
• Cylindrical mud, bentonite) or permanently using steel casing
• Tapered
• Under-reamed

Lecture-19; Pile Foundations
Mahendra Singh

Pile Load capacity: Compression
Qu
Methods
• Static pile formula
• Pile load tests
• Pile driving formulae Qf
• Correlation with penetration data
Static Pile Load Formulae
Maximum load the pile can support Qp tip of pile
Qu=Qpu+Qf
If Qpu>>Qf  “Point bearing” or “End bearing” pile • Relative movement required for mobilizing
If Qf >> Qpu  “Friction” pile skin friction  0.5 to 1% of shaft daia
• Relative movement required for mobilizing
Imp Note: Displacement to mobilize end bearing >> base resistance  10 to 20% of shaft daia
displacement required to mobilize skin friction
Mobilization of peak skin friction and peak end
bearing do not occur simultaneously

General Equation for end bearing and Skin friction
𝑞𝑝𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5 𝐵 𝑁
B: dia of pile
B=Generally the term “0.5𝐵 𝑁” is very small
and hence neglected
𝑞𝑝𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞
𝑄𝑝𝑢 = 𝑞𝑝𝑢 𝐴𝑏
For granular soil, c=0 𝑞𝑝𝑢 = 𝑞𝑁𝑞

For saturated clay, c=cu & u = 0; 𝑞𝑝𝑢 = 𝑐𝑢𝑁𝑐
Skin friction 𝑄𝑓 = 𝑓𝑠 𝐴s
fs=unit skin friction resistance ; 𝐴s=surface area
of shaft
𝑸𝒇 = 𝑸𝒑𝒖 + 𝑸𝒇

PILES IN GRANULAR SOIL: DRIVEN PILES
c’=0;
𝑸𝒖 = 𝑸𝒑𝒖 + 𝑸𝒇
END BEARING
𝑞𝑝𝑢 = 𝑞𝑁𝑞
𝑁𝑞  Terzaghi analysis was for
shallow foundations, not applicable
to piles Other equations are
available
IS 2911, Part-1, 1979
 +40
For driven piles  = 𝑖𝑛−𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑢
2
Some designers take  = 𝑖𝑛−𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑢

Critical depth of pile
• 𝑞𝑝𝑢 = 𝑞𝑁𝑞
• 𝑞 = L  q increases with depth
• Practically q increases with depth upto a
limited depth, beyond which it remains
constant  critical depth
Arching phenomenon
Transfer of load to adjoining soil mass
Critical depth = f(’, D)
 15 D (loose to medium sand)
 20 D (dense sand)
Berezantsev et al. (1961)  Chart

Skin Friction (Driven Piles/ Granular soil)
= friction angle between soil and pile material
𝑓𝑠 = ℎ tan 
ℎ = 𝐾ഥ  =effective vertical stress)
(ഥ
𝑓𝑠 = 𝐾ഥ  tan   varies with depth
Average unit friction = 𝑓𝑠(𝑎𝑣)
𝑸𝒖 = 𝑓𝑠(𝑎𝑣) . 𝐴𝑠1 + 𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥) . 𝐴𝑠2 h
𝐴𝑠1 = 𝐷 𝐿𝑐𝑟 (Surface area)
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑄𝑢 /𝐹𝑂𝑆 fsmax
Values of K and 
Pile material  K (Loose sand) K (Dense sand)
Steel 20 0.5 1.0
Concrete 0.75  1.0 2.0
Timber 0.67  1.5 4.0

Bored Cast-in-situ Driven Cast in situ
• Soil is excavated through boring/ • A casing is driven first- soil is displaced
drilling not excavated
• Adjoining soil gets disturbed • If casing is left (Cased Pile)  design as
driven pile
• reduce  by  3
• If casing is taken out  Skin friction
• K = 1-sin  will depend on compaction of
• = (if slurry is used during drilling,  concrete
is decreased) • If no compaction treat as loose soil
• If compacted well  treat as medium
• Bulb can be provided to increase end dense soil
bearing. IMP: In previous analysis, structurally the pile
is considered to very strong as compared to
soil.

Piles in Clay Qu
Generally offers resistance through skin friction

• Total stress approach is applied (cu>0, u=0)
Qu=Qpu+Qf Qf
Bearing for clays : 𝑞𝑝𝑢 = 𝑐𝑢𝑏 𝑁𝑐 (𝑁𝑐 =9, Skempton)
• Qpu=𝑐𝑢𝑏 𝑁𝑐 𝐴𝑏
Skin Friction: Adhesion between soil and concrete will not be 100% of cu.
Adhesion factor  is used.
Qpu tip of pile
• 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑐𝑢
• Qf=𝑐𝑢 𝐴𝑠 (As=Surface area; cu and cub may be different)
Ultimate load carrying capacity
Qu=𝑐𝑢𝑏 𝑁𝑐 𝐴𝑏 + 𝑐𝑢 𝐴𝑠
Layered soil – Clay/ Sand/ …..
For bearing stratum:

Pile should be embedded at least 5D inside the bearing stratum

Lecture-19; Pile Load Tests
Mahendra Singh

Load Tests on Pile Load
Load test in field- 2nd approach to
get Qu
• Most reliable method to find load carrying
capacity
• Design is generally done based on earlier
method,
• Tests are conducted in field to ensure the
validity of design.
Tests
In-situ test: Very useful for GRANULAR soil,
For cohesive soil  pore pressure development
during pile driving
Types of Tests-A
• Vertical load tests (compression)
• Lateral Load test
• Pull out test

Types of Tests -B Routine test:
Initial test: done on test pile, minimum 2 for Working pile; ½ % of total number of piles is
tested.
200 piles
• Test pile is not used to support the Test load = Whichever is earlier:
structure 1.5 Qsafe
• Minimum load = twice the safe load or the Or 12 mm settlement (Single pile)
load for which settlement is Or 40 mm settlement (group)
• 10% of pile dia (for single pile)
• 40 mm for pile group.

Test Procedure
• Loading arrangement
• Hydraulic jack
• Dial gauges (0.02 mm, at least three),
Supported on bars at least 5 times
diameter away
• Apply incremental load  Maintain load
till settlement rate < 0.1 mm / hr or at
least 1 hr
• Load is applied is steps and settlement
recorded upto 2 times Qsafe
• Plot the load vs settlement curve
• Allowable load: Lesser of the two:
• 2/3 of load for which settlement = 12mm
• Half of the load at which settlement =
10%Dia of pile or 7.5% of bulb dia. (under-
reamed)

Vertical cyclic pile load test
• Used to separate the pile load into skin
friction and point bearing
• Performed on test pile (Initial test)
• Load is applied in 20% increments of
estimated safe load
• Loading and unloading is done at each
stage
• Elastic rebound is measured
• Loading is continued till 2.5 times the safe
load or failure, whichever is earlier.
• Load transfer mechanism 
 initially only friction is mobilized,
 after the entire length develops friction,
end bearing starts to increase.
 At certain vertical load, frictional
resistance becomes constant and only
end bearing increases till failure.

Cyclic ….
• Total settlement of pile
• S = Se+Sp
• Se=elastic settlement  due to elastic recovery of pile
material and elastic recovery of soil at base of pile
• Sp=plastic settlement
• Beyond the point when entire length contributes towards
friction 
• Q = Qf+Qp
Total settlement of pile at a load = l+Sb
• l= compression of pile
• Sb= compression of soil at base
• Elastic compression of soil at base (𝑆𝑒 )+ plastic compression
soil at base (𝑆𝑏 )
•  𝑆𝑏 = 𝑆𝑒 + 𝑆𝑏
• Considering pile material to be fully elastic (recoverable)
• 𝑆𝑒 = 𝑆𝑒 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒 (𝑙)
𝑄𝑓
(𝑄− )
l is given as 𝑙 = 2
𝐴𝐸

Steps to separate friction and point bearing
i. Compute elastic recovery at each load level Q1, Q2…
ii. As first trial, assume no compression in pile (l=0) obtain
Elastic compression of soil at base 𝑆𝑒 = 𝑆𝑒 − 𝑙. Plot
curve-I.
iii. Curve I is curvilinear initially and then linear (Qp increses
linearly with elastic compression of soil at base)
iv. Draw line from origin parallel to strain part of curve-I. At
each load level obtain skin friction and point resistance
(Note: skin friction will be constant after some load)
v. Now using the𝑄skin friction at each load, obtain l for each
𝑓
(𝑄− )
load 𝑙 = 2
𝐴𝐸
vi. Now use this l and go to step-ii, obtain elastic compression
of soil at base for each load.
vii. Again draw curve between load and elastic compression of
soil at base, get skin friction.
viii. Repeat the steps till sufficiently accurate values are
obtained. Third trial would give sufficiently accurate value
for practical purposes.

