MAIZE APHID

Photo 1. Colonies of the maize aphid, Rhopalosiphum maidis, on the tassles of maize.
Photo 2. Maize aphids, Rhopalosiphum maidis
Photo 3. Adult maize aphid, Rhopalosiphum maidis
Photo 4. Colony of maize aphid, Rhopalosiphum maidis, with numerous 'mummies', swollen
parasitised individuals. The papery skin of some has collapsed after the exist of the parasitoid.
MAIZE APHID
Common Name
Maize aphid, corn leaf aphid, green corn aphid
Scientific Name
Rhopalosiphum maidis
Distribution
Worldwide. In tropical, subtropical and temperate regions. Asia, Africa, North, South and
Central America, the Caribbean, Europe, Middle East, Oceania. It is recorded from Australia, Cook
Islands, Fiji, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Northern Marianna Islands. Papua New Guinea, Solomon
Islands, Tonga, and Wallis and Futuna.
Hosts
Maize, sorghum, barley, millet, and many grasses.
Symptoms & Life Cycle
Aphids suck the sap of plants, often occurring in large numbers, causing plants to yellow and
wilt. Sooty mould fungi develop on honeydew discharged by the aphids that falls onto the leaves.
Large numbers of aphids occur on maize 'tassels' (the male flowers) preventing the development of
pollen (Photo 1).
Male aphids are very rare, and females give birth to living young without mating. Nymphs are
light green, darkening to bluish or olive green adults, with black antennae and legs, and purple areas at
the base of the two upright, backward-pointing tubes ('cornicles') at the rear of the body (Photo 2). The
adults are somewhat rectangular, about 2 mm long, mostly without wings (Photo 3). Nymphs become
adults within 7-14 days, depending on temperatures.
 The aphids are mostly in the whorls of leaves and on the tassels in the upper parts of the
plants.When populations increase some of the aphids are born with wings allowing them to move to
other plants in the field or to other fields. Spread also occurs in wind currents. In many countries, ants
protect them from predators and parasitoids.
Impact
Impact is greatest on maize, sorghum and barley. Direct effects occur when the aphid feeds on
plant sap, and indirect damage occurs from discharge of honeydew and the spread of viruses. Losses
depend on the variety, stage of infection and environmental conditions. In some countries, losses of
more than 60% are reported on maize.
In Pacific island countries, the aphid is not usually a serious pest of maize, but in Fiji it is said
to cause some wilting during dry periods. There, and in other countries, honeydew, and the fungi that
grows on it, can reduce photosynthesis. Infestations of aphids on tassels leads to honeydew covering
silks probably reducing pollination. Honeydew on cobs is unsightly and lowers market appeal.
The aphid spreads many viruses, e.g., Sugarcane mosaic virus, which infects both sugarcane
and maize, and it is a major vector of Barley yellow dwarf virus, one of the most important diseases of
cereals.
Detection & inspection
Look for colonies in the wholes of leaves at the top of the maize. Look for ants that are
attracted to the aphids' honeydew. Look for honeydew on leaves, tassels, and cobs.
MANAGEMENT
NATURAL ENEMIES
Aphid populations are controlled by environmental factors, several parasitic wasps, fungal
diseases, ladybird beetles, syrphid fly larvae, and lacewing larvae and adults. Of the many wasps that
attack the maize aphid, Aphelinus maidis is common in Hawaii and populations are controlled by this
introduced parasitoid. Other species of Aphelinus have been used elsewhere with equally beneficial
results, as well as the braconids, Lysiphlebus species. Parasitised swollen aphids are called 'mummies'
(Photo 4).
CULTURAL CONTROL
Methods have been tried, e.g., changing planting times, intercropping, altering spacing, but
none have provided useful results. Others can be tried:
Before planting:
 Do not plant down-wind from crops with aphids. Some aphids have wings, but they are not
strong fliers, and are more likely to be blown in the wind onto new crops.
During growth:
 Remove weeds from within and also outside the crop.
 Inspect crops often and regularly; destroy leaves heavily infested with aphids by hand (or if
necessary use insecticides - see below).
  If ants are present, find the nest, and destroy it with boiling water, if practical and plants are not
at risk of damage, or use a pesticide (see below). Without ants, predators and parasites will
bring about natural control.
After harvest:
 Collect, burn or bury the remains of crops after harvest.
RESISTANT VARIETIES
In sorghum, hybrids with open heads are less infested than tight-headed hybrids. Resistant
varieties of maize and barley are known too; these have leaf compounds which have a defensive role
against the aphid.
CHEMICAL CONTROL
If insecticides are necessary, use any of the following "soft" insecticides on aphids:
 Soap sprays (5 tablespoons of soap in 4 litres water).
 Vegetable oil (1 cup cooking oil; 2 cups water; 1 teaspoon dishwashing liquid. Dilute the
mixture at 3 teaspoons per half litre of water and spray on the infested leaves).
 Commercial products with petroleum oil: follow the instructions on the product label.
These sprays work by blocking the breathing holes of insects causing suffocation and death. Spray the
underside of leaves, as the soap and oils must contact the aphids. Home-made preparations are ideal for
small numbers of plants, but commercial products are probably the only practical solution when crop
areas are large.
Alternatively, use:
 Plant-derived products, such as neem, derris, pyrethrum and chilli (with the addition of soap).
 Note, varieties of Derris exist in Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands that contain 2-3%
rotenone, and are effective insecticides. However, they should be used with caution. (For
methods of preparation, see Fact Sheet no. 56.) Check if Derris is available locally in your
country.
 Synthetic pyrethroids are likely to be effective, but will also kill natural enemies. However,
they can be used to kill ants, which often tend aphids for their honeydew, and protect them
from effective control by predators and parasitoids
 SPODOPTERA LITURA (TARO CATERPILLAR)

Picture Title Caption Copyright

Adult Spodoptera litura (taro caterpillar); forewings ©E. Neering

grey to reddish-brown with a strongly
variegated pattern and paler lines along the
veins.

Mature Spodoptera litura (taro caterpillar); larva ©E. Neering

larva hairless, variable in colour (young larvae
light green, the later instars dark green to
brown), sides of body with dark and light
longitudinal bands.

Egg Spodoptera litura (taro caterpillar); s. litura ©Ernst

mass egg mass on soyabean (Note Hymenopteran Neering
egg parasites)

Egg Spodoptera litura (taro caterpillar); egg ©ICRISAT

masses masses measure 4-7 mm in diameter and
appear golden brown because they are
covered with body scales of females.

