Article
Applications of Battery Management System (BMS) in
Sustainable Transportation: A Comprehensive Approach from
Battery Modeling to Battery Integration to the Power Grid
Sagar B S 1, *, Santoshkumar Hampannavar 1 , Deepa B 2 and Bansilal Bairwa 1
Citation: B S, S.; Hampannavar, S.; B,
D.; Bairwa, B. Applications of Battery
Management System (BMS) in
Sustainable Transportation: A
Comprehensive Approach from
Battery Modeling to Battery
Integration to the Power Grid. World
Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 80. https://
doi.org/10.3390/wevj13050080
Academic Editor: Joeri Van Mierlo
Received: 12 March 2022
Accepted: 20 April 2022
Published: 6 May 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 80. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13050080
1 School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, REVA University, Bengaluru 560024, India;
santoshkumar.sh@ieee.org (S.H.); bansilal.bairwa@reva.edu.in (B.B.)
2 Rao Bahadur Y. Mahabaleswarappa Engineering College (RYMEC), Bellary 583275, India;
deep.vc004@gmail.com
* Correspondence: sagar.bs14@gmail.com
Abstract: The growing oil demand and serious environmental concerns have promoted the concept
of the usage of electric vehicles (EVs) across the globe. EVs can be integrated into the grid for power
transaction and to support the grid requirements, thereby drawing the attention of researchers, policy
makers and industries. EVs are not only a transportation tool but also act as a distributed source
or load. The EV battery plays a prominent role in grid integration and sustainable transportation.
The monitoring and control aspect of the battery management system (BMS) plays a vital role in
the successful deployment and usage of EVs. In this paper, an equivalent circuit model (ECM)
of battery is proposed and analyzed that describes the battery behavior at various temperatures,
considering the internal resistance of the battery. A stochastic model was developed for the battery
ageing and replacement to ensure that systematic replacement of batteries based on the calendar
ageing was performed. A reliability assessment of EV accessibility and availability was carried out by
using Markov chain. A case study of a Diesel-renewable powered Electric Vehicle Charging Station
(EVCS) in a micro-grid was carried out that suits the requirement of large-scale EV fleet integration
to the grid for power transaction. The holistic approach of BMS was considered for the sustainable
transportation and grid integration
Keywords: electric vehicle; battery management system; equivalent circuit model; battery ageing;
stochastic model; reliability
1. Introduction
The global transportation sector is looking toward cleaner means of mobility and
electric vehicle support in this aspect. Cleaner transportation accounts for the use of
battery-powered vehicles, often termed as electric vehicles (EVs). Batteries are the heart of
the system that powers these vehicles. The advancement in battery technology drives the
development of EVs. Almost all automakers have launched EVs, and the sales have been
increasing steadily over the last decade. However, in order to popularize EVs as compared
to internal combustion engines, EVs have to overcome many barriers, particularly in
battery technology. The development of the battery management system (BMS) has made a
significant contribution in the development of EVs. The BMS looks after all the criteria of
batteries, including the charging and discharging process and battery life estimation and
performance prediction. In this regard, various aspects of the battery are to be considered
right from battery modeling to its reliability assessment. Battery parameters, such as its
internal resistance, its capacity to hold the charge and time duration of its discharge, vary
with aspects such as time, number of charge and discharge cycles, depth of discharge
and temperature of operation. In this regard, batteries are to be carefully understood,
especially during its lifetime. Battery modeling is a crucial aspect in understanding the
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/wevj
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 80 2 of 21

behavior of the battery. The lifetime of the battery is dependent upon its physical and
chemical characteristics [1]. Battery modeling has its significance in developing efficient
charging and discharging schemes thereby protecting the battery from overcharging and
undercharging conditions. Finding the safe operating limits enhances the lifetime of
the battery. Different modeling schemes are developed in the literature with different
complexities suitable for different applications [2–4]. Electro-chemical models consisting of
complex differential equations have been developed. Solving the equations provides details
of battery parameters. The computation complexity is the major aspect in employing these
models [5,6]. Analytical models have been developed over the years that model only the
major properties of the batteries, often neglecting important parameters, such as internal
resistance of the battery, thereby reducing the complexity. Peukert’s law and Rakmatov
and Vardhula are notable model analytical battery models [7]. Stochastic models have also
been developed that have defined discharging and recovery effects as stochastic processes.
As these models consider only relative number of lifetimes, it is unclear if they perform
quantitatively [8–11]. A detailed review on modeling techniques and parameter extraction
is presented in Reference [12]. However, there is a need to find an easy and efficient model
to understand the behavior of the battery, and that model should also be validated by
using experimental data. Electric circuit models were proposed which include a capacitor,
representing the capacity of the battery; the discharge rate, which determines the lost
capacity; a circuit to discharge the battery; a lookup table consisting of voltage versus state
of charge (SOC); and a resistor, representing internal resistance of the battery. With minor
modifications suitable to the application and chemistry of the battery, the models are reliable
and accurate. In this study, a 3 R-C model was developed and validated to determine the
behavior of the battery. The understanding of battery ageing is of paramount importance,
as it has a direct impact on the performance of the battery. Diagnosing the battery age and
acting on it not only ensures the safety of the battery-powered system but also enhances
the lifetime and profitability of EVs [13–15]. In the literature, calendar ageing is often
neglected, and random policies are employed to replace the batteries. However, replacing
the batteries happens in a structured scheme [16]. The Markov chain-based battery ageing
model is proposed, keeping in view the replacement of worn-out batteries which would
be due for their replacement much earlier than the specified time of replacement. On the
other side, the successful deployment of electric vehicles is possible only when they are
reliable, safe and easy to maintain, as compared to the much popular and vastly deployed
internal combustion engine [17,18]. The work concentrates on a mathematical model of
EVs’ reliability aspect and maintainability aspect and its analysis of all significant electrical
and electronic components of EVs.
Section 2 deals with battery modeling, while Section 3 deals with a battery ageing and
replacement model. The electric vehicle’s architecture is framed, modeled for its operating
and fault conditions; the reliability and maintainability aspects are developed and analyzed
in Section 5. The results are discussed in Section 6. The significant contributions of this
paper are as follows:
(i) Analysis of battery equivalent circuit model is carried out and substantiates that the 3
R-C model provides the best behavior of battery subjected to variations in temperature;
(ii) Development of stochastic model of battery ageing and replacement scheme, provid-
ing a systematic approach for replacing the aged batteries and, thus, avoiding system
failure and exorbitant investment in replacing the battery pack at once;
(iii) Reliability assessment of electric vehicle is carried out which states that, with the
required maintainability aspect, the life of the electric vehicle can be extended;
(iv) Diesel-renewable-based electric vehicle charging system assessment is carried out for
techno-economic and environmental issues on raising carbon emissions.

2. Battery Modeling
Battery modeling is significant, as it is the key factor in developing improved charging
and discharging schemes. This also helps in preventing the battery from overcharging
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 22

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 80 Battery modeling is significant, as it is the key factor in developing improved charg- 3 of 21
ing and discharging schemes. This also helps in preventing the battery from overcharging
and undercharging, thereby preventing potential damage to the batteries. Overall, battery
modeling provides operating
and undercharging, thereby limits that guide
preventing potentialthe damage
best usage of batteries.
to the batteries. Amongst dif-
Overall, battery
ferent types of battery models, the equivalent circuit model is the most
modeling provides operating limits that guide the best usage of batteries. Amongst different suitable to repre-
sent the of
types features
batteryofmodels,
the battery [19,20]. Thecircuit
the equivalent run-time-based
model is the equivalent circuittomodel
most suitable pairsthe
represent
electrical
featuresnetwork with[19,20].
of the battery lookupThe tables to determine
run-time-based the parameters
equivalent circuit modelof the
pairsbattery.
electrical
Thevenin’s
network with models provide
lookup tables models based on
to determine theR-C networks,
parameters of which give steady-state
the battery. Thevenin’s modelsand
transient
providebehavior
models to the battery.
based on R-C Circuit
networks, parameters
which give are also obtainedand
steady-state by an approach
transient that
behavior
compares the battery
to the battery. model
Circuit simulation
parameters aretoalso
the actual
obtainedbattery
by an response.
approach Thethat
work proposesthe
compares
thebattery
lithium-ion
modelbattery
simulationmodel to under dynamic
the actual batteryloading
response.conditions,
The work asproposes
per definedthe standard
lithium-ion
drive cycles.
battery modelTheunder
literature
dynamic proposes
loadingequivalent
conditions,circuit
as per models
defined with n number
standard of R-C
drive cycles. The
branches
literatureto proposes
representequivalent
the behavior of the
circuit battery.
models with However,
n number theofcomplexity
R-C branches andtocompu-
represent
the behavior
tational ability ofofthethecircuit
battery. However,
increases withthethe complexity
increase in the andnumber
computational ability of the
of R-C components.
Thecircuit
workincreases
proposeswith thatthetheincrease in the is
3 R-C model number of R-Ctocomponents.
best suited represent theThe work proposes
behavior of the
that the 3 R-C model is best
battery based on experimental validation. suited to represent the behavior of the battery based on
experimental
An equivalent validation.
circuit model was developed to estimate the behavior of the lithium
battery.An Theequivalent circuitfor
model selected model was developed
the work to estimate
is INR18650-20R. Thisthe behavior
model of the lithium
was further vali-
battery.
dated The model
by using selectedcurrent
the dynamic for the work
profileis test,
INR18650-20R.
which has This model wasof
the advantage further validated
regenerative
by usingAn
breaking. theequivalent
dynamic current circuitprofile
modeltest, whichof
consists has
anthe advantage
ideal voltageofsource,
regenerative
the R-C breaking.
net-
An equivalent circuit model consists of an ideal voltage source, the
work, which represents the characteristics of the cell, including the internal resistance that R-C network, which
represents
plays a majorthe rolecharacteristics
in defining the of cell
the cell, including
behavior. Eachthe internal
element of resistance
the circuitthat plays a major
is a function of
SOC and temperature. In Figure 1a–e, 1 R-C to 5 R-C models are represented. of SOC and
role in defining the cell behavior. Each element of the circuit is a function
temperature. In Figure 1a–e, 1 R-C to 5 R-C models are represented.