Lecture-21; Dynamic Pile Formulae
Mahendra Singh

Axial pile load carrying capacity
Method 3: Dynamic Pile Formula
Hammer – Impact  Energy
 Work done in overcoming resistance of ground
to penetration of pile + loss of energy due to
elastic compression of pile , pile cap and soil.
𝑄𝑢 𝑆 ′ = 𝑊𝐻 (𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟)

H: drop of hammer
W: Weight of hammer
S’= theoretical set (cm/blow)
S=final set (cm/blow) taken from last 5 blows of drop
hammer
A. Engineering News Formula
𝑊𝐻
𝑄𝑎 =
𝐹(𝑆 + 𝐶)
F=FOS=6
C= empirical factor allowing reduction in theoretical
set due to energy loss=2.5 for drop hammer (Q: Kg; S
cm/blow)
Modified Hiley Formula
𝑊ℎ
• 𝑄𝑢 =
𝑆+𝐶/2
W: Weight of hammer in tonnes
h: effective fall of hammer
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡
: efficiency of blow=
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
S= final set = penetration / blow (cm)
C=total elastic compression= C1+C2+C3
C1= temporary elastic compression of dolly
and packing
C2=Temporary elastic compression of pile
C3= Temporary elastic compression of soil

Axial pile load carrying capacity
Method 4: Correlations with penetration test data SPT/ SCPT
Point resistence Skin Friction
Driven piles in sand Based on SCPT
• Based on SCPT • Displacement piles
𝑞𝑐(𝑎𝑣)
Unit point bearing resistance, 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
2
𝑞𝑝𝑢 = 𝑞𝑐 • I/ H piles
𝑞𝑐(𝑎𝑣)
𝑞𝑐 = Static cone penetration resistance 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
4
Value has to be taken for last 3D length of pile
𝑞𝑐(𝑎𝑣) =Average cone resistance over the
• Based on SPT length of the pile
𝑞𝑝𝑢 = 40 𝑁
𝐿
𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 • Based on SPT
𝐷
N: SPT number without OB correction • Displacement piles
L = length of pile 𝑓𝑠 = 2 𝑁𝑎𝑣 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
D = width or dia of pile • I/ H piles
𝑓𝑠 = 𝑁𝑎𝑣 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
IS Code provides similar expressions

Under-reamed pile
• Bulb is provided (one or more than one) to enhance the
capacity
• Single under-reamed pile
• Multi-under-reamed pile
A. Clayey Soil
𝑄𝑢 = 𝐴𝑝 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑝 + 𝐴𝑎 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑎′ + 𝑐𝑎′ 𝐴′𝑠 + 𝑐𝑎 𝐴𝑠
𝐴𝑝 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
𝑁𝑐 = 9
𝑐𝑝 =cohesion of soil around toe
𝐴𝑎 = (𝐷𝑢2 − 𝐷2 )/4
𝑐𝑎′ =cohesion around under-reamed bulbs
𝐴′𝑠 =surface area of cylinder circumscribing the under-
reamed bulbs
=adhesion factor
𝐴𝑠 =surface area of stem
Single pile
𝑄𝑢 = 𝐴𝑝 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑝 + 𝐴𝑎 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑎′ + 𝑐𝑎 𝐴𝑠 (neglect friction 𝑐𝑎′ 𝐴′𝑠 )

Sandy soil
Point Bearing
𝑞𝑢𝑝1 = 𝑞1𝑁𝑞1 + 0.5  𝐷 𝑁 ; Area =𝐴𝑝
𝑞𝑢𝑝2 = 𝑞2𝑁𝑞2 + 0.5  𝐷𝑢 𝑁 ; Area =𝐴𝑎 = (𝐷𝑢2 − 𝐷 2 )/4
Friction
1. Stem portion:
Get critical depth;
Draw Variation of OB
Get fsav and fsmax
𝑄𝑓_𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑓𝑠𝑎𝑣 𝜋𝐷𝐿𝑐𝑟 + 𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜋𝐷𝐿2 (USE  and D)
2. Bulb portion
𝑄𝑓_𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏 = (𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑟𝑓𝑠𝑎𝑣 ) 𝜋𝐷𝑢 𝐿3 (USE  and Du)
For Single Bulb: Neglect additional friction along bulb

Group Action of piles
• Driven piles : Single pile  Difficult to
maintain location exactly below the column
or wall  Eccentricity develops provided in
groups
• Bored cast in-situ piles  single or group may
be provided as per requirement
• Pile cap Re-inforced slab above group of
piles
• Free standing pile group  If base of pile cap
is above ground surface  pile cap does not
directly transfer load to ground (entire load is
transferred through piles only)

Ultimate load capacity of pile group
• Single pile: Stressed zone
• Closely spaced piles Overlapping of zones 
Highly stressed zones
•  Qug for group < sum of individual Qu of
individual pile
𝑄𝑢𝑔
• Group efficiency  =
𝑛 𝑄𝑢
• Generally  <1
• However for loose to medium sand 
densification may occur (driven piles)  group
efficiency may be >1
• Generally < 1 and it increases with spacing
• If spacing is very large  Design of pile cap may
be uneconomical
• IS: 2911 Min spacing = 2.5 D (point bearing)
=3.0 D (friction pile)
Loose deposits: Spacing = 2D.

Pile Groups in Clay
Failure mode
• Block failure (Closely spaced)
• Individual pile failure (Widely spaced)
Block Failure
𝑄𝑝𝑢 = 𝐴𝑏 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑢𝑏
𝑄𝑓 = 𝑃𝑏 𝐿𝑐𝑢
Where: Pb: Perimeter of block
Cu = Average undrained strength of clay along the
length of the block
𝑄𝑢𝑔 = 𝑄𝑝𝑢 + 𝑄𝑓
For individual failure

𝑄𝑢𝑔 = 𝑛𝑄𝑢

Pile groups in Sand
Similar procedure
• Driven piles- Loose sand- closer spacing 
Efficiency >1
• For higher spacing ( 5 to 6 times pile dia)  
approaches 1.
• Driven piles – Dense sand   may be <1.
• Generally =1 is used.

Settlement of pile group: Clays
Pile Group in Clay: Equivalent raft approach
• Case -1 Bored or end bearing piles on firm
stratum load is transferred at the end
• Case 2: Displacement or friction pile in
homogeneous clay  Load is transferred along
the length of pile (entire length of pile
contributes)
• Case 3: Soft clay stratum underlain by hard
bearing stratum

Settlement of pile group: Sands
Settlement of pile group is correlated with
settlement of single pile.
• Driven piles, (Skempton, 1953)
𝑆𝑔 4𝐵+2.7 2
Settlement ratio =
𝑆𝑖 𝐵+3.6
B: width of pile group in m;
Si: Settlement from individual test;
• Meyerhof (1959)
𝑠
𝑆𝑔 𝑠(5− )
• Settlement ratio = 3
1 2
𝑆𝑖 (1+𝑟)
• s= ratio of pile spacing to pile diameter

• R=No. of rows in the pile group.

Negative Skin Friction
• Filled up, loose unconsolidated layer
•  Move downward
• Drags force is applied on pile (Negative friction)
• Reduces the load carrying capacity
Computation of negative friction
Cohesive soil : single pile
𝐹𝑛 = 𝑃 𝐿𝑐 𝑐𝑢
Group of pile
For individual pile failure: 𝐹𝑛𝑔 = 𝑛𝐹𝑛
For block failure: 𝐹𝑛𝑔 = 𝑃𝑔 𝐿𝑐 𝑐𝑢 + 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘
Consider Higher value in design
𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝐹𝑂𝑆 =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Cohesionless soil: single pile
𝑓𝑠 = 𝐾  ℎ tan 
𝐹𝑛 = 𝑃 𝐿𝑐 𝑓𝑠𝑎𝑣

Lecture-22; Infinite slopes
Mahendra Singh

PLT / TS-6
Load Intensity, kN/m2
Load Axis Title
Load, kN intensity D1(mm) D2(mm) D3(mm) D4(mm) 1(mm) 2(mm) 3(mm) 4(mm) av (mm) 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
0 0.0 9.41 8.18 12.71 49.23 0 0 0 0 0.00

25 277.8 9.21 8.83 13.46 0.09 -0.2 0.65 0.75 0.86 0.52
5
50 555.6 10.61 9.2 13.87 0.44 1.2 1.02 1.16 1.21 1.15
75 833.3 10.21 9.73 13.53 1.17 0.8 1.55 0.82 1.94 1.28
100 1111.1 10.71 10.24 14.26 1.78 1.3 2.06 1.55 2.55 1.87 10
125 1388.9 11.25 11.74 16.23 2.76 1.84 3.56 3.52 3.53 3.11
Settlement, mm
150 1666.7 12.09 11.65 17.82 4.23 2.68 3.47 5.11 5 4.07 15
175 1944.4 12.52 12.06 18.22 5.48 3.11 3.88 5.51 6.25 4.69
225 2500.0 14.05 13.58 22.54 8.48 4.64 5.4 9.83 9.25 7.28 20
250 2777.8 15.45 14.01 23.25 9.17 6.04 5.83 10.54 9.94 8.09
300 3333.3 17.24 16.88 27.86 13.41 7.83 8.7 15.15 14.18 11.47
25
350 3888.9 29.9 19.56 31.9 17.1 20.49 11.38 19.19 17.87 17.23
400 4444.4 21.7 21.95 35.82 20.63 12.29 13.77 23.11 21.4 17.64
450 5000.0 25.71 25.25 38.62 24.29 16.3 17.07 25.91 25.06 21.09 30
500 5555.6 27.29 27.95 42.86 27.31 17.88 19.77 30.15 28.08 23.97
550 6111.1 30.55 31.53 46.15 30.27 21.14 23.35 33.44 31.04 27.24

Slope:
Ground is not always horizontal : Inclined, Steep, Unstable
Mahendra Singh, IIT Roorkee 3

Mining slope Road cut

Man made slope Natural slope

Instability
• In all slopes some forces tend to move the mass from high
points to low points.
• This tendency is called instability
• If actual movement of soil mass occurs, it is termed slope
failure.
Important factors causing instability:
1. Gravitational force,
2. Force due to seepage of water,
3. Erosion of the surface of slope due to flowing water,
4. Sudden lowering of water adjacent to a slope,
5. Forces due to earthquake.