Preferred Scientific Name

 Spodoptera litura (Fabricius)
Preferred Common Name
 taro caterpillar
Other Scientific Names
 Mamestra albisparsa Walker
 Noctua elata Fabricius
 Noctua histrionica Fabricius
 Noctua litura Fabricius
  Prodenia ciligera Guenée
 Prodenia declinata Walker
 Prodenia evanescens Butler
 Prodenia glaucistriga Walker
 Prodenia littoralis Fabricius
 Prodenia litura Fabricius
 Prodenia subterminalis Walker
 Prodenia tasmanica Guenée
 Prodenia testaceoides Walker

International Common Names

 English: armyworm; cluster caterpillar; common cutworm; cotton leafworm; cotton worm; rice
cutworm; tobacco budworm; tobacco caterpillar; tobacco cutworm; tobacco leaf caterpillar
 Spanish: gusano del tabaco; gusano negro; lagarta; rosquilla negra
 French: chenille defoliante; noctuelle rayee; ver du coton; ver du tabac
Local Common Names
 Germany: Asiatischer Baumwollwurm; Baumwollblattraupe; Baumwollwurm, Asiatischer
 India: ladde purugu; telugu
 Israel: haprodenia
 Italy: larva bruna con macchie vellutate
 Japan: hasumon-yoto
 Netherlands: eiernestrups
 Turkey: pamuk yaprak kurdu
EPPO code
 PRODLI (Spodoptera litura)

Summary of Invasiveness
The tobacco caterpillar,S. litura, is one of the most important insect pests of agricultural crops
in the Asian tropics. It is widely distributed throughout tropical and temperate Asia, Australasia and
the Pacific Islands (Feakin, 1973; Kranz et al., 1977). Records of S. litura having limited distribution in
(or being eradicated from) Germany, Russian Federation, Russian Far East, the UK and Réunion may
in fact refer to S. littoralis. Both S. litura and S. littoralis are totally polyphagous (Brown and
Dewhurst, 1975; Holloway, 1989) and therefore have huge potential to invade new areas and/or to
adapt to new climatic and/or ecological situations. The Spodoptera group consists of closely related
species with similar ecology that are difficult to identify to species level.

Taxonomic Tree
Domain: Eukaryota
    Kingdom: Metazoa
        Phylum: Arthropoda
            Subphylum: Uniramia
                Class: Insecta
                    Order: Lepidoptera
                        Family: Noctuidae
                            Genus: Spodoptera
                                 Species: Spodoptera litura

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

The two Old World cotton leafworm species, Spodoptera litura and S. littoralis, are allopatric,
their ranges covering Asia and Africa, Europe and the Middle East, respectively. Many authors have
regarded them as the same species.

Description
Eggs
The eggs are spherical, somewhat flattened, and 0.6 mm in diameter. They are usually pale
orange-brown or pink in colour, laid in batches and covered with hair scales from the tip of the
abdomen of the female moth. Egg masses measure about 4-7 mm in diameter and appear golden brown
because they are covered with body scales of females.

Larva
The larva is hairless, variable in colour (young larvae are light green, the later instars are dark
green to brown on their backs, lighter underneath); sides of body with dark and light longitudinal
bands; dorsal side with two dark semilunar spots laterally on each segment, except for the prothorax;
spots on the first and eighth abdominal segments larger than others, interrupting the lateral lines on the
first segment. Though the markings are variable, a bright-yellow stripe along the length of the dorsal
surface is characteristic of S. litura larvae.
Larval instars can be distinguished on the basis of head capsule width, ranging from 2.7 to 25 mm.
Body length ranges from 2.3 to 32 mm.

Pupa
The pupa is 15-20 mm long, red-brown; tip of abdomen with two small spines.

Adult
Moth, with grey-brown body, 15-20 mm long; wingspan 30-38 mm. The forewings are grey to
reddish-brown with a strongly variegated pattern and paler lines along the veins (in males, bluish areas
occur on the wing base and tip); the hindwings are greyish-white with grey margins, often with dark
veins in S. litura (but without in S. littoralis). See also Schmutterer (1969), Cayrol (1972) and Brown
and Dewhurst (1975).

Distribution
The tobacco caterpillar, S. litura, is one of the most important insect pests of agricultural crops
in the Asian tropics. It is widely distributed throughout tropical and temperate Asia, Australasia, and
the Pacific Islands (Feaking, 1973; Kranz et al., 1977). Records of S. litura having limited distribution
in (or being eradicated from) Germany, Russian Federation, Russian Far East, the UK and Réunion
may in fact refer to S. littoralis.

Risk of Introduction
S. litura and S. littoralis are listed as of quarantine significance by EPPO, CPPC, NAPPO and
OIRSA.
Hosts/Species Affected
The host range of S. litura covers at least 120 species. Among the main crop species attacked
by S. litura in the tropics are Colocasia esculenta, cotton, flax, groundnuts, jute, lucerne, maize, rice,
soyabeans, tea, tobacco, vegetables (aubergines, Brassica, Capsicum, cucurbit vegetables, Phaseolus,
potatoes, sweet potatoes and species of Vigna). Other hosts include ornamentals, wild plants, weeds
and shade trees (for example, Leucaena leucocephala, the shade tree of cocoa plantations in Indonesia).
Both S. litura and S. littoralis are totally polyphagous (Brown and Dewhurst, 1975; Holloway, 1989).

Growth Stages
Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Vegetative growing stage
Symptoms
On most crops, damage arises from extensive feeding by larvae, leading to complete stripping of the
plants.
On Cotton
Leaves are heavily attacked and bolls have large holes in them from which yellowish-green to
dark-green larval excrement protrudes.
On Tobacco
Leaves develop irregular, brownish-red patches and the stem base may be gnawed off.
On Maize
The stems are often mined and young grains in the ear may be injured.