C1 (SOC, T)

IL
R0 (SOC, T)

R1 (SOC, T)

+
+ V1 - VL
Vocv (SOC, T)

(a) (b)

(c)

(d)
Figure 1. Cont.
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World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 22
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 80 4 of 21

(e)(e)
Figure 1. Equivalent circuit model of battery.
Figure 1. 1.
Figure Equivalent circuit
Equivalent model
circuit ofof
model battery.
battery.

The
The
The voltage
voltage
voltage equation,
VLV
equation,
equation, ,VisLL,given
,isisgiven
byby
given Equation
by
EquationEquation(1).(1).
An An
(1). Incremental
An Incremental
Incremental Open
Open Circuit
Open
Circuit Volt-
Circuit
Volt-
ageage (OCV)
Voltage
(OCV) testtest
(OCV) at
attest different
at different
different temperatures
temperatures
temperatures isisemployed
employed
is employed to toto estimate
thethe
estimate
estimate the parameters,
parameters,
parameters, using
using
using
the
the
the developed models,
developedmodels,
developed models,whichwhich
whichare are given
aregiven in Figure
givenininFigure
Figure2.2. 2.
𝐼 𝑉 𝐼 𝑉  R 𝐼 𝐼 𝑉 𝑉 
𝑉= V= 𝑉 − t 𝐼IL −𝑉V1 − t𝐼 IL −𝑉V2
−−− 0 CL𝐶 −−−R𝑅3 C3 3𝐶
R  R
t I V
V𝑉L = 𝑉OCV− − − 1𝑅C1𝐶 −
− − − 𝑅
−
R 0 𝐶C1𝐶 𝑅R𝐶  R 0𝐶C2𝐶 𝑅 R𝐶 2 C2𝐶
𝐶 3
𝑅 𝐶 (1)
(1)(1)

− 0 CIL4 − RV𝐼4 C4 4𝐼 −𝑉 𝑉0 CIL5 − R𝐼V5 C5 5𝐼 −𝑉 IL𝑉R0
t t

−− − − 𝑅 𝐶− − − − 𝑅 𝐶 − 𝐼−𝑅𝐼 𝑅
𝐶 𝐶 𝑅 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝑅 𝐶

Figure2.2.(A)
(A)Incremental
IncrementalOpen
OpenCircuit
CircuitVoltage
Voltageload
loadprofile.
profile. (B)SOC
SOCunder
underparameter
parameterestimation.
estimation.
Figure
Figure 2. (A) Incremental Open Circuit Voltage load profile. (B)(B)
SOC under parameter estimation.
(C)
(C) Simulated
Simulated and
and experimental
experimental voltage response.
voltageresponse.
response.
(C) Simulated and experimental voltage

3.3.Stochastic
Stochastic Model
Model of Battery Ageing and Replacement
3. Stochastic Model of of Battery
Battery Ageing
Ageing andand Replacement
Replacement
Problems
Problems associated
associated with
with the battery can be categorized into two groups, as shown
Problems associated with thethe battery
battery cancan
be be categorized
categorized intointo
twotwo groups,
groups, as as shown
shown
in
in Figure
Figure 3.3.TheThe energy
energy demand
demand for
for higher
higher energy
energy densities,
densities, especially
especially inin lithium-based
lithium-based
in Figure 3. The energy demand for higher energy densities, especially in lithium-based
batteries,
batteries, isis increasing.
increasing. Various
Various chemistries
chemistries are proposed in meeting the higher power
batteries, is increasing. Various chemistries areare proposed
proposed in in meeting
meeting thethe higher
higher power
power
levels,
levels, but
but these
these advantages
advantages come
comewith the
with caveat
the of
caveat having
of considerable
having considerable change in
change volumes
in vol-
levels, but these advantages come with the caveat of having considerable change in vol-
of silicon particles duringduring
lithiation and de-lithiation, causing the instability of the ofsolid
umes of silicon particles during lithiation and de-lithiation, causing the instability of thethe
umes of silicon particles lithiation and de-lithiation, causing the instability
electrolyte
solid interphase
electrolyte (SEI) formed
interphase (SEI) on electrodes
formed [21–23].[21–23].
Battery Battery
degradation refers mainly
solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formed onon electrodes
electrodes [21–23]. Battery degradation
degradation refers
refers
to the loss
mainly to ofthethe charge-holding
loss of the capacity of
charge-holding the battery
capacity of and
the increase
battery inincrease
and its internal in resistance.
its internal
mainly to the loss of the charge-holding capacity of the battery and increase in its internal
Degradation
resistance. prediction can
Degradation be well can
prediction classified
be well into two groups:
classified into twobased on calendar
groups: based ageing
resistance.
and based Degradation
on prediction
charge–discharge can beThe
cycles. well classified
paper is into
based two
on the groups:
former based
concept. onon calen-
calen-
dar ageing and based on charge–discharge cycles. The paper
dar ageing and based on charge–discharge cycles. The paper is based on the former con- is based on the former con-
cept.
cept.
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Figure 3.
Figure 3. Battery errors.
errors.