Factors causing instability
Erosion/ undercutting

Stability Block on inclined surface
• Consider Block on inclined surface
Assuming cohesion =0
Limiting friction =  W cos 
Tangential Force =W sin 
For stability, compare Limiting friction with
tangential force
If inclination  is small
 W sin  <  W cos   Stable
For large   unstable
Sliding and/or toppling can occur
One can work out the conditions
• Neither SLD or TOP
• SLD but not Toppling
• Toppling but not sliding
• SLD & Top both

Basic mechanism: Aspects of slope stability analysis
• The actuating forces induce shearing A. Limit equilibrium method
stresses throughout the soil mass. • It is assumed that failure is on the verge
of occurring along an assumed or known
• Unless the shearing resistance on every failure surface.
possible failure surface within the soil
mass is larger than the shearing stress, • Shearing resistance required to maintain
failure will occur in the form of mass equilibrium is compared with the
movement of soil along a slip surface. available shearing strength of the soil.
• The shearing resistance is derived • Ratio of the available shear strength to
mainly from the shear strength of the the mobilized shearing resistance is the
soil and from other natural factors such average factor of safety along that
as roots of plants, lenses of ice etc. particular slip surface.
C. Plane strain condition D. Rupture surface
• Applicable only if true when the • For failure all the shearing strength
length of the slope is large along the rupture surface must be
compared to its cross-section. overcome.
• Unit thickness is considered, • Infinite number of potential failure
ignoring the strains in the surfaces are possible.
perpendicular direction.
• Failure occurs along the critical
• Such a two-dimensional analysis
gives conservative value of factor of surface having minimum FOS.
safety for an actual three-
dimensional problem.

Types of safety factors:
• The mobilised shearing resistance is
Shear strength (Maximum) is given given as:
as:
c' tan  '
 f  c '  n ' tan '   n '
Fs Fs
Say  = Average value of mobilised
shearing resistance Mobilised cohesion and angle of
Fs = Factor of safety with respect internal friction as:
to shearing strength
 f c '  n 'tan  ' c' tan  
tan  '
Fs   c 
 
m
m
F Fs
s
'
  cm   ' tan m
Example
If the factors of safety with Given: For a potential failure surface the shear
respect to cohesion and friction strength parameters of a soil are:
are different, mobilised shearing c’ = 30kPa; ’ = 15; cm’=18kPa; m’=12.
resistance : Average ’ = 100 kPa.
Compute: FOS with respect to shear strength,
c' tan  ' cohesion and friction: Extreme values of Fc
 n '
and F
Fc F
Solution:
Where: Fc and F are factors of Average shearing strength along the failure
safety with respect to cohesion surface
and friction respectively. f = c’ + ’ tan ’
f = 30+100 tan 15 = 56.79 kPa
Average value of mobilised shearing
resistance:
  cm'   n 'tan m
  c   'tan 
'
m m Extreme values:
= 18+100 tan 12 = 39.25 kPa To get extreme value of Fc put F
equal to one in expression for
FOS w.r.t. shearing strength:
mobilised shearing resistance.
 56.79
F    1.45
f
s
 39.25 c' tan  '
   '
F F
c ' 30 c
F    1.67
c 18'
c ' 100
c
m
 39.25   tan15 o
1 F
tan  '
F   1.26  F  2.89
tan  '
m

Similarly to get extreme value of
F, put Fc equal to one in
expression for mobilised shearing
resistance.
c' tan  '
  ' n
Fc
F
c ' 100
 39.25   tan15 o
Fc
1
 F  2.40
Similarly any other combination can be
worked out.

INFINITE SLOPE IN SAND
Vertical stress on inclined plane
( z )b cos   1     z cos 
 
b 1
v
v
   z cos 
'
n
2
   z cos  sin 
Shear strength along the plane (for sand c’=0) 
  c '  tan  '
f
'
n
  z cos  tan  '

2
𝑧 cos2 𝑡𝑎𝑛′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛′

Fs= =
𝑧 cos 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛
• To keep slope stable (FOS>1);  should be < ’

• FOS DOES NOT CHANGE WITH DEPTH

Infinite Slope: c- SOIL
v =Hcos 
n' =  HCos2
 =Hcos Sin
f = c' + n ' tan '
 f =c'+ H Cos2 tan  ' Critical Depth beyond which slope is
unstable (Useful for talus slopes)
f c'+ H Cos2 tan  '
FS =  Considering  > ’ and limiting case (depth =
 Hcos Sin
critical depth, Hc):
𝑐′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛′
Fs= +
𝐻 cos 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = f
Imp:  Hc cos  sin  =c’+ Hc cos2 tan’
𝑐′
1. The FOS decreases with depth. Hc=
 cos2 𝑡𝑎𝑛−𝑡𝑎𝑛′
2. If < ’  FOS>1 for all H values
3. If >’  FOS = ??? Maye be safe at small H If hard stratum is available within critical
depth stable
and unsafe at large H
Concept of Stability Number Ns  mobilised cohesion
Again considering  > ’ 1/ allowable height
For stable slope putting
c' tan  '
Mobilised shearing resistance  = f cm  and '
tan m 
Fc F
 H cos  sin = cm+ H cos2 tanm
If F is one
 c m  Hcos [sin-cos tanm ]
c'
cm Ns   Cos2  tan-tan ' 
  Cos2  tan-tanm   Ns Fc H
H
Ns= stability number (dimensionless) Stability number defines relationship

between different parameters to keep the
slope stable

Infinite Slope With Seepage
• A. Seepage through Ground surface
Normal stress at the shearing plane:
n’=(sat-w)H cos2
 = sub H cos2
c '   sub tan  '  c m' 
2
 c os   tan    cos  sin   sub cos2  tan m'
  satH  sat
FShear

c satH stress   sat F 
= satH cos sin   
 cos2   tan   sub tan m' 
For stable slope, mobilised shearing   sat 
resistance Puting
c' tan  '
f = cm’+n’ tan m’ cm  and '
tan m 
Fc F
= cm’+ (sub H cos2) tan m’
Equating  and f c' 2
  sub tan  ' 
 c os   tan   
cm’+(subH cos2) tan m’= satH cos sin Fc  satH   sat F 
Infinite slope with partial
seepage
n’=(tH1+sub H2) cos2
H2 = H –H1
  tH1 H  H1  
Shear stress  = (tH1+ sat H2) cos sin    tan  
cm ' 
 satH H 
For stable slope  c os2   
 satH   H  (H  H )  
 = cm’+n’ tan m’    t 1  sub 1
 tan m 
   satH  satH  
cm’+(tH1+sub H2) cos2 tan m’
For F =1
= (tH1+ sub H2) cos sin
cm’= (tH1+sat H2) cos sin   H1  sat   t  
 1   tan  
- (tH1+ sub H2) cos2 tanm’ Ns 
c '
 c os2  
 H  sat  
Fc  satH   H1  t   sub  
Putting H2=H-H1   sub
  tan  ' 
   sat H  sat  
COMPLETELY SUBMERGED
SLOPE
n’=subH cos2
Shearing stress
 = subH cos sin (Not sat)
'
cm
 cos2   tan   tan m
'

 subH
For stable slope, mobilised shearing
resistance If Fc  F  Fs
f = cm’+n’ tan m’ cm 2  '
tan m 
 cos   tan   
= cm’+ (sub H cos2) tan m’ Fs  subH  Fs 
Equating  and f If F  1
cm’+(subH cos2) tan m’= subH cos sin
c'
Ns   cos2   tan   tan  '
Fc  subH

Example: • Solution
Given for an infinite slope: e = 0.67; G =2.7
G w 2.7x9.81
d    15.86kN / m3
c’ = 30 kN/m2,  = 25; ’=22; 1  e 1  0.67
e=0.67; G=2.7.  (G  e) 9.81x(2.7  0.67)
 sat  w   19.79kN / m3
To compute stability number and 1 e 1  0.67
critical height of the slope for sub = 19.79-9.81 = 9.98 kN3
(i) dry condition; (i) Dry soil mass
(ii) water seeping through the entire Ns = cos225 (tan 25 –tan 22) = 0.051
mass; c'
Ns   Cos2  tan-tan ' 
Fc H
(iii) water table 2 m below the
ground surface;
c' c'
(iv) slope is completely submerged. 0.051  H  37.09m
Fc H 0.051

• Seepage through entire soil mass • water table 2 m below the ground
surface

H1  sat   t  
c '
2   '   1   tan  
Ns   c os   tan   sub
tan   c '
2 
H  sat  
Fc  satH   sat  Ns  Fc  satH  c os     
H   
   sub  1 t sub
 tan  ' 
 9.98     sat H  sat  
Ns  c os2 25  tan25  tan '  for F  1
 19.79  For critical height Fc =1. The term H is
coming on both sides:
NS = 0.216 Trial are required; Start with some
assumed value of H
Critical height Hc =30/(19.79x0.216) Say H =35; Putting the values
=7.02 m Ns = 0.21  Hc = 7.21
Again put H = 7.21 ; get Ns and Hc = 8.85
After some trials solution converges at
Hc = 8.54 m

• Slope is completely submerged
c'
Ns   cos2   tan   tan  ' 
Fc  subH
c'
Ns   cos2 25  tan 25  tan 22
Fc  subH
c'
 Ns   0.051
Fc  subH
For critical height Hc; Fc =1
30
Hc   58.94m
0.051x9.98

• Example -2 ’(deg) c’ (kPa)
Given for an infinite slope: 10 138.4
15 113.3
=25; Depth of rock stratum =20m; d = 20 88.06
16 kN/m3; sat = 19 kN/m3 25 61.16
To work out combinations of c’ and ’ 30 31.97
for which the slope is stable for dry and
saturated conditions if Fc = F = 1.5.
160
• Solution 120
• Dry condition
c', kPa
80
c'  tan '  40

Ns   Cos2  tan- 
Fc H  F  0
0 10 20 30 40
'
c'  tan ' 
 Cos2 25  tan25- 1.5 
1.5x16x20  
• For saturated slope
250
c'
2
  sub tan  ' 
 c os   tan    200
Fc  satH   F 
c', kPa
sat  150
100
'
c  19  9.81 tan  ' 
 c os2 25  tan25  50
1.5x19x20  19 1.5 
0
’(deg) c’ (kPa) 0 10 20 30 40 50
10 191.719.7 '
15 177.92
20 163.42
25 147.97
30 131.20
35 112.64

Lecture-22; Stability of Slopes
Mahendra Singh

Slope:
Ground is not always horizontal : Inclined, Steep, Unstable

Mining slope Road cut

Man made slope Natural slope

Instability
• In all slopes some forces tend to move the mass from high
points to low points.
• This tendency is called instability
• If actual movement of soil mass occurs, it is termed slope
failure.
Important factors causing instability:
1. Gravitational force,
2. Force due to seepage of water,
3. Erosion of the surface of slope due to flowing water,
4. Sudden lowering of water adjacent to a slope,
5. Forces due to earthquake.