Biology and Ecology

S. litura eggs are laid in clusters of several hundreds, usually on the upper surface of the leaves.
Fecundity varies from 2000 to 2600 eggs, and oviposition days vary from 6 to 8 days. The
developmental thresholds and thermal requirements for different stages of S. litura are 64 day degrees
above threshold 8°C, from oviposition to egg hatch, the larval period required 303 degree days and the
pupal stage 155 degree days above a 10°C threshold. The response of various stages of S. litura to
temperatures under constant laboratory conditions was similar to that under field conditions. The upper
development threshold temperature for all stages was 37°C, and 40°C was lethal (Ranga Rao et al.,
1989).
Eggs take 2-3 days to hatch, the larvae disperse quickly from the egg batch in groundnut.
Newly hatched larvae can be detected by the 'scratch marks' they make on the leaf surface. The older
larvae are night feeders and are usually found in the soil around the base of the plant during the
daytime. They can chew large areas of leaf and at high population densities cause complete defoliation.
The larvae can migrate in large groups from one field to another. In lighter soils, the larvae while
hiding in the soil during daytime can also cause damage to groundnut pods.
The larvae go through six instars and the final instars weigh up to 800 mg. Individual larvae can
consume around 4 g fresh weight of groundnut foliage. However, 80% of the total consumption is in
the final instar. Pupation takes place in the soil close to the plants. The pupal period lasts about 7-10
days. After adult emergence, peak oviposition occurs on the second night. Females mate three or four
times during their lifetime, while males mate up to 10 times.
In Andhra Pradesh, India, S. litura completes 12 generations a year, each lasting slightly more than a
month in winter and less than a month in the hot seasonS. litura eggs are laid in clusters of several
hundreds, usually on the upper surface of the leaves. Fecundity varies from 2000 to 2600 eggs, and
oviposition days vary from 6 to 8 days. The developmental thresholds and thermal requirements for
different stages of S. litura are 64 day degrees above threshold 8°C, from oviposition to egg hatch, the
larval period required 303 degree days and the pupal stage 155 degree days above a 10°C threshold.
The response of various stages of S. litura to temperatures under constant laboratory conditions was
similar to that under field conditions. The upper development threshold temperature for all stages was
37°C, and 40°C was lethal (Ranga Rao et al., 1989).
Eggs take 2-3 days to hatch, the larvae disperse quickly from the egg batch in groundnut.
Newly hatched larvae can be detected by the 'scratch marks' they make on the leaf surface. The older
larvae are night feeders and are usually found in the soil around the base of the plant during the
daytime. They can chew large areas of leaf and at high population densities cause complete defoliation.
The larvae can migrate in large groups from one field to another. In lighter soils, the larvae while
hiding in the soil during daytime can also cause damage to groundnut pods.
The larvae go through six instars and the final instars weigh up to 800 mg. Individual larvae
can consume around 4 g fresh weight of groundnut foliage. However, 80% of the total consumption is
in the final instar.
Pupation takes place in the soil close to the plants. The pupal period lasts about 7-10 days.
After adult emergence, peak oviposition occurs on the second night. Females mate three or four times
during their lifetime, while males mate up to 10 times.
In Andhra Pradesh, India, S. litura completes 12 generations a year, each lasting slightly more than a
month in winter and less than a month in the hot season

Notes on Natural Enemies

After Rao et al., 1993.
S. litura is known to be atttacked by many natural enemies at various life stages. Altogether,
about 131 species of natural enemies have been reported from different parts of the world.
Egg Parasitoids
Four species of trichogrammatids, one scelionid and one braconid which had been reported as
egg parasitoids of S. litura, an unidentified Chelonus species and species of Telenomus, have also been
reported as both egg and larval parasitoids. A total of 10 egg parasitoids have been reported from
different parts of the host distribution. Among the trichogrammatids, T. chilonis from India (Joshi et
al., 1979; Patel et al., 1971) and T. dendrolimi from China (Chiu and Chou, 1976) are the most
common. These species are often reported from the eggs of several other hosts.
Larval Parasites
 Generally, the larval stage of S. litura is more prone to parasitism. Larval parasitoids of S.
litura attack young to mature larvae and a few also attack eggs and larvae, and larvae and prepupae.
Fifty-eight parasitoid species have been reported to attack the larval stage of this species. Of these,
47% were braconids, 19% ichneumonids, 16% tachinids, 10% eulophids, 3% chalcids, and 2%
scelionids, encrytids and muscids. In general, 84% were Hymenoptera, and 16% Diptera.
In India, 32 different species of parasitoids have been reported as larval parasitoids of S. litura.
Among these, Apanteles and species of Bracon were the most commonly reported. Rai (1974)
surveyed vegetable crops in the state of Karnataka and found that 10% of larval mortality was caused
by Chelonus formosanus. Jayanth and Nagarkatti (1984) reported the emergence of up to 12 tachninid
parasitoids (Peribaea orbata) from a single S. litura larva in Karnataka state, India.
Rao and Satyanarayana (1984), during a pest survey of natural enemies of S. litura in Andhra
Pradesh, India, reported Zele chlorophthalma as a larval parasitoid.
Sathe (1987) in a survey for natural enemies of S. litura in Maharashtra region of India reported
Campoletes chlorideae and Apanteles colemani. During the same survey two new Braconid species
(Enicospilus sp. and Echthromorpha sp.) were found responsible for the 5% parasitization of S. litura,
while A. colemani and A. prodeniae parasitized up to 20% larvae.
Pupal Parasitoids
Relatively few pupal parasitoids have been reported from S. litura. Eight parasitoid species
have been reported from the pupal stage of S. litura, one of which is a larval-pupal parasitoid
(Ichneumon sp.) and one a prepupal parasitoid (species of Chelonus).
Predators
Altogether 36 predatory insects from 14 families and 12 species of spiders, representing six
families were reported to feed on S. litura eggs, larvae and pupae in different parts of the world. Of the
total predators reported to feed on S. litura, 50% of the insect predatory fauna and 83% of the spiders
were from India.

DISEASES
Protozoa
Nosema carpocapsae was found to infect S. litura larvae in New Zealand (Malone and Wigley,
1980), India (Narayanan and Jayaraj, 1979), Japan (Watanabe, 1976) and China (Tsai et al., 1978; Li
and Wenn, 1987).
Fungi
So far four fungi have been reported to infect S. litura and cause physiological disorders in
larval growth and development: Aspergillus flavus, Beauveria bassiana, Nomuraea rileyi and
Metarhizium anisopliae. Zaz and Kishwaha (1983) reported B. bassiana infecting S. litura in
cauliflower crops in Rajasthan. Siddaramaiah et al. (1986) reported an incidence of larval infection
with M.anisopliae in groundnut in Karnataka. The infection first appeared in the second fortnight of
June, was highest in mid-August, and decreased by November.
Viruses
Viral diseases of this species have been reported from China, Japan, India and New Zealand.
Among the viruses, nuclear polyhedrosis viruses are the most common and potent. Narayanan (1985)
from Karnataka, reported the occurrence of a granulosis virus in dead S. litura larvae. Eggs and all six
larval instars were highly susceptible to the virus, the mortality was 100% in eggs and first to fifth-
instar larvae and 50% in the last larval instar. The disease killed older larvae more rapidly than
younger ones.
Nematodes
Four nematode species have been reported parasitizing S. litura in India and one of them has
also been reported in Japan. Bhatnagar et al. (1985) found S. litura larvae parasitized by the mermithid
nematodes Ovomermis albicans, Hexamermis sp. and Pentatomermis sp. They observed more
nematode activity on alfisols than on vertisols. They also discussed the population dynamics and
distribution of nematodes and the arthropod hosts. Kondo and Ishibashi (1984) explained the
infectivity and propagation of entomogenous nematodes Steinernema sp. on S. litura from Japan.