As the
the batteries
batteries contribute significantly to the cost of the EV, EV, the
the manufacturers
manufacturers are are
compelled
compelled to ensureensurethat thatthethebattery
batterylife life
is is maximized,
maximized, so so
as toasreduce
to reduce the operational
the operational cost
cost and replacement
and replacement cost. As cost. As a result,
a result, identifying
identifying aging and aging and malfunctioning
malfunctioning batteriesbatteries
and de-
and developing
veloping analytical analytical
modelsmodels
for theirforreplacement
their replacement is important
is important [24]. Leading
[24]. Leading battery battery
man-
manufacturers
ufacturers devise policies to replace the battery based on calendar ageing, while the the
devise policies to replace the battery based on calendar ageing, while in-
industries
dustries will willsetsetitsitsown
owntimelines
timelinestotoreplace
replacethe thebatteries.
batteries.In Inthe
the case
case ofof electric
electric vehicles,
the
the possible
possiblereplacement
replacementwill willbebesetset
by by
thethe
manufacturer.
manufacturer. Some of the
Some ofpolicies are mentioned
the policies are men-
in References
tioned [25–27].[25–27].
in References
Considering
Considering the the inherent
inherent irregularities
irregularities associated
associated with with thethe battery,
battery, the the replacement
replacement
process has to be carefully designed so as to replace only
process has to be carefully designed so as to replace only those batteries that arethose batteries that are underper-
under-
forming, while retaining the other batteries, thus avoiding one-shot
performing, while retaining the other batteries, thus avoiding one-shot exorbitant rein- exorbitant reinvestment
at the end at
vestment of the
the end
specified
of thetime period.
specified As period.
time per the AsPerperGreen
the CarPer Reports,
Green Car 2011–2014
Reports,model2011–
Nissan make Leafs having 24 kWh battery pack costs 5500
2014 model Nissan make Leafs having 24 kWh battery pack costs 5500 USD for replace- USD for replacement, while
2017
ment,makewhileChevrolet
2017 make Bolt having 60
Chevrolet BoltkWh battery
having packbattery
60 kWh costs around
pack costs15,000 USD 15,000
around for re-
placement [28,29]. This[28,29].
USD for replacement exorbitant
This one-shot
exorbitant battery
one-shot replacement cost can be avoided
battery replacement cost can by be
predicting the battery behavior and replacing only that malfunctioning
avoided by predicting the battery behavior and replacing only that malfunctioning battery. The predic-
bat-
tion
tery.ofThe
theprediction
battery lifeofand theits longevity
battery life andis essential for any
its longevity system dependent
is essential for any system on thedepend-
battery
bank. The prediction and assessment are challenging tasks, as they require a complex and
ent on the battery bank. The prediction and assessment are challenging tasks, as they re-
expensive experimental setup and rigorous calculations. The development of degradation
quire a complex and expensive experimental setup and rigorous calculations. The devel-
models helps in predicting the degradation of the battery. The literature provides several
opment of degradation models helps in predicting the degradation of the battery. The
ageing models. However, most of the models consume high amounts of data and involve
literature provides several ageing models. However, most of the models consume high
a high number of iterations to compute the result. Some of the models require rigorous
amounts of data and involve a high number of iterations to compute the result. Some of
training [30–32].
the models require rigorous training [30–32].
In the literature, calendar ageing models for Li-ion batteries using transfer learning
In the literature, calendar ageing models for Li-ion batteries using transfer learning
methods were discussed and presented. Characterization test data of the battery, storage
methods were discussed and presented. Characterization test data of the battery, storage
temperature, SOC and estimated previous time step were fed as input to the neural network,
temperature, SOC and estimated previous time step were fed as input to the neural net-
resulting in the lost capacity of the battery. Due to the overfit, the model prediction was
work, resulting in the lost capacity of the battery. Due to the overfit, the model prediction
found to be poor.
was found to be poor.
3.1. Importance of Battery Calendar Ageing
3.1. Importance of Battery Calendar Ageing
The development of the Solid Electrolyte Interface (SEI) on the negative electrode is
The development
the major contributor for ofcalendar
the Solidageing.
Electrolyte
CyclingInterface
ageing(SEI) on thedue
is mainly negative
to lithium electrode
plating is
thethe
of major contributor
negative electrode.for calendar
As EVsageing.
spend Cycling
most of ageing
the time is mainly due to lithium
at rest having plating
lower current
of the negative
levels around 3C electrode. As EVs ageing
[33], calendar spend most of theof battery
the timealsoat rest having alower
becomes vitalcurrent
factor in levels
the
around 3C [33],
development calendar
of the battery ageing
ageing ofand
the replacement
battery also becomes
model. SEI a vital factor on
formation in the develop-
negative
ment of the
electrode battery
results in the ageing and replacement
consumption of cyclable model.
lithium SEIcontent,
formation on the
leading negative
to an increaseelec-
in
trode results in the consumption of cyclable lithium content, leading
the value of electrode impedance. In the acceleration stage, capacity fade is faster, due to to an increase in the
value
SEI of electrode
formation on the impedance. In theWith
anode surface. acceleration
the increasestage,in capacity
SEI interface,fade there
is faster,
is andue to SEI
isolation
formation
effect on theonelectrode,
the anode surface.
thus Withinthe
resulting increasein
decrement inchemical
SEI interface, there
reaction is This
rate. an isolation
results
effect
in the on the electrode,
stabilization mode thus
of resulting
the battery, in decrement
as shown in inFigure
chemical reaction
4. At rate. This
this stage, results
the battery
performance gradually
in the stabilization mode drops down
of the and as
battery, eventually
shown inleads Figure to 4.
early cutoff
At this voltage
stage, for the
the battery
performance gradually drops down and eventually leads to early cutoff voltage for the
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battery.
battery.InIn
Inthe saturation
the saturationstage, the the
stage, poorpoor
capacity on theon
capacity cathode makes the
the cathode
cathode makes cathode quickly
the cathode
cathode
battery. the saturation stage, the poor capacity on the makes the
saturate
quickly during discharge,
saturate during and alsoand
discharge, quickly
also deplete
quickly during
deplete charge.
during The capacity
charge. The fade in
capacity
quickly saturate during discharge, and also quickly deplete during charge. The capacity
the discharged
fade in the curves ofcurves
discharged an aged of battery
an aged isbattery
shown isinshown
Figure in
5, which
Figure indicates
5, which aindicates
high ratea
fade in the discharged curves of an aged battery is shown in Figure 5, which indicates a
of capacity
high rate ofoffade in thefade
capacity initial
in cycles, duecycles,
the initial
initial to SEI.due
Moreover,
to SEI. the cycling the
SEI. Moreover,
Moreover, aging affects
cycling the
aging
high rate capacity fade in the cycles, due to the cycling aging
concentration
affects the and volume
the concentration
concentration and of the
and volume battery.
volume of The
of the battery
the battery. aging
battery. The is
The battery path-dependent,
battery aging
aging is especially
is path-dependent,
path-dependent,
affects
when the battery
especially when is subjected
the battery istosubjected
power cyclesto and calendar
power cycles periods
and [33].
calendar periods [33].
especially when the battery is subjected to power cycles and calendar periods [33].

Figure4.
Figure
Figure 4. Decrement
4. Decrementin
Decrement inchemical
in chemicalreaction
chemical reactionrate.
reaction rate.
rate.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Capacity
Capacity fade
fade in
in aged
aged battery.
battery.
Figure 5. Capacity fade in aged battery.

3.2. Markov
3.2.
3.2. Markov Model
Markov Model for
Model for Battery
for Battery Ageing
Battery Ageingand
Ageing andReplacement
and Replacement
Replacement
AsMarkov
As
As Markovmodels
Markov modelsare
models arebeing
are beingused
being usedtoto
used tocharacterize
characterizethe
characterize the
theEV EV
EV behaviors
behaviors
behaviors in
inin various
various
various mobil-
mobility
mobil-
ity scenarios,
scenarios,
ity scenarios, we provide
we provide
we provide Markov
Markov chain
Markov chain analysis
analysis
chain where
analysis where it
it canitbe
where can be integrated
integrated
can with
with awith
be integrated a
batterybattery
man-
a battery
management
agement system.
system. Considering
Considering the the activity
activity of of
EVs, EVs,
the the operation
operation of EV
management system. Considering the activity of EVs, the operation of EV can be catego-of EV
can becan be catego-
categorized
rized
into
rized intomain
three
into threecases,
three mainnamely
main cases, namely
cases, namely
EVs EVsEVs
at rest,
EVs at rest,
at rest,
in EVsmode
drive
EVs in drive
in drive mode
and EVs
mode and
in and
chargeEVs
EVs in charge
period
in charge
only.
period
These only.
models These
are models
represented arebyrepresented
Figures 6–8by Figures 6–8
respectively.
period only. These models are represented by Figures 6–8 respectively. respectively.
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Figure 6. Batterymodel
Figure modelfor
forEVs
EVsat
atrest,
rest,where
whereState
StateAAcorresponds
correspondsto to100%
100%SOC,
SOC,State
StateBBcorresponds
corresponds
Figure6.6.Battery
BatteryFigure
model6.for EVs atmodel
Battery rest, where State
for EVs A corresponds
at rest, where State to
A 100% SOC, State
corresponds B corresponds
to 100% SOC, State B corresp
to
to 50% SOC and State C corresponds to 0% SOC.
to50%
50% SOC
SOC and
and State
to 50%
State C corresponds
CSOC and Stateto
corresponds toC0% SOC.
corresponds
0% SOC. to 0% SOC.

Figure7.
Figure
Figure 7.Battery
7. BatteryFigure
Battery discharge
discharge
discharge model.
7. Battery
model.
model. discharge model.