Factors causing instability
Erosion/ undercutting

Stability Block on inclined surface
• Consider Block on inclined surface
Assuming cohesion =0
Limiting friction =  W cos 
Tangential Force =W sin 
For stability, compare Limiting friction with
tangential force
If inclination  is small
 W sin  <  W cos   Stable
For large   unstable
Sliding and/or toppling can occur
One can work out the conditions
• Neither SLD or TOP
• SLD but not Toppling
• Toppling but not sliding
• SLD & Top both

Basic mechanism: Aspects of slope stability analysis
• The actuating forces induce shearing A. Limit equilibrium method
stresses throughout the soil mass. • It is assumed that failure is on the verge
of occurring along an assumed or known
• Unless the shearing resistance on every failure surface.
possible failure surface within the soil
mass is larger than the shearing stress, • Shearing resistance required to maintain
failure will occur in the form of mass equilibrium is compared with the
movement of soil along a slip surface. available shearing strength of the soil.
• The shearing resistance is derived • Ratio of the available shear strength to
mainly from the shear strength of the the mobilized shearing resistance is the
soil and from other natural factors such average factor of safety along that
as roots of plants, lenses of ice etc. particular slip surface.
B. Plane strain condition C. Rupture surface
• Applicable only if true when the • For failure all the shearing strength
length of the slope is large along the rupture surface must be
compared to its cross-section. overcome.
• Unit thickness is considered, • Infinite number of potential failure
ignoring the strains in the surfaces are possible.
perpendicular direction.
• Failure occurs along the critical
• Such a two-dimensional analysis
gives conservative value of factor of surface having minimum FOS.
safety for an actual three-
dimensional problem.

Types of safety factors:
Shear strength (Maximum) is given as: Mobilised cohesion and angle of internal friction:
 f  c '  n ' tan '
c' tan  '
Say  = Average value of mobilised c 
m tan  
m
F F
shearing resistance s s
Fs = Factor of safety with respect to For different factors of safety with respect
shearing strength to cohesion and friction are different:
 f c '  n 'tan  '
Fs   c' tan  '
   n '
Fc F
The mobilised shearing resistance
may be written as: Where: Fc and F are factors of safety with
respect to cohesion and friction
c' tan  ' respectively.
 n '
Fs Fs
'
 = 𝑐 𝑚 + 𝑛
′ ′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑚′
  cm   ' tan m
Example  56.79
F   f
 1.45
Given: For a potential failure surface the shear
s
 39.25
strength parameters of a soil are: c ' 30 tan  '
Fc  '   1.67 F   1.26
c’ = 30kPa; ’ = 15; cm 18 tan  '
m
Mobilised: cm’=18kPa; m’=12.

Average n’ = 100 kPa. Extreme values:
Compute: To get extreme value of Fc put F equal to one in
FOS with respect to shear strength, cohesion expression for mobilised shearing resistance
and friction: c' tan  ' c ' 100
Extreme values of Fc and F   '  39.25   tan15 o
F F 1 F
Solution: c
Average shearing strength along the failure  F  2.89

surface
f = c’ + ’ tan ’ = 30+100 tan 15 = 56.79 kPa Extreme value of F
𝑐′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛15 c ' 100
39.25 = + ′𝑛  39.25   tan15 o
Average value of mobilised shearing resistance: 𝐹𝑐 𝐹 Fc

1
  cm'   n 'tan m Fc=2.40

= 18+100 tan 12 = 39.25 kPa One can workout infinite possible combinations of
Fc and F to maintain equilibrium
( z )b cos   1     z cos 
 
b 1
v
v
   z cos 
'
n
2
   z cos  sin 
  c '  tan  '
f
'
n
Assumptions:
  z cos  tan  '
2
• Soil is homogenous.
• Stress and soil properties on every vertical plane are
𝑧 cos2 𝑡𝑎𝑛′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛′ identical.
Fs= =
• On any plane parallel to the slope stresses and soil
properties are identical.
• To keep slope stable (FOS>1);  should be < ’ • Failure in such slope takes place due to sliding of the soil
• FOS DOES NOT CHANGE WITH DEPTH mass along a plane parallel to the slope at a certain depth.

INFINITE SLOPE: c- SOIL
v =Hcos 
n' =  HCos2
f = c' + n ' tan '
f c'+ H Cos2 tan  '
Fs= +
𝑐′
depth stable
Concept of Stability Number
Considering  > ’ (Slope is stable upto some depth)
FOR STABLE DEPTH For F=1
Mobilised shearing resistance  = f
 H cos  sin = cm+ H cos2 tanm c'
Ns   Cos2  tan-tan ' 
Fc H
c
 m  Cos2  tan-tanm   Ns
H
Ns= stability number (dimensionless)

Ns  mobilised cohesion
1/ allowable height
putting c' tan  '
cm  and'
tan m 
Fc F
𝑐′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛′ Stability number defines relationship

𝑁𝑠 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2  𝑡𝑎𝑛 −
𝐹𝑐 𝐻 𝐹 between different parameters to keep the
slope stable
Infinite Slope With Seepage
• A. Seepage through Ground surface
n’=(sat-w)H cos2
 = sub H cos2
c '   sub tan  '  c m' 
2
 c os   tan    cos  sin   sub cos2  tan m'
  satH  sat
FShear

c satH stress   sat F 
= satH cos sin   
 cos2   tan   sub tan m' 
For stable slope, mobilised shearing   sat 
resistance Puting
c' tan  '
f = cm’+n’ tan m’ cm  and '
tan m 
Fc F
= cm’+ (sub H cos2) tan m’
Equating  and f c' 2
  sub tan  ' 
 c os   tan   
cm’+(subH cos2) tan m’= satH cos sin Fc  satH   sat F 
Infinite slope with partial
seepage
H2 = H –H1
  tH1 H  H1  
Shear stress  = (tH1+ sat H2) cos sin    tan  
cm ' 
 satH H 
For stable slope  c os2   
 satH   H  (H  H )  
 = cm’+n’ tan m’    t 1  sub 1
 tan m 
   satH  satH  
cm’+(tH1+sub H2) cos2 tan m’
For F =1
= (tH1+ sub H2) cos sin
cm’= (tH1+sat H2) cos sin   H1  sat   t  
 1   tan  
- (tH1+ sub H2) cos2 tanm’ Ns 
c '
 c os2  
 H  sat  
Fc  satH   H1  t   sub  
Putting H2=H-H1   sub
  tan  ' 
   sat H  sat  
Completely Submerged Slope

Shearing stress
 = subH cos sin (Not sat)
'
cm
 cos2   tan   tan m
'

 subH
For stable slope, mobilised shearing
resistance If Fc  F  Fs
f = cm’+n’ tan m’ cm 2  '
tan m 
 cos   tan   
= cm’+ (sub H cos2) tan m’ Fs  subH  Fs 
Equating  and f If F  1
cm’+(subH cos2) tan m’= subH cos sin
c'
Ns   cos2   tan   tan  '
Fc  subH

Given for an infinite slope: e = 0.67; G =2.7
G w 2.7x9.81
c’ = 30 kN/m2,  = 25; ’=22; e=0.67; d    15.86kN / m3
1  e 1  0.67
G=2.7.  (G  e) 9.81x(2.7  0.67)
 sat  w   19.79kN / m3
To compute stability number and critical 1 e 1  0.67
height of the slope for
sub = 19.79-9.81 = 9.98 kN3
(i) dry condition;
(ii) water seeping through the entire mass; (i) Dry soil mass
Ns = cos225 (tan 25 –tan 22) = 0.051
(iii) water table 2 m below the ground
surface; c'
Ns   Cos2  tan-tan ' 
Fc H
(iv) slope is completely submerged.
c' c'
0.051  H  37.09m
Fc H 0.051

• Seepage through entire soil mass • water table 2 m below the ground
surface
2  ' 
 H1  sat   t  
c'  sub 1 tan 
Ns   c os   tan   tan   c'

2 

H  sat 
 

Fc  satH   sat  Ns 
Fc  satH
 c os 
  
H    sub 
   sub  1 t  tan  ' 
   sat H  sat  
 9.98 
Ns  c os2 25  tan25  tan '  for F  1
 19.79  For critical height Fc =1. The term H is coming on
NS = 0.216 both sides:
Trial are required; Start with some assumed
Critical height Hc =30/(19.79x0.216) value of H
=7.02 m Say H =35; Putting the values
Ns = 0.21  Hc = 7.21
Again put H = 7.21 ; get Ns and Hc = 8.85
After some trials solution converges at
Hc = 8.54 m

• Slope is completely submerged
c'
Ns   cos2   tan   tan  ' 
Fc  subH
c'
Ns   cos2 25  tan 25  tan 22
Fc  subH
c'
 Ns   0.051
Fc  subH
For critical height Hc; Fc =1
30
Hc   58.94m
0.051x9.98

• Example -2 ’(deg) c’ (kPa)
Given for an infinite slope: 10 138.4
15 113.3
=25; Depth of rock stratum =20m; d = 16 20 88.06
kN/m3; sat = 19 kN/m3 25 61.16
To work out combinations of c’ and ’ for which 30 31.97
the slope is stable for dry and saturated
conditions if Fc = F = 1.5.
• Solution
160
• Dry condition
120
c', kPa
80
c'  tan '  40

Ns   Cos2  tan- 
Fc H  F  0
0 10 20 30 40
'
c'  tan ' 
 Cos2 25  tan25-
1.5x16x20  1.5 
• For saturated slope
250
c'
2
  sub tan  ' 
 c os   tan    200
Fc  satH   sat F 
c', kPa
150
'
100
c  19  9.81 tan  ' 
 c os2 25  tan25  50
1.5x19x20  19 1.5 
0
’(deg) c’ (kPa) 0 10 20 30 40 50
10 191.719.7
15 177.92 '
20 163.42
25 147.97
30 131.20
35 112.64

Lecture-23; Infinite Slopes
Mahendra Singh

( z )b cos   1     z cos 
 
b 1
v
v
   z cos 
'
n
2
   z cos  sin 
  c '  tan  '
f
'
n
Assumptions:
  z cos  tan  '
2
• Soil is homogenous.
• Stress and soil properties on every vertical plane are
𝑧 cos2 𝑡𝑎𝑛′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛′ identical.
Fs= =
• On any plane parallel to the slope stresses and soil
properties are identical.
• To keep slope stable (FOS>1);  should be < ’ • Failure in such slope takes place due to sliding of the soil
• FOS DOES NOT CHANGE WITH DEPTH mass along a plane parallel to the slope at a certain depth.