IMPACT
S. litura larvae are polyphagous defoliators, seasonally common in annual and perennial
agricultural systems in tropical and temperate Asia. This noctuid is often found as part of a complex of
lepidopteran and non-lepidopteran foliar feeders but may also damage tubers and roots. Hosts include
field crops grown for food and fibre, plantation and forestry crops, as well as certain weed species.
Most work on the economic impact of S. litura has been conducted in India where it is a serious
pest of a range of field crops. It has caused 12-23% damage to tomatoes in the monsoon season, and 9-
24% damage in the winter (Patnaik, 1998). In a 40- to 45-day-old potato crop, damage ranged from 20
to 100% in different parts of the field depending on moisture availability. Larval populations peaked at
four fully-grown larvae per square metre when the crop was 60-70 days old. Larvae also attacked
exposed tubers when young succulent leaves were unavailable. Up to 2% of tubers were damaged in
August-September and February (Trivedi, 1988). S. litura is also a pest of sugarbeet, with infestations
commencing in March and peaking in late March and April (Chatterjee and Nayak, 1987). Severe
infestations led to skeletonisation of leaves as well as feeding holes in roots that rendered the crop
'virtually unfit for marketing'. Late harvested crops were most severely affected and, in extreme cases,
100% of the roots were damaged, leading to 'considerable' yield reduction. Work on this species in a
complex of other sugarbeet defoliators (Spodoptera exigua and Spilosoma obliqua) led to the
development of an interactive exponential model based on length and severity of defoliation. It
explained 88-90% of the variability in root and sugar yields and suggested the need for pest control
when defoliation exceeded 25% during April. Control was not required if the pest appeared after the
first week of May (Singh and Sethi, 1993).
S. litura is one of six defoliating pests of fodder cowpea which, in a field experiment, were
responsible for consuming up to 85.5% of leaf area (Ram et al., 1989). Aroid tuber crops (including
taro (Colocasia esculenta)) suffered yield losses of up to 29% as a result of infestation by S. litura,
Aphis gossypii and spider mites (Pillai et al., 1993). S. litura is also a member of a complex that causes
extensive defoliation of soyabean (Bhattacharjee and Ghude, 1985). Defoliation as severe as 48.7%
during the pre-bloom stage of growth caused no 'marked' difference from a control treatment in which
defoliation was prevented by repeated insecticide application. Number and weight of pods and grains
per plant were, however, reduced when defoliation occurred at, or after, blooming.
In groundnut, S. litura is one of several pests that can be important during the pegging, podding
and pod maturation stages of growth (Singh and Sachan, 1992). Several studies have aimed at
quantifying the damage attributable to S. litura. Field experiments by Panchabhavi and Raj (1987)
extended over 2 years and used artificial infestation of groundnut plots of 15 m² with differing
densities of S. litura. Infestation levels of just three egg masses (of 250 eggs each) caused significant
loss of groundnut pods and haulms. Infestation with 12 egg masses per plot led to a haulm yield
reduction of up to 43.7% and a pod yield reduction as high as 27% compared with an insecticide-
protected control treatment. In other field experiments over 3 consecutive years, leaf damage attributed
to S. litura tended to decline with delayed sowing time irrespective of groundnut cultivar (Patil et al.,
1996). Leaf damage fell from 51.8% for mid-June sown crops to 19.2% for late-July sown crops. Mean
pod yields were 2.68 and 0.99 t/ha, respectively.
Another field study determined the effect of artificially infesting individual groundnut plants
with third-instar S. litura larvae 15, 30 or 45 days after emergence (d.a.e.) (Dhir et al., 1992). The most
severe damage occurred when plants were infested with three larvae 15 d.a.e. These lost 98.3% of leaf
area, and pod yield was reduced by 50%. Even single larvae caused the leaf area to be more than
halved and pod yield to fall by 27.3%. Plants infested 30 d.a.e. suffered similar levels of damage but
those infested 45 d.a.e. were less severely affected.
Selveraj et al. (2014) conducted a study of the ecological factors on the incidence and
development of S. litura on cotton. They found a positive correlation with relative humidity, sunshine
hours and dewfall, but a negative correlation with wind velocity. Determination of the effects of
different weather factors on the population and incidence of S. litura in cotton is essential for effective
pest management.
S. litura causes damage to many species of forest and plantation trees and shrubs
(Roychoudhury et al., 1995). It is responsible for brown flag syndrome in banana (Ranjith et al., 1997),
and 5-10% fruit damage in grapes (Balikai et al., 1999). In Paulownia nurseries and plantations a
complex of at least 24 defoliating pest species causes damage. Within this complex, S. litura was
considered the most important noctuid species, with an incidence of 72% in weekly surveys (Kumar
and Ahmad, 1998). Peak activity occurred in July and September, with an average of 6.5 and 5.2 larvae
per plant in these months, respectively. During this period, many plants were completely defoliated by
S. litura. In teak, it is one of about 139 defoliators that attack all stages from seedlings to mature trees
(Roychoudhury et al., 1995). S. litura is abundant on teak in June and July and damage incidence in
seedlings has been reported to be as high as 56%. Late-instar larvae were found to feed preferentially
on mature teak leaves, whilst early instars fed on leaves of intermediate age. High concentrations of
polyphenols in young leaves (Roychoudhury et al., 1995) may reduce their attractiveness to S. litura
larvae but differing levels of susceptibility among nine teak clones were attributed to the
nitrogen:potassium ratio of the foliage (Roychoudhury et al., 1998).
Two separate Indian studies concerned the potential of S. litura as a biological control agent of
weeds. Sites of larval feeding on leaves and petioles of the aquatic weed Eichhornia crassipes were
said to be vulnerable to infection by fungi, and overall damage levels by S. litura were estimated to be
20-25% (Jamil et al., 1984). It was recognized, however, that the potential use of this polyphagous
agent needs caution because preferred hosts include important crops such as castor and cotton. In a
second study, S. litura attacked the weeds, Marsilea quadrifolia, Ammannia baccifera and Eclipta alba,
and although up to 10 larvae were recorded per plant on nearby rice, no damage was reported to this
crop (Sain et al., 1983).
Studies elsewhere in southern Asia illustrate the economic impact of S. litura. In Pakistan, it is
one of several lepidopteran pests attacking a wide range of crops including cotton and rice (Ahmad and
Kamaluddin, 1987), as well as cabbage, tobacco, groundnut, soyabean, lucerne, gram, cowpea, tomato,
cauliflower, carrot, onion, brinjal, turnip, radish and spinach (Maree et al., 1999). In the latter study, S.
litura was present in a December-planted cabbage crop during January-March with densities peaking at
4.55/plant on 2 February. Damage was highest in early February and there was a positive correlation
between plant damage and pest density. Fieldwork in Bangladesh led to a 10% visual damage spraying
threshold being proposed for S. litura and Plutella xylostella (Ali and Bakshi, 1994).
In eastern Asia, damage by S. litura occurs as far north as Japan, extending south to Indonesia.
Japanese soyabean field plots artificially infested with one or two S. litura egg masses per plant
suffered estimated leaf area reductions of 14.3 and 23.2% and yield losses of 13.9 and 24.7%,
respectively, compared with control plots (Higuchi et al., 1994). Similar work indicated that yield
losses caused by early infestation (at the flowering and pod-development stages) were attributable
chiefly to reduced production of pods per plant, whilst infestations on more mature plants affected
yield by reducing the weight of individual beans (Higuchi, 1991). In studies with red (adzuki) bean, the
effect of defoliation by S. litura on yield was investigated by artificial defoliation. Combined with
observations that the average leaf area consumed by S. litura was 203.9 cm², of which 82% was
consumed by final-instar larvae, an action threshold of two final-instar larvae/plant (causing 5% yield
loss) was estimated (Katayama and Sano, 1989). Equivalent thresholds were developed for protected
crops in Korea (Nakasuji and Matsuzaki, 1977). In this instance, a 10% yield loss threshold was
applied and the threshold densities of S. litura were 4.6 and 15.4 neonates or 0.8 and 2.6 egg
masses/m², for aubergine and sweet peppers, respectively. S. litura is also found in Welsh onion crops
in Korea, but is less damaging than other lepidopterans such as Liriomyza chinensis (Ahn et al., 1991).
A lepidopteran pest complex including S. litura, Pieris rapa and Plutella xylostella damages
cabbage in China (Zhou et al., 1996). Experiments to determine larval feeding capacity showed S.
litura to be intermediate amongst these species (Zhu et al., 1994). In the Zhejiang region of China, S.
litura is usually first recorded in June on legumes, aubergines, tomatoes, sweet peppers and tree fruits,
and subsequently damages cabbage seedlings in July (Chen et al., 1999). Damage becomes more
severe in August and September when cauliflower, sweet potato and legumes may also be attacked.
The pest appears unable to overwinter in this area and is virtually absent after the end of October. In
Taiwan, S. litura attacks gladiolus foliage (Wang, 1982; Liu, 1998) as well as soyabean and adzuki
bean (Lee, 1989). Damage ranged between 3 and 13% over three consecutive years for the latter crops.
In South-East Asia, S. litura has been recorded damaging tobacco in Malaysia (Hamid et al.,
1992), mungbean (Vigna radiata) in Thailand (Sepswasdi et al., 1991), tree legumes in Indonesia
(Matsumoto, 2000) and Paraserianthes falcataria seedlings in the Philippines (Braza, 1990).
Roa et al. (2012) studied the impact of climate change on the development of S. litura in the
near future and reported a change in the nutrient value of groundnut foliage and as a result a higher
consumption, lower digestive efficiency, slower growth and longer time to pupation (1 day more than
ambient).