Figure 8.
Figure8. Battery
8.Battery charge–discharge
BatteryFigure model.
8. Battery charge–discharge
charge–discharge model. model.
Figure charge–discharge model.
In the first caseIn where EVscase
the first are at rest, the EVs are parked theand are not connected to any
In the
In the first
first case
case where
where EVs are
EVs arewhere
at rest,EVs
at rest, theare
the EVs
EVs at arerest,
are parked
parked EVs and
and areare
are parked and are
not connected
not connected not
to connecte
to
charger. This condition
anycondition provides
charger. This only one
condition scenario
provides where the
only where battery
one scenario remains
where in its present
the battery remains
any
any charger.
charger. This
This provides only one scenario the battery remains in its
state. Referring to condition
the model
present state.
provides
below,
Referring
only
if the one scenario
to battery
the model Statewhere
is inbelow, Aif (e.g.,the
theState
battery
State
battery
remains in its
Aiscorresponding
in State
State A (e.g.,toState A c
A corre-
present
present state. Referring
state.itReferring to the model below, if the battery is in A (e.g.,
100% SOC), remains
sponding intoto thesame
the model
100% SOC),
below,
state. if the battery
itSimilarly,
remains inthe the
is incan
battery
same state.
State be Aany(e.g.,
Similarly, stateState A corre-
represented
the battery can be any
sponding
sponding to 100% SOC), it remains in the same state. Similarly, the battery can be anystatestate
as State B to 100%
(e.g., SOC),
State
represented
it remains in the
B corresponding
as State B to 50%
(e.g.,
same
State
state.and
SOC) B
Similarly,
State C the
corresponding (e.g., battery
to State
50% Ccan
SOC)
be any
corresponding
representedas
represented asState
StateBB(e.g., (e.g.,StateStateBBcorresponding
correspondingto to50%50%SOC) SOC)and andStateStateCC(e.g., (e.g.,State CC (e.g., Sta
and State
to 20% SOC). Also, when the
corresponding battery
to 20% is in this
SOC). Also, state,
when it the
is possible
battery toinanalyze
is this theiteffect
state, of to ana
is possible
corresponding to20%
corresponding 20%SOC). SOC).Also, Also,when whenthe thebattery
batteryisisin inthis
thisstate,
state,ititisispossible
possibleto toanalyze
analyze
charge leakage,to self-discharge
the effect of charge and other effects
leakage, self-discharge inside the battery.
andinside However,
other effects considering
insideHowever,
the battery. How
the effectof
the of charge leakage, self-discharge andother othereffectseffects thebattery.
battery.
the effect
effect of charge
charge leakage,
and discharge
considering
self-discharge
the effect onofthe charge
and
battery, and the effect of
discharge
inside
the
onthe
the
above
theeffect
battery, said the
However,
parameters
effect said
of the above
considering
considering the effect of charge and discharge on the
the effect of charge and discharge on the battery, the effect of the above said battery, of the above
could be neglected. parameters could be neglected.
parameterscould
parameters couldbe beneglected.
neglected.
The second case The is second
where EVs’ case mode
is where canEVs’ be further
mode can subdivided
be furtherinto two categories,
subdivided into two catego
namely The
The(i) second
second
EVs namelycase
incase isiswhere
the discharge whereEVs’ EVs’
cycle mode
mode
and can
can
(ii) EVs bein
be further
further subdivided
subdivided
discharge-and-charge into
into twocategories,
two
cycle. categories,
EVs in the cycle. EV
namely (i) (i)cycle
EVs in in the (i) EVs
discharge in the
cycle discharge
and (ii)thecycle
EVs and (ii) EVs
in discharge-and-charge
discharge-and-charge in discharge-and-charge
cycle. EVs EVs in in
namely
discharge EVs aretheEVs discharge arecycle
that cycle inareuse,and with(ii) EVs in
batteries being cycle.
the discharge the
cycle discharge
are EVs that are in EVs
use, that
with arethe in batteries
use, with thedrained
being batteries
drained
continuously
being drained
continuously
to continuo
the
powerdischarge cycle
the vehicle. to are
It isEVs
power the that
inherent
vehicle. are
thatin
It use,
the
is with the
battery
inherent batteries
is discharged
that the batterybeing drained
inis this mode.
discharged continuously
The
in EVmode.
this can The EV
topower
to
be power
assumed theto
the vehicle.
vehicle.
return ItIt isisinherent
back inherent
to return
its own thatcharging
that thebattery
the battery isischarging
station discharged
discharged
(starting ininthis
point this mode.
ofmode.
the drive Thecycle
The EVcan
EV can
ordrive cyc
be assumed to be assumed
return back to
to its own back to
charging its own
station (starting station
point (starting
of the point
drive of
cycle theor
pavilion) or
be assumed to return any intermittent
pavilion) back ortoany station
itsintermittentafter
own charging it reaches
station
station the
after predefined
(starting
it reachespoint thedepleted
ofpredefined state
the drive cycle which
depleted or state w
pavilion)
corresponds
pavilion) or any
or any intermittent
tocorresponds
the point where
intermittent station
the
station EVafter
after mustit reaches
be
it reaches charged. the
themust predefined
The
predefined model depleted
can
depleted state
bemodel
represented
state whichwhich
corresponds to the
the point to
where thethe point
the EV where
EV mustconsists the EV
be charged.
charged. be charged.
Thestates,
model The
can be be represented
represented can be represe
by n states. However,
corresponds to by npoint thewhere
states. model
However, represented
the must
model berepresented of eight The model
consists beginning
can
ofbeginning
eight states,from 100%
beginning
by
SOC
by n states.
n states. However,
of the However,
battery, the
represented
the model
model by represented
State
represented 0, down consists
to
consists 30% of
of eight
SOC,
eight states,
represented
states, beginning by Statefrom
from 7, 100% from 1
which
100%
SOC of the battery, represented by State 0, down to 30% SOC, represented by Sta
SOC
is
SOC of the
assumed
of theto battery,
be
battery, represented
the represented
depleted state.by State
by State 0,0, downdown to to 30%
30% SOC, SOC, represented
represented by by State
State 7,7,
which is assumed to be the depleted state.
which isisassumed
The assumed
probability tobebethe
matrix thedepleted
depleted
‘m’ of the state.
battery
which to The probability state.
matrix ‘m’ discharge
of the battery model is represented
discharge model isinrepresented(2). The in (2)
The
probability probability
with
The probability which matrix
there
matrixwith ‘m’
is
‘m’ whichof
change the
of the there battery
in the
battery discharge
states
dischargeis model
represented
model isby
is isrepresented
,
represented where nin
inbyis(2).
from
(2). The 0
probability is change in the states λ n
represented 𝜆 The
, where n is
probability with
probability with0 which which there
there is
is change
change in
in the
the states
states is
is represented
represented by
by 𝜆𝜆 , , where
where nn is
is from
from
to 6, representing transition numbers. Various state equations are represented in E
00toto6,6,representing
representingtransition transitionnumbers.
tions (3) and (4),
numbers.Various Variousstate
where S1 represents
stateequations
equationsare
State 1, S2 represents
arerepresented
representedin in Equa-
State 2 andEqua- so on.
tions (3) and (4), where S1 represents State 1,
tions (3) and (4), where S1 represents State 1, S2 represents State 2 and so on. S2 represents State 2 and so on.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 80 8 of 21

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8

to 6, representing transition numbers. Various state equations are represented in Equations

(3) and (4), where S1 represents State 1, S2 represents State 2 and so on.
0 𝜆 0 0 0 0 0 0
⎡ ⎤
0 λ0 0 0 00 0 0 𝜆 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
⎢ ⎥
 0 0 λ1 0 ⎢00 0 0 0 0 𝜆 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥
2 ⎢00 0 0 0 0 0 0 𝜆  0 0 0⎥
 
 0 0 0 𝑚λ=
⎢0λ3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 𝜆 0 0⎥
 
 0 0 0 0
m=  0 0 ⎢00 0λ4 0 0 0 0 0 0 𝜆

0⎥ (2)
0 0
⎢
0 00 0 0 0 λ5 0 0 0 0 0 𝜆 ⎥
 
 0 0 0 
⎣ ⎦
0 00 0 0 0 0 0 λ6 0 0 0 0

 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
𝜆 𝑆 =𝑆
λ 0 S0 = S1 (3)
𝜆 𝑆 = 𝑆 and so on, till 𝜆 𝑆 = 𝑆
λ1 S1 = S2 and so on, till λ6 S6 = S7 (4)
The second subdivision, which corresponds to EVs in charge and discharge m
The second subdivision,
suggests that thewhich corresponds
batteries to EVs in
are discharged tocharge
powerandthe discharge
vehicle and mode,
also that EV
suggests that the batteries are discharged to power the vehicle and also that EVs are parked
parked with an available charging slot that charges the battery. In this scenario, the b
with an available
cancharging slot that
be discharged charges
to any statethe
andbattery. In this
is charged scenario,
from the battery
that particular statecan
to any state
be discharged neither
to any that
statebattery
and isischarged from that particular state to any state.
to be discharged to a depleted state only nor charged It isto the com
neither that battery
levelisonly.
to beIn
discharged to aany
either case, depleted state only
intermittent nor are
values charged to the complete
acceptable, and the model c
level only. In either case, any intermittent values are acceptable,
represented accordingly. Here, the model in Figure 8 representsand the model
100% can
SOC be to be the
represented accordingly. Here, the model in Figure 8 represents 100% SOC to be
pletely charged level and 30% SOC as the depleted state. The probability matrix ‘n’ the
completely charged level
battery and 30%model
discharge SOC as is the depleted state.
represented in (5),The probability
where matrixthe
𝜇 represents ‘n’ probability
of
the battery discharge model is represented in (5), where µ
which the battery is restored to its previous state.represents the probability with
which the battery is restored to its previous state.
0 𝜆 0 0 0 0 0 0
⎡
0 𝜇0 00 0𝜆 00 0 0 ⎤
0 0 0 0
 
λ0
 µ0 0 λ1 ⎢ 00 𝜇
0 00 0𝜆 0 0 
0 0 0
⎥
0 ⎢ λ2 0 ⎥
 
0 0 0 0 
0 0 𝜇 0 𝜆 0 0 0⎥
 µ1
𝑛µ=2 ⎢ 0

0 0 λ3 0 0 0 
0 ⎢ µ03 00 λ40 𝜇 0 0 𝜆 0 0 ⎥ (5)

n= 
 0 0 0 
0 ⎢0 0 µ0 00 λ5 0 0 𝜇 0 𝜆 0⎥
 
 0 0 4
0 ⎢0 00 µ50 0 0 λ6 0 𝜇 0 𝜆 ⎥
 
 0 0 0 
0 0 0 ⎣0 0 00 00 µ6 0 0 0 0 𝜇 0⎦
It the
It is clear that, in is clear
last that, in thewhen
division, last division,
the battery when
is inthe
thebattery
chargeisperiod,
in the charge period, the b
the battery
gets charged form getsthe
charged form
level it is the level
discharged to.itConsidering
is discharged thatto.
theConsidering thatcharged
battery is being the battery is
from the emptycharged from
state, i.e., the7,empty
State state,can
the model i.e.,be
State 7, the model
represented as incan be represented
Figure 9. as in Figur

Figure 9. BatteryFigure
charge9.model.
Battery charge model.