INFINITE SLOPE: c- SOIL
v =Hcos 
n' =  HCos2
f = c' + n ' tan '
f c'+ H Cos2 tan  '
Fs= +
𝑐′
depth stable
Concept of Stability Number
Considering  > ’ (Slope is stable upto some depth)
FOR STABLE DEPTH For F=1
Mobilised shearing resistance  = f
 H cos  sin = cm+ H cos2 tanm c'
Ns   Cos2  tan-tan ' 
Fc H
c
 m  Cos2  tan-tanm   Ns
H
Ns= stability number (dimensionless)

Ns  mobilised cohesion
1/ allowable height
putting c' tan  '
cm  and'
tan m 
Fc F
𝑐′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛′ Stability number defines relationship

𝑁𝑠 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2  𝑡𝑎𝑛 −
𝐹𝑐 𝐻 𝐹 between different parameters to keep the
slope stable
Infinite slope with partial seepage
n=(tH1+sat H2) cos2
u= w.H2.cos. cos
 = (tH1+ sat H2) cos sin
Shear strength
f = c’+n’ tan ’=c’+(tH1+sub H2) cos2 tan’
c’+(tH1+sub H2) cos2 tan’
𝐹𝑆 =
(tH1+ sat H2) cos sin
Special case: Seepage through Ground surface, H1=0
c’+sub H cos2 tan’
𝐹𝑆 =
sat H cos sin
𝑐′ sub 𝑡𝑎𝑛′
= +
𝑠𝑎𝑡𝐻 cos 𝑠𝑖𝑛 sat 𝑡𝑎𝑛

Completely Submerged Slope

Shearing stress
= subH cos sin (Not sat)
c’+sub H cos2 tan’

𝐹𝑆 =
sub H cos sin
= +
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝐻 cos 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛
For same conditions

FOS(sat) vs. FOS(sub)????? Which one is greater?

e = 0.67; G =2.7
Given for an infinite slope:
c’ = 30 kN/m2,  = 25; ’=22; e=0.67; G=2.7. G w 2.7x9.81
d    15.86kN / m3
1  e 1  0.67
To compute critical height of the slope for  (G  e) 9.81x(2.7  0.67)
 sat  w   19.79kN / m3
(i) dry condition; 1 e 1  0.67
sub = 19.79-9.81 = 9.98 kN3
(ii) water seeping through the entire mass,
seepage parallel to slope;
(iii) water table 2 m below the ground surface,
seepage parallel to slope;
(iv) slope is completely submerged.

Lecture-24; Finite Slopes
Mahendra Singh

Planar Failure: Culmann Method
• Assumes a plane surface of failure
• Failure surface is taken to pass through the toe only.
• R makes angle ’ with normal to the assumed plane
• More realistic results for steep slopes only;
• Taking a wedge ADC
Area = ½ x L x DE
AD = H cosec 
DE = AD sin (-)
Area = ½ L H cosec x sin (-)
W = ½LH cosec  x sin (-) x1
Cohesive component of shearing force
C = c’x L x1=c’L
R makes ’ with normal to the assumed plane
 (-’) with vertical
Complete the polygon

C W Putting value of c, the stability number for
 the critical plane
sin(   ') sin(90  )
C sin(   ') c ' 1  cos(   ')
  Hc =f(c’,, , ’)
W cos  ' Hc 4 sin  cos  '
Putting values of C and W For any other height H, mobilised shear
c ' 1 sin(  )sin(    ') strength parameters cm’ and m’

H 2 sin  cos  '
c m' 1  cos(  m' )

Several trial values of  may be taken. H 4 sin  cos m'
For critical value of  (Maximum H)
Allowable height of slope
  sin(  )sin(   ') 
  2sin  cos  ' 0 H
4c m' sin  cos m'
  1  cos(  m' )
sin(  )cos(   ')  sin(   ')cos(  )  0
FS=Hc/Hfield
Critical value of  c' tan  '
cm  and '
tan m 
c = (+’)/2 Fc F

3
Example:
A cut is to be made in soil with unit weight  = 16 kN/m3, cohesion c = 28 kN/m2, and  = 20. Cut
slope makes an angle 45  with horizontal. What should be the height of cut slope that will have
factor of safety FS=3.5?
Given  = 20 and c = 28 kN/m2, c m' 1  cos(  m' )

Fc=F = 3.5 H 4 sin  cos m'
From which mobilized cohesion cm
Fc  c cm  cm  c Fc  28 3.5  8
Similarly mobilized angle of friction  m can be computed as
F  tan  tan m  tan m  tan  F  tan 20 3.5  m  5.9
From expression of stability number mobilized with  m and cm
cm 1  cos  m  1  cos45  5.9369
   0.079
 H 4 sin  cos m 4 sin 45 cos 5.9369
H  6.293m

Example

PLANAR FAILURE ANALYSIS
Used for rocks or if there is thin seem,
where slippage occurs along the seem
or bedding planes.
Weight of wedge / m length
W = f(, , H, )
 = (W/L) sin
n’ = (W/L) cos 
f = c’ + n’ tan ’
= c’ + {(W cos )/L-u} tan ’
u = water pressure
c 'L  [W cos   uL] tan  '
Fs 
W sin 

CIRCULAR SURFACE OF FAILURE
Rotational slide:
• If the failure surface is circular, slide is called
rotational slide.
Types of rotational slides:
• Slope failure
• Toe failure
• Base failure
A. Slope Failure:
When the slope angle  is very high and the soil
close to the toe is quite strong or the soil in the
upper part of the slope is relatively weak.
B. Toe failure
Occurs in steep slopes when the soil mass above
the base and below the base is homogeneous.
This is the most common mode of failure.
Base Failure
This can occur when the soil below the toe is
relatively weak and soft and the slope is flat.

Circular Failure Surfaces
1. Swedish Slip Circle Analysis
(Undrained condition; cu>0, u=0)
a. Consider a trial circle
b. Divide into vertical slices
c. Weight of slice = W
d. Sliding force = Wsin
e. Resisting force A(f)=A(cu+n tan 0)=Acu
f. Moment of sliding force = (Wsin) R
g. Moment of resisting force=A.cu.R
h. Arc length = l= R d A=R d (d= angle
subtended in radian) Slice W (per d (m) W.d cu d Cu. d
No me +ve or
i. Moment of resisting force=A.cu.R=Rd. cu. R=cu. length) –ve
d. R2 1
σ 𝑐𝑢 𝑑 𝑅2 𝑅2 σ 𝑐𝑢 𝑑
j. 𝐹𝑂𝑆 = σ 𝑊.𝑑 = σ 𝑊.𝑑 2
k. Consier another trial circle

SUM SUM
l. Get critical failure surface
25 May 2020 Mahendra Singh, IIT Roorkee 8

Special case: Homogeneous soil : FAILURE UNDER
UNDRAINED CONDITION
Fully saturated clay under undrained condition
Assumptions:
• Clay is fully saturated, u =0
• Soil is homogeneous, cu is same at all points
• Potential failure surface is circular
Consider a slope, taking a trial arc:
• Actuating moment Ma=W x lo
• Resisting moment Mr =(La cu) R
La = length of arc=R 2 Mr =(R 2 cu) R=cu 2 R2
𝑐𝑢 2 𝑅2
𝐹𝑂𝑆 =
𝑊 𝑙𝑜
The above procedure is repeated for several trial
arcs. Minimum FOS gives the critical circle.

Lecture-25; Felenius Method
Mahendra Singh

ORDINARY METHOD OF SLICES
OMS, Fellenius method, Swedish method of slices
For >0 and c>0
Steps
• Assume a trial failure surface
• Divide the mass above failure surface into vertical
slices, say 8 or 10.
• Consider the force acting on each slice.
• V. Imp assumption: The side forces are assumed to
be equal on both sides of the slice and therefore not
considered in analysis to make problem determinate. Pore pressure diagram
Forces
• Weight W of slice:
• Normal and tangential components
• Pore water pressure U
• Effective frictional and cohesive resistance on the
base of the slice S.

Shear strength at the base of the slice:
f = c’ + n’ tan ’
Shear force = area of base x f = (1xl)x(c’ + n’ tan ’)
= c’l + n’ l tan’
If weight of slice = W,
and force due to water pressure = U= u x (lx1)
n’ = (W cos-ul)/(lx1)
putting value of n’; shear force at the base of the slice
= c’l + (W cos -ul) tan’
Moment of resisting force = R {c’l + (W cos -ul) tan’}
Resisting moment due to all slices= R {c’l + (W cos -ul) tan’}
Driving moment due to one slice = R {W sin} ,
Driving moment due to all slices =R {W sin}
[c’l+(W cos −ul) tan’]
Fs= W sin
For total stress analysis
[cTl+(W cos ) tanT]
Fs= W sin
All possible trial surfaces are considered
critical surface gives FOS of the slope.