Detection and Inspection

The presence of newly hatched larvae can be detected by the 'scratch' marks they make on the
leaf surface. The older larvae are night-feeders and are usually found in the soil around the base of
plants during the day. They chew large areas of the leaf, and can, at high population densities, strip a
crop of its leaves. In such cases, larvae migrate in large groups from one field to another in search of
food
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
S. litura can be easily confused with S. littoralis as in both cases adults and larvae are similar,
and they can be distinguished only through examination of genitalia. On dissection of the genitalia,
ductus and ostium bursae are the same length in female littoralis, different lengths in litura. The shape
of the juxta in males is very characteristic, and the ornamentation of the aedeagus vesica is also
diagnostic. The presence of newly hatched larvae can be detected by the 'scratch marks' they make on
the leaf surface.
For more information on the morphological discrimination between the adult, pupal and larval stages
of the two species, see Mochida (1973).
An EPPO standard provides guidance for the identification of S. littoralis, S. litura, S. frugiperda and
S. eridania (OEPP/EPPO, 2015).
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of
registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally
allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used
in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Introduction
After Rao et al. (1993).
The green revolution in Asia brought with it an increased awareness of the potential of
insecticides for increasing the sustainability of rice production. Unfortunately, the involvement of
farms in insecticide-related technologies did not proceed as fast as the rate of subsidy spread and the
overspill of insecticide usage into the fields of legume growers and horticulturalists. Legume pests are
increasing in economic importance throughout Asia due to the destruction of natural control systems,
and the build-up of insecticide resistance following the 'spraymania' of many farmers. If this is to be
counteracted, natural control needs to be given increased emphasis as a component of the IPM
approach. S. litura populations in groundnut fields are increasing in number and intensity, especially in
fields where insecticides have been applied (Stechmann and Semisi, 1984; Rao and Shanower, 1988).