Considering the manufacturers’ advice on the replacing of the batteries at the end
Considering the manufacturers’ advice on the replacing of the batteries at the e
of the specified duration, it can well be accounted that systematic replacement is a must
the specified duration, it can well be accounted that systematic replacement is a mu
for replacing worn-out battery immediately after a year. Likewise, an approximate life
replacing worn-out battery immediately after a year. Likewise, an approximate lif
estimate of the batteries can be devised, as mentioned in Table 1, considering a whole
mate of the batteries can be devised, as mentioned in Table 1, considering a whole
sum replacement period of 8 years or 96 months. After 96 months, all the batteries are
replacement period of 8 years or 96 months. After 96 months, all the batteries are rep
Thus, in the specified the time interval of 96 months, an approximate life estimate o
teries is devised such that it adheres to the condition mentioned in (6).
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 80 9 of 21

replaced. Thus, in the specified the time interval of 96 months, an approximate life estimate
of batteries is devised such that it adheres to the condition mentioned in (6).
8
∑ mi = 100% (6)
i =1

Table 1. Battery replacement indicator.

Sl No. Months Percentage of Replacement (%)

1 12 1
2 24 3
3 36 5
4 48 10
5 60 15
6 72 20
7 84 26
8 96 20

If a battery is in the nth year, then it can either become 0 years old if replaced or can
be a (n + 1)-year-old battery; this is a clear indication that the present age of the battery is
dependent on its previous age. This scenario was accounted for, and a systematic model
was developed by using Markov chain.
According to the Markov model, the initial computation matrix, P(0), is represented
in Equation (7). Transition probability matrix, mn , for n step is represented in Equation (8).
Using the theorem of total probability, we see that the consecutive transition of the states is
given by Equation (9). The probability of the state of the system, p j , after first transition can
be represented by Equation (10).
 
P (0) = p1 (0) p2 (0) . . . p m (0) (7)

(1 − m0.1 − m1.0 )n
   
n 1 m1.0 m0.1 m0.1 −m0.1
m = + (8)
m0.1 + m1.0 m1.0 m0.1 m0.1 + m1.0 −m1.0 m1.0
 
m(0) = β, 1 − β (9)
p j ( 1 ) = P ( X1 = j ) = ∑ P(X1 = j)|X0 = i) P(X0 = i) (10)
1

As the number of states considered is finite in number, the Markov chain is said to be
ergodic, and the values of pj must be unique.

4. Maintainability and Reliability Model of Electric Vehicle

The life cycle of a battery can contain a decreasing failure rate in early life, a sustained
failure rate in its utility period and increasing failure rate during the end of its life cycle.
The probability that a failure might not occur in the specified time interval is termed
reliability [34]. There are several factors that contribute to the failure of a system. Indigent
design and erroneous manufacturing techniques would contribute mainly to the failure,
while incorrect operation methods, lack of system understanding and lack of skill set would
add significantly to the failure of the system. Despite the best efforts, no system can be
100% reliable, and any system is bound to fail during its operation, which proves costly in
terms of money, time and safety. This leads to substantial maintainability of the system,
which becomes an essential consideration in regard to the long-term performance of the
system. The system needs proper maintenance to avoid failures. Maintainability thus refers
to restoring a faulty system back to its operational state in a specified time interval. The
reliability and maintainability of the system forms the basis for the assessment of system
availability which in turn integrates the system operation time, system fault identification
time and its restoration time [35–37] Most of the analytical system considers only the failure
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 22

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 80 10 of 21

fault identification time and its restoration time [35–37] Most of the analytical system con-
siders only the failure characteristics, while the repair process is considered to be negligi-
ble. However, it
characteristics, is anthe
while important metricisto
repair process be considered
considered to design the
to be negligible. system.
However, it The
is anMarkov
framework
important metric to be considered to design the system. The Markov framework takesframework
takes the edge off this and provides a substantial model. The basic the
is shown
edge in and
off this Figure 10. a substantial model. The basic framework is shown in Figure 10.
provides

10. State
Figure 10.
Figure Statespace
spacerepresentation of system
representation in operation
of system and system
in operation in fault.in fault.
and system

As shown in Figure 10, the parameter α represents the probability of change in the
As shown in Figure 10, the parameter 𝛼 represents the probability of change in the
system from state of operation to fault state, and β represents the probability of change
system from from
in the system state state
of operation
of fault toto fault
state of state, 𝛽 represents
and which
operation, the probability
can be represented of change
as ratios
in the system
mentioned from state
in Equations (11)ofand
fault toThe
(12). state of rate
fault operation, which
and repair canbe
rate can betermed
represented
as meanas ratios
mentioned
operating timein Equations (11) and
and mean down (12).
time. TheThe fault rate
transition and repairfrom
probabilities rateState
can be termed
A to State Bas mean
operating time
for the system and mean
shown down
in Figure time.
10 can The transition
be represented probabilities
in a probability from State
transition A as
matrix, to State B
given
for theinsystem
Equation (13). in Figure 10 can be represented in a probability transition matrix, as
shown
given in Equation (13).
numbero f f aultsinspeci f iedtime
α= (11)
durationo𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
f operatingconditiono f thesystem
𝛼= (11)
𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
numbero f repairsinspeci f iedtime
β= (12)
durationo f repairmechanismo f thesystem
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝛽= (12)
𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
 
1−α α
x= (13)
β 1−β
1−𝛼 𝛼
For the system with continuous faults 𝑥 = and repairs, the probability density function (13)
𝛽 1 − 𝛽 m(t), of the system at any
is always exponential. The reliability, r(t), and maintainability,
time,For
‘t’, is
thedefined
systembywith
Equations (14) and
continuous (15).and
faults Forrepairs,
a systemthe
such as the electric
probability vehicle
density function is
(EV), as shown in Figure 11, the entire unit can be divided into two major units categorized
always exponential. The reliability, r(t), and maintainability, m(t), of the system at any
as the Energy Unit (EU) and Propulsion Unit (PU). The EU comprises the Battery Unit
time, ‘t’, is defined by Equations (14) and (15). For a system such as the electric vehicle
(BU), Charge Control Unit (CCU) and Energy Management Unit (EMU), while the PU
(EV), as shown
consists in Figure
of the power 11, the
converter entire
(PC), unit canmotor
propulsion be divided intovehicle
(PM) and two major units(VC).
controller categorized
as
Thethe EnergyofUnit
reliability (EU)
the EV and Propulsion
depends Unit of
on the reliability (PU). Theand
the EU EUPU,
comprises the in
as discussed Battery
the Unit
(BU), Charge
sections below. Control Unit (CCU) and Energy Management Unit (EMU), while the PU
−αt
consists of the power converter (PC),r (propulsion
t) = e motor (PM) and vehicle controller(14) (VC).
The reliability of the EV depends m
on(t)the
= 1reliability
− e− βt of the EU and PU, as discussed
(15) in the
sections below.
𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑒 (14)

𝑚(𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒 (15)
WorldElectr.
World Electr.Veh.
Veh.J.J.2022,
2022,13,
13,80
x FOR PEER REVIEW 11
11 of 22
of 21

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Electric-vehicle
Electric-vehicle unit
unit division.
division.