Example:
Given a slope as shown in figure. Take ’ for all the
three soils as 20. Unit weight (kN/m3) and c’ (kPa)
values are mentioned in the figure. Determine
FOS using ordinary method of slices.
Soln:
• Take a trial circle as shown in the figure,
• Divide the mass into number of slices.
• In case of homogeneous soil mass, equal base
width could be taken.
• Compute weight of each slice, its base length -d +d
and the inclination  of the base.
• If water table is present compute U for each
slice

Sequence of computation:
For each slice get:
• weight,
• base inclination ,
• base length l,
• water pressure U,
-d +d
• c’l+( W cos -U) tan’
• W sin 
[c’l+(W cos −ul) tan’] 13002.8
Fs= = 5170.5
W sin
Note: Further trials are required with another circles
to get the circle which gives minimum FOS.

BISHOP’S SIMPLIFIED METHOD OF SLICES
FORCE & MOMENT Equilibrium
Consider forces
W = Weight
N = Total Normal force on failure surface dc
U = Pore water pressure = ul
FR= Shear resistance on surface dc
Additionally
E1,E2 = Normal forces on vertical faces of the
slice
T1,T2 = Shear forces on vertical faces of the slice
Now shear strength at the base of a slice

f = c’ + (N’/A) tan ’
Limiting shearing force (maximum)= f x area
=[c’ +(N’/A) tan ’]xl
=c’l + N’tan ’

If FOS = Fs  Mobilised shearing resistance
𝑐′𝑙 𝑁′ tan 𝜙 ′
𝐹𝑅 = +
𝐹𝑆 𝐹𝑆
Now considering equilibrium of vertical forces:
W+(T1-T2)-Ucos -FRsin -N’cos=0
Putting value of FR and solving for N’:
𝑐′𝑙
𝑊 + Δ𝑇 − 𝑈 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
𝐹𝑆
𝑁′ =
tan 𝜙 ′ sin 𝜃
cos 𝜃 + 𝐹𝑆
𝑐′𝑙
𝑐′𝑙 (𝑊 − 𝑈 cos 𝜃) + Δ𝑇 − 𝐹𝑆 sin 𝜃 tan 𝜙 ′
𝐹𝑅 = +
𝐹𝑆 tan 𝜙 ′ sin 𝜃 𝐹𝑆
cos 𝜃 +
𝐹𝑆
′ tan 𝜙 ′ sin 𝜃 𝑐′𝑙
1 𝑐 𝑙 cos 𝜃 + 𝐹𝑆
+ {(𝑊 − 𝑈 cos 𝜃) + Δ𝑇 − sin 𝜃} tan 𝜙 ′
𝐹𝑆
=
𝐹𝑆 tan 𝜙 ′ sin 𝜃
cos 𝜃 +
𝐹𝑆
′
1 𝑐 𝑙 cos 𝜃 + {(𝑊 − 𝑈 cos 𝜃) + Δ𝑇} tan 𝜙 ′
=
cos 𝜃 +
𝐹𝑆

MOMENT EQUILIBRIUM
Resisting moment for one slice = FR x R
Sum of resisting moments = R FR
Actuating force for one slice = W sin 

Actuating moment for one slice = R x W sin 
Sum of actuating moments for all slices =R W sin
For equilibrium, equating the moments
1 𝑐 ′ 𝑙 cos 𝜃 + {(𝑊 − 𝑈 cos 𝜃) + Δ𝑇} tan 𝜙 ′

𝐹𝑅 =
cos 𝜃 +
𝐹𝑆
1 σ 𝑐′𝑙 cos 𝜃 + [(𝑊 − 𝑈 cos 𝜃) + Δ𝑇] tan 𝜙 ′
෍ 𝑊 sin 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃 +
𝐹𝑆
1
σ 𝑐′𝑙 cos 𝜃 + [(𝑊 − 𝑈 cos 𝜃) + Δ𝑇] tan 𝜙 ′
𝑚𝜃
𝐹𝑆 =
σ 𝑊 sin 𝜃
tan 𝜙 ′ sin 𝜃
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝜃 = cos 𝜃 +
𝐹𝑆

• The factor FS is present on both sides. • For Bishop’s simplified method
Solution has to be obtained iteratively.
• Trial values of forces T have to be 1
assumed such that T is zero. Number  c 'lcos   (W  Ucos ) tan  ' m
of functions/ distributions are FS  
available.  W sin 
• In simplified analysis T is assumed
tan  ' sin 
to be zero. This is most widely used where m  cos  
method. FS

Charts may be used to simply the
computations:
Sequence of computation:
• Take a trial failure surface i.e. arc
• Divide the sliding mass into
number of slices
• For each slice get:
• weight, W
• base inclination, 
• base length, l
• water pressure, U
• Assume a trial value of FS
• Compute for each slice:
c’l cos +(W-Ucos) tan’
m

1
Get  c 'lcos   (W  Ucos ) tan  ' m
and  W sin 
1
 c 'lcos   (W  Ucos ) tan  ' m
FS 
 W sin 
• Use this new FS and repeat the procedure till two consecutive values of FOS are
close to each other within permissible limits.
• This gives FOS for the selected trial arc. Take another trial arcs to get the critical
circle and minimum FOS.

Ordinary method of slices (Fellenius , 1927) (’>0, c’>0)
• Swedish method of slices
• Fellenius method
Consider trial slip circle
Divide vertical slices
For any slice: No force from side
W=z l cos
𝑊 =  𝑧 𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑊𝑛 =  𝑧 𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠2
𝑊𝑡 =  𝑧 𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛

Lecture-26; Well foundation
Mahendra Singh

Well Foundations (Caissons)
• Deep foundations.
• Provide a solid and massive
foundation for heavy loads.
• Useful in situations where the loads
have to be transferred to a soil
stratum deep below (in case of bridge
foundation).
• Can be conveniently installed in a
boulder stratum.
• Types
• Open caisson (Well Foundation)
• Box caisson
• Pneumatic caisson

• Box casion
• Open at top, closed at bottom
• First cast at land and then transported
and sunk upto previously levelled
foundation base
•Pneumatic
•Has working chamber at bottom
•Kept dry by forcing out water under
pressure, thus permitting excavation under
dry condition

Well Foundations
Components of Well Foundation
Well cap
• RCC slab at the top of the well steining and cast monolithically
with the steining.
• Transmits the load of superstructure to the steining.
Steining
• It is the main body of well which transfers load to the subsoil.
• Acts as a cofferdam during sinking and provides weight for
sinking.
Well Curb
• The lower wedge – shaped portion of well steining is called the
web curb.
• Facilitates the process of sinking
Cutting Edge
• The lowermost portion of the well curb is the cutting edge.
• It cuts into the soil during sinking

Components of Well Foundation
Bottom Plug
• After the well is sunk to the required depth, the base of well
is plugged with concrete. This is called bottom plug.
• Transmits the load to the subsoil.
Dredge Hole
• The well is sunk by excavating soil from within the well. The
hole formed due to the excavation of soil is called the
dredge hole.
• It is later filled with sand
• This sand filling helps in distributing the load of
superstructure to the bottom plug.
Top Plug
• It is a concrete plug covering the sand filling usually
constructed on top.
• It provides contact between well cap and sand filling.
• Helps in transferring the load through the sand filling.

Shapes of Well
Choice depends on
• Base dimensions of PIER/ABUTMENT
• Tilt and Shift during construction
• Magnitude of force
• Shapes:
• Circular
• Double D shaped
• Dumb-bell
• Broad necked twin well with circular
dredge holes
• Double octagonal with circular dredge
holes
• Multiple dredge hole well
• Most common
• Circular
• Ideal for sinking

Design requirements (IS:3995-1967)
• Dredge hole should be large enough to permit
dredging
• Steining
• Thickness should be sufficient to transmit
load and provide weight for sinking
• Adequate strength to resist loads during
construction and service
• Flow should not be unduly obstructed
• Overall size should be able to shift load to soil
• Should allow the permissible tilt and shift of well
• Multiple wells  spacing depends on depth,
genially minimum spacing 1m.
• Proper depth beyond scour

Design
Depth of a Well Foundation
Two important requirements
A: Minimum grip length below the scour depth.
B: Base pressure to be within permissible limits.
A: Scour depth: Lacey’s formula:

For natural streams in alluvial beds:
1
Q 3
d  0.473  
 f 
d: depth below HFL

Q: design discharge in cumecs
f=Lacey’s silt factor = 1.76 (m)1/2
m=mean size of particle in mm (50% finer).
IS: 3955 (1967) gives values based on types of soil.

Calculated scour depth should further be increased • Grip length = 1/3 x max scour depth
• Depth of Foundn = 1.33 x max scour depth
Section Maximum
below HFL
Depth
of Scour
Min depth below scour
• = 2m (pier and abutment with arches)
In straight reach 1.27 d
• =1.2 m for piers and abutments supporting
At a moderate bend 1.50 d other type of structures
At a severe bend 1.75 d
At a right angled bend or at noses of 2.00 d Criterion B:
piers Allowable bearing pressure, Qa (IS: 3955 1967)
Cohesion less soil
At upstream noses of guide banks 2.75 d
𝑄𝑎 = 5.4 𝑁 2 𝐵 + 16 100 + 𝑁 2 𝐷
In severe swirls 2.50 d
Qa: Allowable bearing pressure, Kg/m2
N= corrected N
B = smaller dimension of well
D = depth of foundation below scour level, m
Cohesive soil: Consolidation & cu
Resting on Rock: Crushing strength of rock

Design: Stability analysis • Combinations of forces
• Normally three combinations :
Forces acting on well foundation
• N- Case: (Normal)
• Dead loads+ Live loads from super structure All the forces except the temperature and seismic forces are
considered
• Wind forces
• N+T Case
• Forces due to water current Normal + temperature
• Tractive effort of vehicle, braking of vehicle, Permissible stresses are increased by 15%
restraint to movement of bearings • N+T+S Case
• Centrifugal forces Normal + temperature+ seismic
Permissible stresses are increased by 50%
• Buoyancy When wind or earthquake force is included, a 25% increase in
• Earth pressure allowable bearing pressure shall be considered.
• Temperature
DESIGN
• Seismic forces • Magnitude, direction and point of application of all the
Detailed description: available different codes of forces, the worst possible combination
practice. • Finally resolved into a resultant vertical force, W and two
resultant horizontal forces P and Q in directions across the
pier and along the pier respectively.