Chemical Control
 In the past, the control of arthropods depended mostly on inexpensive and efficient insecticides.
But in recent years populations of many pests including S. litura have developed resistance to many
commercially available pesticides (Ramakrishnan et al., 1984; Naeem Abbas et al., 2014). Studies at
ICRISAT between 1991 and 1996 revealed the occurrence of resistance to cypermethrin, fenvalerate
and quinalphos, by 197-, 121-, 29- and 362-fold, respectively (JA Wightman, ICRISAT, Andhra
Pradesh, India, personal communication, 1996).
The control of arthropod pests is therefore becoming increasingly difficult and it is vital that all
biological alternatives to insecticides need to be given greater priority, both in research and
application.
New insecticides have been tested to deal with resistant strains of this moth and some promising results
are coming forward (Venkateswarlu et al., 2005). Neem oil microemulsion proved significantly
superior than macroemulsion (Swaran Dhingra et al., 2006).
New molecules such as chlorantraniliprole, spinosad and emamectin benzoate have shown promising
results against S. litura (Gadhiya et al., 2014) but chlorantraniliprole gave the highest cost: benefit ratio
among pesticides tested by Patil et al. (2014) on soyabeans.
Chatterjee and Mondal (2012) tested a number of new chemicals and their application methods on
different vegetable crops in India and South-East Asia against lepidopterous pests and found
flubendiamide, spinosad and chlorfenapyr to be the most effective.
Following studies on the sublethal effects of mathofenozide, Shahout et al. (2011) concluded that the
effects of methoxyfenozide with its sterilizing properties, if used strategically on S. litura, might
induce changes in the population dynamics of this pest in vegetable crops and could be considered a
potent insecticidal compound for controlling this pest.
Suganthy and Sakthivel (2013) studied different bio-pesticides against S. litura infesting fields of
Gloriosa superba and showed that flavonoids could be used as an alternative to chemical pesticides in
the gloriosa ecosystem and as a component in organic pest management.
Plant oils and insecticides mixtures (synthetic pyrethroids) gave a higher mortality rate on 8-day-old
larvae of S. litura than the synthethic pyrethroids alone (Anju and Srivastava, 2012).
Biological Control
In the past the mass releases of egg and larval parasitoids for the control of S. litura in different
crops in different geographical regions had achieved only partial success (Patel et al., 1979; Michael et
al., 1984). Observations in ICRISAT groundnut fields revealed more leaves with defoliator damage in
insecticide applied fields than unsprayed areas (Wightman et al., 1990). Similar observations were also
made during farmers' field surveys in the post-rainy season in coastal Andhra Pradesh, India (Rao and
Shanower, 1988). Stechmann and Semisi (1984) also shared the same opinion after surveying taro
fields in Western Samoa. In view of the development of insecticidal resistance and the destruction of
the natural enemies, and the polyphagous nature of this species, there is a need to give more
consideration to the role of natural enemies as a component of integrated approaches to managing S.
litura.
Egg parasitoids
Mass releases of an indigenous egg-larval parasite Chelonus heliopae in 1971-73 in Anand,
Gujarat, India, against S. litura in cauliflower proved ineffective in controlling the pest. During 1974,
weekly release of Telenomus remus, an egg parasitoid, in a tobacco nursery did not result in any
parasitism. However, five weekly releases of 50,000 parasites per 0.2 ha and two releases of 15,000
parasitoids per 0.2 ha in cauliflower resulted in 60% parasitism (Patel et al., 1979).
T. remus was introduced to Western Samoa and was recorded by Braune (1982) as a common egg-
larval parasitoid of S. litura, with parasitism averaging 54%. Complete parasitization was observed
only in small egg masses (up to 150 eggs) and the percentage of parasitization decreased with an
increase in size of egg mass. T. remus could oviposit only in host eggs on the surface of the host egg
mass. Thus the effectiveness of T. remus was limited to the large compact egg masses of S. litura.