4.1.
4.1. Modeling
Modeling and
and Analysis
Analysis of
of Energy
Energy Unit
Unit (EU)
(EU)
The
The reliability of the electric vehicle depends
reliability of the electric vehicle depends mainly
mainly onon the
the Battery
Battery Unit
Unit (BU),
(BU), which
which
can
can be considered an essential part of the Energy Unit (EU) of the vehicle. At any
be considered an essential part of the Energy Unit (EU) of the vehicle. At any given
given
time,
time, thetheBU
BUmaymaybebe in in
either thethe
either ‘system in operation
‘system state’state’
in operation or ‘system in faultinstate’,
or ‘system fault which,
state’,
in turn,in
which, represents the state
turn, represents theofstate
the electric vehicle.
of the electric The faulty
vehicle. condition
The faulty of theofEU
condition themay
EU
occur due to two reasons. First, the battery might have lost all of its energy
may occur due to two reasons. First, the battery might have lost all of its energy in pow- in powering
up the vehicle—discharged state; and second, the battery would have lost its ability to
ering up the vehicle—discharged state; and second, the battery would have lost its ability
store charge—broken state. Along with BU fault, the units such as the Charge Control Unit
to store charge—broken state. Along with BU fault, the units such as the Charge Control
(CCU), which regulates the rate at which the battery is supplied with current for charging,
Unit (CCU), which regulates the rate at which the battery is supplied with current for
and the Energy Management Unit (EMU), which prevents the battery from overcharging
charging, and the Energy Management Unit (EMU), which prevents the battery from
and undercharging, also play an important role in maintaining the operating condition
overcharging and undercharging, also play an important role in maintaining the operat-
of an electric vehicle. As discussed in the case of the BU, the CCU and EMU also have
ing condition of an electric vehicle. As discussed in the case of the BU, the CCU and EMU
two states which can be in either the ‘system in operation state’ or ‘system in fault state’.
also have two states which can be in either the ‘system in operation state’ or ‘system in
Therefore, the three different systems in two conditions result in a total of eight transitional
fault state’. Therefore, the three different systems in two conditions result in a total of eight
combinations. Figure 12 shows the state space diagram of the EU, illustrating various
transitional combinations. Figure 12 shows the state space diagram of the EU, illustrating
transitions of different states. Moreover, αCCU , α BU and α EMU represent the fault rates and
various transitions of different states. Moreover, 𝛼 , 𝛼 and 𝛼 represent the fault
β CCU , β BU and β EMU represent the restoration rate of the CCC, BU and EU, respectively.
rates and 𝛽 , 𝛽 and 𝛽 represent the restoration rate
The state space transition matrix (SSTM) of the EU is represented in Equation of the CCC, BU and (16),EU, re-
where
spectively. The state space transition matrix (SSTM) of the EU is represented
α x , αy , and αz represent αCCU , α BU and α EMU , respectively, and β x , β y , and β z represent in Equation
β(16), where 𝛼 , 𝛼 , and 𝛼 represent 𝛼 , 𝛼 and 𝛼 , respectively, and 𝛽 , 𝛽 , and
CCU , β BU and β EMU , respectively.
𝛽 represent 𝛽 , 𝛽 and 𝛽 , respectively.
1−𝛼 −𝛼 −𝛼 𝛼 𝛼 𝛼 0 0 0 0
⎡ 1−α −α −α ⎤
𝛽x y z 1 − 𝛽 −α 𝛼x − 𝛼 0αy α0z 𝛼
0 00 0𝛼 0 0
⎢ ⎥
𝛽 βx 1 − β x0− αy − αz 1 − 𝛼 −0𝛽 − 𝛼 0
0 α𝛼y 0𝛼 αz 0 0 0
⎢ ⎥
⎢

𝛽 βy 00 1 − αx −
0 β y − αz 1 − 𝛼 −0 𝛼 − 𝛽 α0x α𝛼z 0𝛼 0 0 ⎥

𝑆𝑆𝑃𝑀 = ⎢  β 0 0 1 − α x − αy − β z 0 αy αx 0 ⎥ (16)
0 z 𝛽 𝛽 0 1−𝛽 −𝛽 −𝛼 0 0 𝛼 (16)

SSPM =
⎢
 0 βy βx 0 1 − β x − β y − αz 0 0 αz ⎥

0 0 𝛽 𝛽 0 1−𝛼 −𝛽 −𝛽 0 𝛼
⎢ 0 0 βz βy 0 1 − αx − βy − βz 0 αx ⎥
0 𝛽 0 𝛽 00 0 1 − 𝛽 − 𝛼 − 𝛽 𝛼

⎢  0 βz 0 βx 0 1 − β x − αy − β z αy ⎥
⎣ 0 0 00 00 0
0 β𝛽z β𝛽x β y𝛽 1−
1− β x𝛽− −
β y𝛽− −
βz 𝛽 ⎦
 World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 22
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 80 12 of 21

Figure
Figure12.
12.State
Statespace
spacediagram
diagramofofEnergy
EnergyUnit
Unit(EU).
(EU).

The
Theprobability
probabilitywith
withwhich
whicheach
eachstate occurs
state in in
occurs thethe
model shown
model in Figure
shown 12 can
in Figure be be
12 can
found
found by
byusing
usingEquations
Equations(17)–(24).
(17)–(24).
( ) 𝛽 𝛽 𝛽
(1𝑃
) = β CCU β BU β EMU (17)
PEU = (𝛼 + 𝛽 )(𝛼 + 𝛽 )(𝛼 +𝛽 ) (17)
(αCCU + β CCU )(α BU + β BU )(α EMU + β EMU )
( ) 𝑎 𝑏 𝑏
(2𝑃)
= = (𝑎
aCCU bBU bEMU (18)(18)
PEU + 𝑏 )(𝑎 + 𝑏 )(𝑎 +𝑏 )
( aCCU + bCCU )( a BU + bBU )( a EMU + bEMU )
(3) ( ) β𝛽CCU𝛼α BU𝛽β EMU
PEU𝑃 = = (19)(19)
(α(𝛼
CCU ++β𝛽CCU α BU +
)(𝛼
)( +𝛽β BU)(𝛼 +𝛽
)(α EMU ) )
+ β EMU
(4) β𝛽CCU𝛽β BU𝛼α EMU
PEU𝑃(=) = (20)
(20)
CCU ++β𝛽CCU)(𝛼
(α(𝛼 )(α BU ++𝛽β BU)(𝛼 )(α EMU+𝛽 + β EMU
) )
(5) αCCU α BU β EMU
PEU (=) 𝛼α 𝛼+ 𝛽 (21)
𝑃 = (αCCU + β CCU )( BU β BU )(α EMU + β EMU ) (21)
(𝛼 + 𝛽 )(𝛼 + 𝛽 )(𝛼 +𝛽 )
(6) β CCU α BU α EMU
PEU = (22)
( ) ( αCCU + β CCU )( 𝛽α BU𝛼 + 𝛼β BU )(α EMU + β EMU )
𝑃 = (22)
(7)
(𝛼 + 𝛽 )(𝛼 αCCU β+BU 𝛽 α )(𝛼 +𝛽 )
EMU
PEU = (23)
(αCCU + β CCU )( 𝛼
α BU𝛽+ 𝛼β BU )(α EMU + β EMU )
( )
𝑃 = (23)
PEU = (𝛼 + 𝛽 )(𝛼
(8) αCCU α+BU 𝛽 α EMU
)(𝛼 +𝛽 ) (24)
(αCCU + β CCU )(α BU + β BU )(α EMU + β EMU )
( ) 𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
𝑃 =
The EU will be functional provided that all the other units are functional, that is, as
(24)
(𝛼 (1) + 𝛽 )(𝛼 + 𝛽 )(𝛼 +𝛽 )
represented by the equation PEU , which is, in turn, representing the availability of the
The The
system. EU will be functional
remaining states,(provided
which that all the
represent otherone
at least units
of are
the functional,
units in faultthatcondition,
is, as
)
represented by thetoequation
makes the system enter into 𝑃 fault
, which
state.is, in turn,
Thus, representing the
the unavailability availability
of the EU, UEU ,of is the
the net
system. The remaining states, which represent at least one of the units in fault
probability of these seven states and can be calculated from Equation (25). After eliminating condition,
makes thestates,
the fault systemtheto state
enter space
into fault state. Thus,
transition matrix thereduces
unavailability of the EU,
to the matrix SSPMUEU, is the
Q given by
net probability
Equation (26). of these seven states and can be calculated from Equation (25). After elim-
inating the fault states, the state space transition 8 matrix reduces to the matrix 𝑆𝑆𝑃𝑀
given by Equation (26). UEU = ∑ Pi (25)
i =2

SSPMQ = [1 − αCCU − α BU − α EMU ] (26)

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 80 13 of 21

The mean time that the EU is available in State 1 is determined by using Equation (27).
The mean operating time of the EU, represented by EU MoT , is given by Equation (28). The
effective fault rate is, thus, given by Equations (29) and (30).
  −1
EU M = 1 − SSPMQ (27)

1
EU MoT = (28)
αCCU + α BU + α EMU
1
α EU = (29)
EU MoT
α EU = αCCU + α BU + α EMU (30)
The mean fault time, which is nothing but the mean time to restore the EU, is calculated
by using Equation (31). The effective restoration rate of EU can be obtained by using
Equations (32) and (33).
1 − EU A
EUR = (31)
EU A Xα EU
1
β EU = (32)
EUR
EU A Xα EU
β EU = (33)
1 − EU A

4.2. Modeling and Analysis of Propulsion Unit (PU)

The propulsion system mainly consists of a power converter (PC), propulsion motor
(PM) and vehicle controller (VC). Each of these units can again be in either of two states,
that is the ‘system in operation state’ or ‘system in fault state’. The modeling and analysis
of the Propulsion Unit is similar to that of the modeling and analysis of the Energy Unit of
the electric vehicle shown in Figure 13. The availability of the PU is calculated by using
Equation (34). The failure rate and restoration rates of the PU are also calculated in the
same way as calculated for EU, given by Equations (35) and (36).

β PC β PM β VC
PPU = (34)
(α PC + β PC )(α PM + β PM )(αVC + β VC )

α PU = α PC + α PM + αVC (35)
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22
PPU Xα PU
β PU = (36)
1 − PPU

Figure
Figure 13.
13. State
Statespace
spacediagram
diagramofofPropulsion
PropulsionUnit
Unit(PU).
(PU).