Stability Analysis:
Generally force system acting in the direction of transverse
axis of the pier, i.e., perpendicular to the flow, is more
critical from the point of view of stability.
Embedment depth = D
• Due to Q  Reaction development in embedment D
• Well may rotate about “base” or “a point above base”
• At the time of failure  soil plastic failure
Conditions of equilibrium :
ΣV = 0
• Total downward force, W = base reaction + friction on
sides of the well
ΣH = 0
• Q = net lateral earth pressure including friction at the base
ΣM = 0
• Q (H+D) = algebraic sum of moments due to net lateral
earth pressure, friction on sides and base reaction.

Lateral Stability of Well Foundation
Several methods are available
• Terzaghi (1943)
• Pender (1947)
• Banerjee and Gangopadhyay (1960)
• Indian Road Congress (IRC:45-1972)
• Elastic theory method
• Ultimate soil resistance method
Terzaghi (1943)
When a rigid well in a sand deposit moves
parallel to its original position, the sand
on front face of the well is transformed
into a passive state whereas on the rear
face, it is transformed into an active state.

Terzaghi’s Analysis:
Above point O; Pressure from left to right= 𝐾𝑃 − 𝐾𝐴 𝑧
𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐸𝐻𝐵 − 𝐹𝐻𝐺
1 1
= 𝐷. 𝐷 𝐾𝑃 − 𝐾𝐴 − 𝐷1 2. 𝐷 𝐾𝑃 − 𝐾𝐴
2 2
1
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐷 𝐾𝑃 − 𝐾𝐴 (𝐷 − 2𝐷1 )
2
Taking moment about base M=0
1  D 1 D
qmax ( H  D)    D2  K P  K A    .2 D  K P  K A  D1  1
2  3 2  3
Put H+D=H1 D 2 2 D12

 D  2 D1  H1  
3 3
𝐷2 − 2𝐷12 − 3𝐷𝐻1 + 6𝐷1 𝐻1 = 0
𝟑𝑯𝟏 ± 𝟗𝑯𝟐𝟏 − 𝟐𝑫(𝟑𝑯𝟏 − 𝑫)
𝑫=
𝟐
qmax may now be obtained from D1

Heavy well : Rotation about base
• Taking moment about base
1 𝐷
𝐾𝑃 − 𝐾𝐴 𝐷 𝐷 = 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥(𝐻 + 𝐷)
2 3
1 𝐷3
 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 =  𝐾𝑃 − 𝐾𝐴
6 𝐻+𝐷
• qmax acts on one m length perpendicular to plane of paper
• If length perpendicular to plane of paper = L
• Total resisting force Qmax= qmax x L
• Allowable horizontal force Qa= Qmax/F
Imp: If applied Q < Qa, there will be no bending stress at base
If Q>Qa; BM will generate at base = (Q-Qa)(H+D)
Max, Min pressure at the base of foundation
𝑊 𝑀
=  𝑦
𝐴 𝐼
Maximum pressure should be within bearing capacity

Lecture-27; Machine foundation
Mahendra Singh

Dynamic Loads
Machine foundations: Static loads + dynamic loads. Impact machines
• Dynamic load  type of machine (3 types). • Produce impact loads, e.g., forge hammers,
• Reciprocating machines form this group of machines.
• Impact machines • Dynamic load builds up in a very short
• Rotary machines. period of time and then dies out completely.
Reciprocating machines • The speed of operation of these machines is

60 to 150 blows per minute.
• Produce periodic, unbalanced force, e.g.,
reciprocating engines and compressors.
• The unbalanced force in such machines varies Rotary machines
sinusoidally.
• Medium and high speed machines, e.g.,
• The operating speeds of such machines are usually turbo-generators and rotary compressors.
less that 600 rpm.
• Operating speed vary from 1500 to 10000
rpm.

Suitable type of foundation
depends on the type of machine.
• For the reciprocating machines, block foundation
is usually provided.
• A block foundation consists of a pedestal
integrated with footing. A block foundation
has a large mass and hence a smaller natural
frequency.
For a relatively lighter foundation
• a box or a caisson type of foundation may be
provided.
• the mass of foundation reduces, its natural
frequency increases
Foundations for steam turbines: usually complex.
• These consist of a system of wall columns and
beam slabs.
• Each element of such foundation is quite
flexible.

Terminology
• Vibration • Cycle
• Time dependent, repeating motion of • The motion completed in one period is
translational or rotational type of any body the cycle of motion.
possessing mass and elasticity is termed as
vibration. • Damping
• The vibratory motion of a body can be of • It is the resistance to motion due to
three types, namely, periodic, random or friction and / or other causes.
transient. • Viscous damping
• Amplitude • When the damping force is proportional
• The maximum displacement of a vibrating to the velocity of the system.
body from its mean position or position of • Degree of freedom
static equilibrium.
• Number of independent coordinates
• Period required to define a vibratory system.
• The time period in which the motion • Free vibration
repeats itself.
• Vibration of a system when it is displaced
from its equilibrium position and left to
vibrate.

Terminology
• Forced vibration • Frequency ratio
• Vibration of a system, when an external force, • The ratio of the operating frequency to the
generally periodic, is impressed on the system. natural frequency of a system.
• Frequency • Mode of vibration
• The rate at which a motion is repeated in a • A characteristic pattern assumed by a system
vibrating system, expressed in radians/second, in which the motion of every particle is simple
cycles/second (also called Hertz or Hz) or harmonic, with the same frequency.
revolutions/min.
• Periodic
• Natural frequency • When a system in motion crosses the
• The frequency at which a system vibrates under equilibrium position at definite interval of
the effect of forces inherent in the system. time.
• Operating frequency • Aperiodic
• The frequency at which a machine is • When there is non-regularity of the system in
operating. crossing its equilibrium position during
motion.
• Resonant frequency • Steady state
• The frequency at which the maximum • When a system is under a sinusoidal forced
response occurs in a system subjected to vibration and the response of the system is
steady state, forced vibrations. also sinusoidal.

• Transient
• When a system is subjected to a sudden
velocity.
• Resonance
• When the frequency of the exciting force
(operating frequency of the machine) equals
the natural frequency of the foundation-soil
system, the condition of resonance is reached.
At resonance, the amplitude of a vibrating
system is the maximum.

Design Criteria : satisfactory performance of M/C Foundations
•Under static loads:
a) The foundation should be safe against
shear failure of soil.
b) The foundation should not settle more
than a certain permissible value.
•Under dynamic loads:

a) There should be no resonance
b) The amplitudes of vibration under the
operating frequency of the machine
should be within permissible limits.
c) The vibrations should not be annoying
to the persons or detrimental to other
machines and structures.

Lecture-28; Machine foundation
Mahendra Singh

METHOD OF ANALYSIS OF A BLOCK FOUNDATION
There are two methods of analysis of a machine Soil spring constants
foundation: • Spring constant: force causing a unit deformation.
• Method based on linear-elastic-weightless spring. • When the block foundation undergoes vertical
• Method based on linear theory of elasticity oscillations, compression is induced at the base
(elastic half-space). of the footing.
• Method based on linear-elastic-weightless • On the contrary, if the block undergoes
springs translation about X or Y-axis, shear stresses are
induced at the base of the foundation block.
• The soil is replaced by elastic springs. • The nature of the equivalent spring stiffness will
• Equation for natural frequencies can be be different in each of the different modes of
written and compared with operating vibration.
frequency. • As X and Y axes are interchangeable, there are
• The avoid resonance, the frequency ratio basically 4 different types of equivalent soil-
should be either less than 0.5 or greater spring constants which are of interest
than 1.5. a) Coefficient of elastic uniform compression (Cu)
b) Coefficient of elastic uniform shear (C)
c) Coefficient of elastic non-uniform compression
(C).
d) Coefficient of elastic non-uniform shear (C)

A: Coefficient of elastic uniform compression (Cu)
• Ratio of external uniform pressure to the elastic
part of the settlement.
B: Coefficient of elastic uniform shear (Cτ)
• Ratio of average shear stress at the foundation
contact area to the elastic part of the
displacement in sliding.
C: Coefficient of elastic non-uniform compression
(Cφ)
• Ratio of external moment about a horizontal axis
to the product of moment of inertia of contact
area of base of the foundation about the same axis
and the corresponding angle of rotation of the
foundation.
D: Coefficient of elastic non-uniform shear (Cψ)
• Ratio of external moment applied about vertical
axis to the product of polar moment of inertia of
contact area of base of foundation and the angle
of rotation of the foundation.