Larval parasitoids
Six parasitoid species, Apanteles ruficrus, Cotesia marginiventris, Apanteles kazak,
Campoletes chloridae, Hyposoter didymator and T. remus were introduced to Western Australia from
overseas in 1978-83 and released against S. litura and 11 other economically important pests. The
highest level of parasitism by A. ruficrus (80% and above) was noticed in Mythimna sp. (Michael et
al., 1984).
In Western Samoa, Stechmann and Semisi (1984) collected information on S. litura damage levels in
relation to natural populations of Apanteles spp. in taro fields. They found that this pest was more
severe on taro where insecticides and herbicides were widely used, which perhaps created imbalance
between the pest and its natural enemies. Barrion and Litsinger (1987) reported the presence of
Peribaea orbata as a gregarious larval parasitoid on S. litura.
Wang et al. (2014) studied the relationship between the larval parasitoid Meteorus pulchricornis and
the bacterium Empedobacter brevis. The study suggested that the bacteria has a negative effect on M.
pulchricornis, but the impact could be alleviated by using low bacteria concentration and extending the
time between the application and wasp release in biological control practices.
Predators
The biology of Canthoconidia furcellata was studied in the laboratory with a view to using this
predator in an integrated pest management programme for tobacco pests. Chu and Chu (1975) studied
the effects of temperature on the growth of C. furcellata and found that 71,216 and 134 degree days
were required for egg, nymph and adult stages, respectively. It was concluded that there are five to six
generations per year of this predator in northern Taiwan.
Nakasuji et al. (1976) observed a predatory wasp, preferentially selecting fifth- and sixth-instar larvae
over early instars. The wasps were more active and attacked more larvae in fields with high larval
density than those with low larval density. However, the percentage of predation was lower in the field
with highest density of S. litura larvae.
Deng and Jim (1985) reported Conocephalus sp. as a new predator on egg masses of S. litura in
Guanxi, China. This katydid was successfully reared on an artificial diet. Field releases of nymphs and
adults of Conocephalus sp. were attempted for control of Scirpophaga incertulus.
Pathogens
Ansari et al. (1987) reported Serratia marcescens from Karnataka, India, attacking larvae of the
noctuids Helicoverpa armigera and S. litura. In laboratory tests, S. litura was found to be more
susceptible to the bacterium than H. armigera. The bacterium was equally pathogenic when ingested
through artificial diet or the natural food plant, but pathogenicity by contact application to the body of
larvae was poor.
Zaz and Kushwaha (1983) found Bacillus thuringiensis to be an effective microbial insecticide against
S. litura larvae in cauliflower fields in Rajasthan, India.
The efficiency of B. thuringiensis was enhanced significantely though protoplast fusion with a strain of
Bacillus subtilis (Kannan Revathi et al., 2014).
Asayama and Ohoishi (1980) from Japan and Phadke and Rao (1978) from India, investigated the
pathogenicity of a green muscardine fungus Nomuraea rileyi. Laboratory studies in India indicated that
this fungus was harmless to eggs of an egg parasitoid, Telenomus preditor, on Achaea janata and
recommended the combined use of the fungus and the egg parasitoid in biocontrol programmes against
A. janata. This may also apply to S. litura management.
Laboratory studies were undertaken to evaluate the bioefficacy of Beauveria bassiana against third-
instar larvae of S. litura. B. bassiana was identified, isolated and maintained from field-collected
cadavers of lepidopteran larvae. Minimum mortality was observed in the control, i.e. 23.3%, and the
percentage mortality increased as the number of spores increased (Gupta and Bhupendra Kumar,
2014).
Research was also carried out on entophytic fungi (Khuskia oryzae and Cladosporium uredinicola),
which showed adverse effects on survival and fitness of the insects (Abhinay et al., 2014).
Krishnaiah et al. (1985) conducted field trials with a nuclear polyhedrosis virus against S. litura
damage in black gram (Vigna mungo) fields in Andhra Pradesh, India. Two sprays of virus suspension
gave effective control similar to chemical insecticides tested.
Chari et al. (1985) evaluated the effectiveness of integrated management of natural enemies and viral
diseases to control S. litura on tobacco seedlings in Gujarat, India. They concluded that a combination
of biological control agents, insect growth regulators, antifeedants and a trap crop on all sides of the
nursery was an ecologically sound procedure for the control of S. litura.
Different doses of SpltMNPV on final instars of S. litura showed dose-related mortality, but sublethal
doses on subsequent generations needs to be considered in the design of baculovirus-based pest
management (Mohammad Monobrullah and Umi Shankar, 2008).
Integrated Pest Management
In recent years, due to crop failures experienced despite the use of several combinations of
chemicals, an integrated approach based on cultural and biocontrol with efficient monitoring using
pheromones has been developed (JA Wightman, ICRISAT, Andhra Pradesh, India, personal
communication, 1996). The IPM technology that has been developed and implemented in irrigated
groundnut where S. litura is endemic has the following components:
 clean cultivation to expose Spodoptera pupae to natural enemies and weather-related factors
 sunflower, taro (Zhou, 2009) and castor plants (that attract Spodoptera) to be sown as trap
crops both around and within fields
 pheromone traps to predict Spodoptera egg laying
 mechanical collection of egg masses and larvae from trap plants on alternate days following the
'warning' from the pheromone traps
 application of fungicide (chlorothalonil) at the appearance of the first leaf spot lesions, and
again after 10 days
 an application of neem kernel extract during the early stages of crop growth if necessary
 Pongamia glabra oil treatment on tomato plants gave significant reductions on the populations
of S. litura while no adverse effects againsts it natural enemies (Marimuthu, 2008)
 application of nuclear polyhedrosis virus at 500 larval equivalents per hectare in the evening if
needed.
 Sahayaraj (2011) gives a summary of different types of plant extracts used by farmer on
groundnuts and discusses their effiency.
Monitoring
Developments in pheromone technology have made it possible to monitor S. litura in the field,
to improve on timing of plant protection measures within groundnut IPM programmes.
The identification of a male sex pheromone of S. litura, (ZE) 9,11-tetradecadienyl acetate and (ZE)
9,12-tetradecadienyl acetate by Youshima et al. (1974) has enabled effective monitoring of this species
for several years. The basic work regarding trap design, height, longevity of the septa, and the potential
role of this technology in groundnut has been thoroughly studied at ICRISAT Center, Hyderabad, India
over the past decade. These studies have clearly indicated the migratory behaviour of the species in
different areas. At present, pheromone technology has given high priority in monitoring for timing of
plant protection measures within groundnut IPM programmes. The studies on trap density in groundnut
situations indicated no significant differences in moth catches when there were four or more traps per
hectare. No decline was noticed in moth catch with increase in trap density. This indirectly suggests a
limitation in utilizing the technology in mass trapping operations (Ranga Rao et al., 1989).
However, there have been some promising results in monitoring the population of moths on Chinese
cabbage (Yang Song et al., 2009); spraying times and costs of chemical pesticides against S. litura
were significantly reduced by the adoption of sex pheromone trapping.
Population projections based on life tables and stage-specific consumption rates can reveal the stage
structure and damage potential of the pest population of the moths (Tuan et al., 2014). This method
could prove to be more reliable as the data obtained by pheromone traps. It is evident that these life
tables have to be developed for each area where the moth occurs and one should take into account
climate change and yearly temperature and rainfall patterns. It was already established that minimum
temperature is the predominant factor that influences pheromone traps whereas wind velocity is
predominant in light traps. The overall influence of all the weather factors was high in case of
pheromone traps compared to light traps (Prasad et al., 2009).
Host-Plant Resistance
The development of resistance to S. litura in suitable groundnut varieties has been regarded as a
high priority for Asian groundnut farmers for a number of years. The results of experiments carried out
in 1986 and 1987 (data in Wightman and Ranga Rao, 1993) indicated the possibility that ICGV 86031
had some resistance to S. litura combined with high yield in the post-rainy season. This hope was
substantiated in further tests on the ICRISAT research farm and in farmers' fields in coastal Andhra
Pradesh (southern India). In the limited trials that have been carried out, farmers had sufficient
confidence to grow this variety without protecting it with insecticides. They were rewarded with higher
yields and lower variable costs than neighbouring farmers who grew locally acceptable varities but
applied insecticides to kill defoliators. PI 269116, PI 269118 and PI 262042 had resistance to S. litura,
but none were outstanding (Campbell and Wynne, 1980).
Bioassays carried out with larvae as preliminaries to detect the mechanism of resistance (independent
tests by Ranga Rao (ICRISAT) and Padgham (NRI)) revealed no antibiosis effect on second- to sixth-
instar larvae when fed mature leaves of ICGV 86031. The main mechanism of resistance is currently
thought to be tolerance, manifested as the enhanced ability of vegetative tissue to regrow following
defoliation.
However, first-instar larvae suffered 56% mortality when fed on ICGV 86031 compared with 12%
mortality when fed on susceptible ICG 221. Padgham also found that newly hatched larvae had a
marked propensity to vacate the leaves of this variety in the first 2 hours of free life. This suggests that
the resistance factor which influences the neonates is associated with the leaf surface, because their
feeding activity is restricted to scraping the leaf surface. The antixenosis demonstrated by ICGV 86031
is likely to increase the first-instar mortality that is characteristic of r-strategist noctuids (Kyi et al.,
1991) and will therefore contribute to the determination of the level of damage caused by the older
larvae among which mortality is comparatively low.
Amin et al. (2011) investigated the morphological and biochemical characteristics of three varieties of
cotton and observed their effect on feeding and growth of S. litura. At least one variety was not suited
for cotton growers. In a study of the interaction between the virus and the parasitoid, Guo Huifang et
al. (2013) showed that the use of an appropriate concentration has the potential to improve the
efficiency of the biological control.
Gaps in Knowledge/ Research Needs
S. litura belongs to a species complex 'Spodoptera' consisting of very similar species with
similar ecology in other continents. Correct identification is essential for establishing the correct
distribution pattern of this pest
 TOMATO FRUIT BORER (CORN EARWORM)

Photo 1. Caterpillar of the tomato fruit borer (corn earworm), Helicoverpa armigera, eating a tomato. Note the three stripes
on the top of its body.

Photo 2. Caterpillar of the tomato fruit borer (corn earworm), Helicoverpa armigera, eating a tomato. Note that there may
be considerable variation in the colour and marking of this insect; compare with all the others.

Photo 3. Caterpillar of the tomato fruit borer (corn earworm), Helicoverpa armigera, eating a tomato.

Photo 4. Caterpillar of the tomato fruit borer (corn earworm), Helicoverpa armigera, eating a tomato. Note, hairs on the
body can be clearly seen towards the rear of the caterpillar.
 

Photo 5. The sloping hind end of the caterpillar and the presence of short stiff hairs sets Helicoverpa armigera apart
from Spodoptera litura.

Photo 6. Caterpillars of Helicoverpa armigera, in cobs of maize, showing the dark green stripes along the back and
a yellow stripe at the side (more clearly seen on the caterpillar at the top of the photo).

Photo 7. Caterpillar of Helicoverpa armigera in cob of maize. Note, this is much darker than those in Photo 6.

Photo 8. Caterpillar of tomato fruuit borer, Helicoverpa armigera, on potato.