𝛽 𝛽 𝛽
𝑃 = (34)
(𝛼 + 𝛽 )(𝛼 + 𝛽 )(𝛼 +𝛽 )

𝛼 =𝛼 +𝛼 +𝛼 (35)
 Figure 13. State space diagram of Propulsion Unit (PU).

𝛽 𝛽 𝛽
𝑃 = (34)
(𝛼 + 𝛽 )(𝛼 + 𝛽 )(𝛼 +𝛽 )
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 80 14 of 21
𝛼 =𝛼 +𝛼 +𝛼 (35)

𝑃 𝑋𝛼
4.3. Modeling and Analysis of EV System𝛽 = (36)
1−𝑃
As seen in the previous sections, for a successful operation of an EV, there must be
successful operation of the two units of the EV, namely the EU and PU. The reliability
4.3. Modeling
model andcan
of the EV Analysis of EV
be built Systemin Figure 14. EV system’s functional states is directly
as shown
dependent
As seenoninfunctional
the previousstates of EU and
sections, for aPU systems.operation
successful The transition
of an matrix of the
EV, there EVbe
must is
given in Equation (37). The availability of the EV is equal to the combined
successful operation of the two units of the EV, namely the EU and PU. The reliability availability of
the EUof
model and
thePU,
EVandcanthis is determined
be built as shownby in Equation
Figure 14.(38).
EV system’s functional states is di-
rectly dependent  on functional states of EU and PU systems. The transition matrixof the
1 − α EU − α PU α EU α 0
EV is given in Equation (37). The availability of the EV is PUequal to the combined availabil-
 β 1 − β
EU this is determined
EU − α 0
PU Equation (38). α PU

itySSPM
of theEVEU=and
 PU, and by  (37)
 β PU 0 1 − α EU − β PU α EU 
1 −0𝛼 − 𝛼 β PU𝛼 𝛼
β EU 1 − β EU 0− β PU
𝛽 1−𝛽 −𝛼 0 𝛼
𝑆𝑆𝑃𝑀 = (37)
𝛽 0 β EU β PU 1 − 𝛼 − 𝛽 𝛼
PEV = (38)
0 (α EU +𝛽 β EU )(α PU + β PU 𝛽) 1−𝛽 −𝛽

Figure
Figure 14.
14. State
State space
space diagram
diagram of
of EV.
EV.

The availability of the EV can be found by using Equation (39), considering the
available state only. Therefore, the mean time for first fault of an EV and the mean down
time can be determined by using Equations (40) and (41):

SSPMQEV = [1 − α EU − α PU ] (39)

EVf ault = [1 − SSPMQEV ]−1 (40)

1 − PEV
EVMDT = (41)
PEV Xα EV
Thus, the effective failure rate and repair rate of the EV are estimated by using
Equations (42) and (43).
1
α EV = = α EU + α PU (42)
EVf ault
1 P xα
β EV = = EV EV (43)
EVMDT 1 − PEV

5. Analysis of Diesel-Renewable-Powered Electric Vehicle Charging System (EVCS)

In this section, an attempt is made to develop a grid-connected electric vehicle charging
system to ensure surplus availability of the charging system to popularize the electric
vehicle and, thus, enhance the sustainable transportation. The grid-connected EVCS can
be considered as having an option of drawing/selling-back energy from/to the external
grid. The model is represented in Figure 15. The capital cost the grid-integrated EVCS is
 5. Analysis of Diesel-Renewable-Powered Electric Vehicle Charging System (EVCS)
In this section, an attempt is made to develop a grid-connected electric vehicle charg-
ing system to ensure surplus availability of the charging system to popularize the electric
vehicle and, thus, enhance the sustainable transportation. The grid-connected EVCS can
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 80 15 of 21
be considered as having an option of drawing/selling-back energy from/to the external
grid. The model is represented in Figure 15. The capital cost the grid-integrated EVCS is
given in Table 2, and the sizing of the components and related information are provided
given in Table
in Table 3. The2,capital-cost
and the sizing
andofcomponent-related
the components and related information
information is obtainedarefrom
provided in
the Hy-
Table 3. The capital-cost
brid Optimization and component-related
of Multiple Energy Resources information
(HOMER)is toolobtained frominbuilt
that has the Hybrid
algo-
Optimization of Multiple
rithms to evaluate Energy
and assess the Resources (HOMER)oftool
technical feasibility that has inbuilt
integration algorithms
of various to
energy re-
evaluate
sources. and assess the technical feasibility of integration of various energy resources.

Figure 15.
Figure 15. Diesel-renewable-based
Diesel-renewable-based EVCS.
EVCS.

Table 2. Cost data of energy supply resources.

Component Capital Cost ($) Replacement Cost ($) O&M Cost

PV 3000 2500 50 $/year
Wind 7000 7000 80 $/year
Diesel Generator 2250 2250 0.15 $/h
Battery 550 550 10 $/year
Converter 300 300 –

Table 3. Component sizing and other information.

Options on Size and Unit

Component Life Other Information
Numbers
PV 10, 50, 100, 150, 200 kW 25 years Derating Factor = 88%
Wind 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 Units 20 years Hub Height = 24 m
Diesel Generator 10, 50, 100, 200, 500 kW 15,000 h Minimum Load Ratio = 25%
Battery 50, 100,200,500 Units 15 years Nominal Capacity = 167 Ah, 24 V
Converter Efficiency = 90%
Converter 0, 10, 50, 100, 200, 500 kW 10 years
Rectifier Efficiency = 85%
Purchase = 0.093 $/kWh
Grid connection 10, 50,100, 500, 1000 kW –
Sellback = 0.036 $/kWh

6. Results and Discussion

6.1. R-C Model
The trust-region reflective nonlinear least-squares algorithm was employed, as the
battery behavior is itself non-linear. The concept is to refine the parameters of interest with
successive iterations. SOC vs. OCV for the 1 R-C to 5 R-C equivalent circuit model is shown
in Figure 16. As the number of R-C branches increases, the accuracy increases. However,
as assured that EVs are not allowed for deep discharge and longer full capacity run of EV,
 6.1. R-C Model
The trust-region reflective nonlinear least-squares algorithm was employed, as the
battery behavior is itself non-linear. The concept is to refine the parameters of interest with
successive iterations. SOC vs. OCV for the 1 R-C to 5 R-C equivalent circuit model is
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 80 16 of 21
shown in Figure 16. As the number of R-C branches increases, the accuracy increases.
However, as assured that EVs are not allowed for deep discharge and longer full capacity
run of EV, limiting in the 20% to 85% of SOC, the 3 R-C equivalent model is sufficient to
limiting
predict theinbehavior
the 20% to
of 85% of SOC,The
the battery. the 3results
R-C equivalent model
are validated is the
with sufficient to predict
experimental datathe
behavior of the battery. The results are validated with the experimental
in accordance with standard drive cycles at different temperatures. data in accordance
with standard drive cycles at different temperatures.

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 22

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)
Figure
Figure 16.
16. (a)
(a)OCV
OCVvs. vs.SOC
SOC forfor
1 R-C, (b)(b)
1 R-C, OCVOCVvs.vs.
SOC for for
SOC 2 R-C, (c) OCV
2 R-C, vs. SOC
(c) OCV for 3for
vs. SOC R-C, (d)
3 R-C,
OCV vs. SOC
(d) OCV for 4for
vs. SOC R-C and and
4 R-C (e) OCV vs. SOC
(e) OCV for 5for
vs. SOC R-C.
5 R-C.

6.2.Battery
6.2. BatteryAgeing
Ageingand andReplacement
Replacement
Theproposed
The proposedbattery-replacement
battery-replacementmodelmodelresults
resultsininthe
theprobability
probabilitytransition
transitionmatrix
matrix
represented in Equation (44) which states that if 1% of the battery is replaced,
represented in Equation (44) which states that if 1% of the battery is replaced, as given in as given in
Table 1, then the probability of replacement is 0.01, while the probability that it turns aa
Table 1, then the probability of replacement is 0.01, while the probability that it turns
year old
year old is
is 0.99.
0.99. IfIfaa battery
batteryisis already
alreadyaa year
year old,
old, then
then the
the probability
probability that
that itit would
would turn
turn
two years
two years isis 0.97,
0.97, while
while having
having aa probability
probability of
of 0.03
0.03 for
for becoming
becoming 00 years
years on
on account
account of
of
replacement of the battery.
replacement of the battery.
0.01 0.99 0 0 0 0 0 0
⎡0.03 0 0.97 0 0 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢0.05 0 0 0.95 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
0.08 0 0 0 0.92 0 0 0 ⎥
𝑝=⎢ (44)
⎢0.12 0 0 0 0 0.88 0 0 ⎥
⎢0.16 0 0 0 0 0 0.84 0 ⎥
⎢0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.75⎥
⎣0.30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎦
In accordance to electric vehicles, the steady-state probabilities are obtained by solv-
ing Equations (45) and (46). The solution for the entire set of linear equations is obtained
as in Equation (47).
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 80 17 of 21