DETERMINATION OF SOIL-SPRING CONSTANTS
In-situ tests are preferred IS: 5249 (1992) :
A. Cyclic plate load test
B. Block vibration test
C. Free vibration test
D. Wave propagation test
A: Cyclic plate load test
• Increase load upto a pre-decided value. Magnitude of load is maintained constant
till the settlement of the test plate is complete.
• The load is then released to zero and the plate allowed to rebound. The reading of
final settlement is taken.
• The load in then increased to next higher magnitude of loading and maintained
constant till the settlement is complete, which again is recorded. The load is then
reduced to zero and the settlement reading is taken.
• The cycles of loading, unloading and reloading are continued till the required final
load is reached.
• From the load-settlement data, a graph is plotted between load intensity p and
elastic settlement Se.
• Cu=p/Se; units: kN/m2/m

Block vibration test
• A concrete block 1.5 m × 0.75 m × 0.70 m (height)
is cast in a pit at the proposed depth of foundation.
• Foundation bolts for fixing oscillator and motor
assembly are embedded in the concrete block at
the time of casting the block.
• The motor and oscillator assembly is mounted on
the block.
Apparatus
• Mechanical Oscillator
• d.c. Motor to run the oscillator
• Speed Control Unit
• Acceleration Pick-up
• Velocity Pick-up
• Displacement pick-up
• Geophones

Block Vibration test
• There are two types of test:
• Vertical vibration tests
• Horizontal vibration test.
Vertical vibration test
• The mechanical oscillator is mounted on the block
such that it generates purely vertical sinusoidal
vibrations and the line of action of vibratory force
passes through the centre of gravity of the block
• Two acceleration pick-ups, are mounted on the
block to sense vertical motion of the block.
• Choosing a suitable value of angle of setting of
eccentric masses, the oscillator is made to run at a
constant frequency.
• The signals of acceleration pick-ups are recorded
through amplifiers.
• The frequency of the oscillator is increased;
process is repeated. The same process is continued
for other eccentricity settings.

• In a forced vertical vibration test, the amplitude of vibration, Az at
a given frequency, fz is given by:
• Az = az / (4π2fz2)
where, az = acceleration in the vertical direction.
• Amplitude vs. frequency curve is then plotted for each eccentricity
value to obtain the natural frequency of soil-block system.
• The coefficient of elastic uniform compression, Cu is given by
• Cu =4 π2 fnz2 m / A
where, fnz = natural frequency of vibration of soil-block system.
m = mass of block, oscillator and motor.
A = contact area of block with soil.
• The value of Cu varies with the contact area of the base. Hence,
the value of Cu obtained from test needs a correction due to
contact area.
• IS: 5249 – 1992 recommends that for area larger than 10 m2, the
value obtained for an area of 10 m2 may be used.

Correlations
Horizontal vibration test is used obtain coefficient
of elastic uniform shear (Beyond scope)
Indirect correlations:
IS: 5249 – 1992 recommends the following
correlations
• Cu = 1.5 to 2.0 Cτ
• Cφ = 3.46 Cτ
• Cψ = 0.75 Cu
• The relationship between Cu, Cτ, Cφ and Cψ
depends on the elastic properties of the
medium, i.e., the soil, the size and shape of
contact area and the rigidity of the foundation.
The values given by the equations mentioned
above may be taken as average values.

Damping Factor
• Damping affects the response in the
inverse proportion at resonance
• Practically no effect in the non-resonant
range of machine speeds.
• Importace: in the transition period where
the machine speed has to pass through
one or more of the resonant (natural)
frequencies of vibration of system during
starting/shut down of the machine.
• For block foundations: damping is
contributed almost entirely by the soil 
depends much on the embedment of the
foundation.
• Damping in framed foundations also
increases considerably due to
participation of the soil.

• Experimental studies have shown that
damping does not vary too much
with the type of foundation, i.e.,
block or frame foundation or with the
material of construction.
• The raft and pile foundations also do
not show too much difference in
damping.
• It is therefore, usual to consider a
damping coefficient of about 6.5% in
the design of machine foundations.
• Two methods of determination of the
damping factor ξ of the soil have been
given in IS: 5249-1992: one based on
forced vibration test and the other on
the free vibration test.

Determination of the damping factor ξ: Method based on forced
vibration test
• From block vibration test plot
displacement amplitude vs. the exciting
frequency curve has to be established by
exciting a block.
• The width of the resonant peak, in terms
of frequency difference (f1 – f2) at 0.707
of the peak amplitude of displacement
and at the resonant frequency fnz are
determined.
• The damping factor is obtained by
𝑓2 −𝑓1
=
2𝑓𝑛𝑧
• where, f2 and f1 are two frequencies at
which amplitude is equal to (Xm/√2), Xm is
the maximum amplitude and fnz is the
frequency at which the amplitude is
maximum (resonant frequency).

Damping Factor: Method based on free vibration test
• Block/foundation is pulled and released
suddenly
• Free vibration record is obtained by means of a
suitable recording/acquisition system.
• The amplitude decay curve is then plotted.
• Ratio of successive peak, X of the amplitude
record is then a measure of the damping.
• The damping factor is obtained by
1 𝑋𝑚
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
2 𝑋𝑚+1
• where, Xm and Xm+1 are amplitudes as shown in
figure.

DEGREES OF FREEDOM OF A BLOCK FOUNDATION
For a block foundation, under the action of unbalanced
forces, the rigid block may undergo displacements or
oscillations as below:
Lateral direction: X
Longitudinal direction : Y
Vertical direction : Z
a) Translation along Z-axis
b) Translation along X-axis
c) Translation along Y-axis
d) Rotation along Z-axis – Yawing
e) Rotation along X-axis – Pitching
f) Rotation along Y-axis – Rocking
Longitudinal Axes and coordinates [IS:2974

(Part I-1982]
• The rigid body displacements of the block can be
resolved into the six independent displacements.
• Out of these six types of motion, translation and
rotation along vertical axis (Z-axis) can occur
independently of any other motion.
• Translation along X-axis (or Y-axis) and rotation
about Y-axis (or X-axis) are coupled motion.
• Thus, analysis of block foundation requires
consideration for four types of motions. Out of
these, two are independent and two are coupled.
• For estimating the natural frequencies of vibration
in the coupled modes, the natural frequency of the
system in pure translation and pure rocking need
to be determined.
• Further, as the state of stress below the foundation
block in different modes is different, the
corresponding spring constant has to be used.

VERTICAL VIBRATIONS OF A BLOCK FOUNDATION
Consider a foundation block of base contact area A
embedded up to a depth Df below the ground level.
For simplicity of analysis, it is assumed that the block is
located at the ground level such that there is no
embedment, that is, Df = 0
The subsoil is assumed to be replaced by an equivalent
spring with spring constant kz.
Assuming that an unbalanced force acts through the centre
of gravity of the block and by neglecting damping, the
equation of motion of the system is
𝑑2 𝑧
+ 𝑘𝑧 𝑧 = 𝑃0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2
where, m =mass of the foundation block including machine
kz = equivalent spring constant of the soil in vertical
direction for the base area, A of foundation block (=Cu A)

Cu = coefficient of elastic uniform compression
The natural frequency, fnz of the system is
1 𝐶𝑢 𝐴
𝑓𝑛𝑧 =
2 𝑚
and the amplitude of motion, Az is given by

𝑃0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝐴𝑧 = =
𝐶𝑢 𝐴 − 𝑚2 𝑚 2𝑛𝑧 − 2
The maximum amplitude of motion is given by
𝑃0
𝐴𝑧 =
𝑚 2𝑛𝑧 − 2
The small value of damping has practically negligible
effect on the natural frequency.

ROCKING VIBRATIONS OF A BLOCK FOUNDATION
• A block foundation (area A) resting on the ground
surface is acted upon by a moment My = M0 sin ωt
about the Y-axis in X-Z plane.
• The foundation block is assumed to symmetric
about Y-axis.
• It is further assumed that the centre of inertia of
mass of the machine and foundation and the
centroid of the base area lie on a vertical line
through the centre of rocking vibrations, O.
• Considering moments about the centre of rotation
of the block.
• Moment due to soil reaction,
MR = - CφIφ
where, I = moment of inertia of the contact area
about an axis passing through the centroid of base
contact area.
• Moment due to displaced position of centre of
gravity of the block,
Mw = WLφ acting in clockwise direction.

External moment My=M0sin t
Eqn of motion:
d2 
Mm0 2 = M0sin t − C I  + WL
dt
d2 
Mm0 2 + (C I − WL) = M0sint
dt
Natural frequency

C I−WL
𝑛 = ;
Mm0

C I
generally C I ≫ WL  𝑛 = Mm0
𝑀0
Maximum displacement 𝐴 = 𝑀 2 −2
𝑚0
𝑛 

PURE SLIDING OF A BLOCK FOUNDATION
Usually, in block foundations, sliding and rocking The maximum amplitude of motion is given by
occur simultaneously. However, if the vibrations of 𝑃𝑥
𝐴𝑥 =
foundations are such that rocking can be 𝑚 2𝑛𝑥 − 2
neglected, only a horizontal displacement of the where, fnx = natural frequency in pure sliding
foundation block of area A will occur under an
exciting force Px sinωt. Ax = maximum amplitude in pure sliding.
The vibrations of foundation are analogous to
vertical vibrations with soil constant
kx = Cτ A.
Equation of motion:
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑚 2 + 𝑘𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑃𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑘𝑥 𝐶 𝐴 1 𝐶 𝐴
𝑥 = = and 𝑓𝑛𝑥 = 2
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

YAWING OF A BLOCK FOUNDATION
• A block foundation is subjected to yawing due to
torsional moment Mz in X-Y plane.
• The equation of motion is:
𝑑2 
• 𝑀𝑚𝑧 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝐶 𝐽𝑧  = 𝑀𝑧 sin 𝑡
where, Mmz = mass moment of inertia of machine and
foundation block about the axis of rotation (Z-axis)
Jz = polar moment of inertia of foundation base area
ψ = angle of rotation of foundation about Z-axis
Cψ = coefficient of elastic non-uniform shear

The natural frequency fmψ and the maximum angular
displacement ψmax are given by the equations:
1 𝐶 𝐽𝑧
𝑓𝑛 =
2 𝑀𝑚𝑧
and
𝑀𝑧
𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑀𝑚𝑧 2𝑛 − 2


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CEN-306: Foundation Engg

Lecture-12; Shallow Foundations

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1. If Dw’>B (Depth of failure zone B)  No

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IS: 6403-1981  see FIG

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If there are large number of layers: Weighted

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𝑞𝑢 = 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5  𝐵𝑁 • 𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐 𝑢𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞

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• Primary consolidation settlement

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C: Correction for rigidity of foundation

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• Peck, Hanson and Thornburn, (1974)

• IS Code (IS 8009, part-1, 1976)

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