0.01 0.99 0 0 0 0 0 0
 

 0.03 0 0.97 0 0 0 0 0 


 0.05 0 0 0.95 0 0 0 0 

 0.08 0 0 0 0.92 0 0 0 
p=  (44)

 0.12 0 0 0 0 0.88 0 0 


 0.16 0 0 0 0 0 0.84 0 

 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.75 
0.30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
In accordance to electric vehicles, the steady-state probabilities are obtained by solving
Equations (45) and (46). The solution for the entire set of linear equations is obtained as in
Equation (47).

p j ( 1 ) = P ( X1 = j ) = ∑ P(X1 = j)|X0 = i) P(X0 = i) (45)

1

p j (1) = ∑ pi (0) pi,j (46)

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 1 18 of 22
p0 ∗ p1 ∗ p2 ∗ p3 ∗ p4 ∗ p5 ∗ p6 ∗ p7 ∗ =
 
  (47)
0.1532 0.1599 0.1645 0.1673 0.1678 0.1671 0.1706 0.2072
The
Theabove
abovecalculation
calculationproclaims
proclaimsthatthat16%
16%of ofbatteries
batteriesare
areone-year-old,
one-year-old,and andso soon,
on,
and gives the critical piece of information that the battery will not be worn out
and gives the critical piece of information that the battery will not be worn out within thewithin the
stipulated
stipulatedageing
ageingcycle,
cycle, or
orthe
thereplacement
replacement period
period is
is small
small and
and is
is equal
equal to
to20%.
20%.ItItisisevident
evident
that
that the whole-sum policy of replacing the battery only after specified calendaryears
the whole-sum policy of replacing the battery only after specified calendar yearsisis
not
notreasonable,
reasonable,asasmany
manybatteries
batteriesare
arereplaced
replacedininmid
midyears
yearsofofthe
thespecified
specifiedtime
timeperiod.
period.
The
Theaverage
averageage
ageofofthe
thebatteries
batteriesisiscomputed
computedto tobebe55years.
years.The
Thetransition-state
transition-statediagram
diagramof of
battery-ageing
battery-ageingmodel
modelisisgiven
givenin inFigure
Figure 17.
17.

Figure17.
Figure Transitiondiagram
17.Transition diagramof
ofbattery
batteryageing
ageing model.
model.

6.3.EV
6.3. EVReliability
Reliabilityand
andMaintainability
Maintainability
The reliability and maintainability of EV system at any time, ‘t’, can be determined by
The reliability and maintainability of EV system at any time, ‘t’, can be determined
using Equations (48) and (49):
by using Equations (48) and (49):
R(t) EV = 1 − e−αEV t (48)
𝑅(𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒− β EV t (48)
M (t) EV = 1 − e (49)
𝑀(𝑡) =
The analysis justifies that the reliability 1 −availability
and 𝑒 of EVs degrade with time,(49)
due
to various failures. However, with timely repair and replacement of faulty components, the
The analysis justifies that the reliability and availability of EVs degrade with time,
vehicle’s operational effectiveness can be improved significantly, as shown in Figure 18.
due to various failures. However, with timely repair and replacement of faulty compo-
nents, the vehicle’s operational effectiveness can be improved significantly, as shown in
Figure 18.

Year wise reliability of electric vehicle

1.2
 𝑀(𝑡) =1−𝑒
The analysis justifies that the reliability and availability of EVs degrade w
due to various failures. However, with timely repair and replacement of faulty
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 80 nents, the vehicle’s operational effectiveness can be improved significantly,
18 of 21 as s
Figure 18.

Year wise reliability of electric vehicle

1.2
1

Reliability
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20
Years

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure
Figure Year-wise
18.18. reliability
Year-wise of electric
reliability of vehicle.
electric vehicle.
6.4. Diesel-Renewable-Based EVCS
6.4. The
Diesel-Renewable-Based EVCS of diesel-based EVCS and the proposed diesel-
monthly electricity production
in Figure
renewable-based21. The
The monthly EVCSmain objective
electricity
is shown of 19
in production
Figures this work
andof andwas
20,diesel-basedto 2reduce
the CO EVCS emissions
and
emissions by usin
the proposed
are shown
in Figure 21. The
energy sources. By
renewable-based main
EVCSobjective
having of this
multiple
is shown work was to
energy 19
in Figures reduce
sources, emissions
and 20,the by using
andmonthly green
the CO2electricity
emissionspro
ar
energy sources. By having multiple energy sources, the monthly electricity production also
also increases, and, at the same time, the electrical transaction with grid ensure
increases, and, at the same time, the electrical transaction with grid ensures the reduction in
duction
carbon in carbon
emissions from emissions from
174,874 kg/year 174,874
(diesel EVCS)kg/year (diesel
to 76,525 kg/year EVCS) to 76,525 kg/year
(diesel-renewable-
renewable-based EVCS).
based EVCS).

Monthly Electric Production

25
20
15
MWh

Grid
10
Diesel Gen
5
0
Mar
Jan
Feb

Jun

Sep
May

Oct
Jul
Aug

Nov
Apr

Dec

Figure
Figure 19.19. Monthly
Monthly electricity
electricity production
production of diesel-based
of diesel-based EVCS. EVCS.

Monthly Electric Production

30

20 Grid
MWh

Diesel Gen
10
Wind
0 Solar
May

Oct
Nov
Mar
Apr
Jan
Feb

Jun

Sep
Jul
Aug

Dec

Figure 20. Monthly electricity production of diesel-renewable-based EVCS.

 5
0

Mar
Jan
Feb

Jun

Sep
May

Oct
Jul
Aug

Nov
Apr

Dec
Mar
Jan
Feb

Jun

Sep
May

Oct
Jul
Aug

Nov
Apr

Dec
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 80 19 of 21

Figure 19. Monthly electricity production of diesel-based EVCS.

Monthly Electric Production

30

20 Grid

MWh
MWh
Diesel Gen
10
Wind
0 Solar

May

Oct
Nov
Mar
Apr
Jan
Feb

Jun

Sep
Jul
Aug

Dec
May

Oct
Nov
Mar
Apr
Jan
Feb

Jun

Sep
Jul
Aug

Dec
Figure Monthly
Figure20.20. electricity
Monthly production
electricity of diesel-renewable-based
production EVCS.
of diesel-renewable-based EVCS.

CO2 Emissions(Kg/Year)

250,000
200,000 Diesel Based EVCS
150,000
100,000 Renewable Based
50,000 EVCS
0
Diesel-Renewable
Isolated Grid
Based EVCS
EVCS Connected
EVCS

Figure21.21.
Figure COCO 22 emission
2 emission of various
of various EVCS. EVCS.

7. Conclusions
7. Conclusions
In this paper, an ECM model was analyzed and experimentally validated, and it was
found In
thatthis
the paper, an ECM
3 R-C network model
is the best fitwas analyzed
to represent and experimentally
the behavior validated, an
of a battery. Stochastic
models
foundwere
thatdeveloped
the 3 R-Cfor the battery
network ageing
is the bestand
fitreplacement,
to representusing
theMarkov
behaviorchain,
ofwhich
a battery. St
provides a structured battery-replacement scheme. The significance of calendar ageing
models were developed for the battery ageing and replacement, using Marko
was also presented. A battery-powered electric vehicle was modeled, considering vital
which provides
components a the
of EV, and structured battery-replacement
reliability assessment was carried outscheme.
to enhanceThe significance of c
the availability
ageing
of was also
EVs. Lastly, a casepresented. A battery-poweredElectric
study of a diesel-renewable-based electric vehicle
Vehicle was modeled,
Charging Station con
vital components
(EVCS) of EV,
in micro-grid was andout.
carried theTechnoeconomic
reliability assessment was carried
and environment out to enha
issues were
presented, and it was found that the reliability on the grid purchase was reduced. The
carbon emissions were reduced from 174,874 kg/year (diesel EVCS) to 76,525 kg/year
(diesel renewable based EVCS).

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.B.S. and S.H.; Methodology, S.B.S. and S.H.; Resources,
D.B. and B.B.; Writing—original draft, S.B.S.; Writing—review & editing, S.H. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Study did not report any data.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 80 20 of 21

Acknowledgments: The authors are thankful to Centre for Advanced Life Cycle Engineering, Uni-
versity of Maryland, for making experimental test data public for academics and research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
EV electric vehicle
BMS battery management system
ECM Equivalent Circuit Model
EVCS Electric Vehicle Charging Station
SOC state of charge
OCV Open Circuit Voltage
SEI Solid Electrolyte Interface
α probability of change in the system from state of operation to fault state
β probability of change in the system from state of fault to state of operation
r(t) reliability of the system
m(t) maintainability of the system
EU Energy Unit
PU Propulsion Unit
BU Battery Unit
CCU Charge Control Unit
EMU Energy Management Unit
PC power converter
PM propulsion motor
VC vehicle controller
SSPM state space transition matrix

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