Photo 9. Caterpillar of tomato fruit borer (corn earworm), Helicoverpa armigera, on fruit of chilli.

 
 Photo 10. Adult corn earworm, Helicoverpa armigera.

Photo 11. Male Helicoverpa armigera. Note the indistinct inner border of  the black markings on the hind wings.

Photo 12. Spodoptera litura provided for comparision.

TOMATO FRUIT BORER (CORN EARWORM)

Common Name
Tomato fruit borer, corn earworm, cotton bollworm
Scientific Name
Helicoverpa armigera, previously Heliothis armigera.
Distribution
Worldwide. Asia, Africa, North (Florida) and South America, the Caribbean (Puerto Rico),
Europe, Oceania. It is recorded from American Samoa, Australia, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji,
Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau,
Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu..
Hosts
Wide; especially beans, capsicum, cotton, maize, sorghum, tomato, and to a lesser extent
legumes, tobacco, and many weeds.
Symptoms & Life Cycle
The eggs are ribbed, about 0.5 mm diameter, laid singly on leaves, buds, flowers and young
fruit; they are white at first then greenish-yellow, and dark brown before hatching. The newly hatched
larvae are translucent and whitish in colour, but the later stages - there are usually six - are variable in
colour, ranging from greenish-yellow to red-brown with three dark stripes along the back and a yellow
stripe on the sides (Photos 1-9). The length of the larval stage is affected by temperature, and also the
food eaten, but 14-18 days is likely in most Pacific island countries. When mature, the caterpillars are
up to 40 mm long.
The mature caterpillars drop to the ground, burrow into the soil for up to 10 cm and form a cell in
which the pupa develops. About 2 weeks later, the adults emerge; mate and the females start laying
eggs - about a thousand in a lifetime of 2 weeks. The adults have brown forewings with a single dark
spot (Photos 10-11). Hind wings are generally lighter with a wide brown border at the wing tips, and
brown veins. The entire life cycle lasts about 30 days.
Note that development can take place on weeds, and from these the larvae migrate to crops if they are
nearby.

IMPACT
The caterpillars do the damage. The young caterpillars feed only on leaves; later, when they
reach the third stage in their development they feed on flower buds and fruits, boring holes in them in
the process (Photos 1&2). Damaged fruits are invaded by fungi and bacteria causing rots, and the fruits
fall. Indirect damage occurs in maize; damage to the tip of the cob allows weevils to invade. In Fiji,
sorghum, tomato, maize and okra are the most important crops attacked by Helicoverpa armigera.
Detection & inspection
Look for the caterpillars on the leaves or hidden in the fruits; look for frass or faeces, or cut
open buds or fruits to find the pest. Often caterpillars of Spodoptera litura can be found on the same
crops causing similar damage. Look for the narrow bright yellow lines on the back and sides of the
body of the caterpillar of Spodoptera litura (Photo 12), but note there are variations in both! Look, too,
at the rear end of the body; that of Helicoverpa slopes sharply downwards at about 45 degrees.
MANAGEMENT
The corn earworm is a difficult pest to control because it has a wide host range, is migratory
and has a relatively short life cycle. The difficulty is made worse because of its ability to develop
resistance to insecticides. Recent strategies include area-wide management and IPM, but neither has
been developed for crops grown in Pacific island countries.
NATURAL ENEMIES
Few of the natural enemies reported are specific to the pest, although many parasites and
predators (bugs, beetles, spiders, lacewings and ants) attack Helicoverpa armiger worldwide. In the
Pacific, little is known about natural enemies. Interestingly, it is an unimportant pest in Samoa, unlike
the situation in Fiji, Solomon Islands and Tonga, where it is considered of great importance.
A number of introductions for biological control of Helicoverpa armigera have been made in Fiji,
including Cotesia marginiventris.
In general, the success of biological control of the pest is affected by its migratory habit, meaning that
when large numbers of egg-laying moths invade an area, the resident natural enemies are likely to be
too slow to bring the larvae under control before significant damage has been done.
CULTURAL CONTROL
Cultural control offers only limited potential for this highly mobile pest, although weeding and
the removal of the remains of crops may be beneficial. There is also evidence that sunflowers can be
useful as a trap crop. Helicoverpa (and also Spodoptera) are attracted to the flowers and oviposit in the
heads. Insecticides can then be used to minimise damge. This has been tried in South and Southeast
Asia in peanut crops with good results. A few plants placed at random also attracted ladybird predators
(and insectivorous birds, such as crows).
RESISTANT VARIETIES
None known for the crops of interest to Pacific island countries, although resistance is reported
from India in some varieties of pigeon pea, peanut and chickpea.
CHEMICAL CONTROL
To be effective, scouting for eggs and young larvae is required. The reason for this is that
insecticides are most effective against the early larval stages; the later stages burrow into plant parts
and are more difficult to treat. If synthetic pyrethroids are used it is important that they are alternated
with those from a different chemical group. In Australia, for instance, Helicoverpa armigera has
developed a resistance to a wide range of insecticides, and has become difficult to control.
Biopesticides. There are two pathogens of Helicoverpa armigera that are commercially
available, although not widely sold in Pacific island countries: NVP (nucleopolyhedrovirus) and Bt,
Bacillus thuringiensis. NVP is highly selective and will only infect Helicoverpa armigera and closely
related species.
 FALL ARMYWORM

Photo 1. Mature larva of the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda. Note the inverted Y on the head, and the bristles from
black spots. Another distinguishing characteristic is the four black dots (in a square) on the last abdominal segment.

Photo 2. Mature larva of the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda.

Photo 3. Mature larva of the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, inside a maize cob. The whorl of leaves are usually
the part most affected by the armyworm.

Photo 4. Adult (male) fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda.

 
Diagram. Scouting for fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda using a W-shaped sampling plan of five groups of 10 plants
(FAO guidance Note 2).

FALL ARMYWORM
Common Name
Fall armyworm. Named after its flight into North America where it lays eggs, and the larvae
develop in the Fall or Autumn.
Scientific Name
Spodoptera frugiperda
Distribution
Widespread. Asia, Africa, North, South and Central America, the Caribbean. As of May 2019,
it was not yet recorded from the Philippines, or Oceania. However, it has been recorded from northern
Sumatra. Native to North and South America.
Hosts
More than 80 species. The armyworm has a preference for plants in the grass family, the
Poaceae, i.e., maize, millets, rice, sorghum, sugarcane, but it also attacks banana, cotton, cowpeas,
ginger, peanut, tobacco, some forage legumes, and vegetables, e.g., beans (including soybean),
cabbage, capsicum, cauliflowers, cucumber, eggplant, potato, sweetpotato, tomato, and some weeds
and ornamentals. There are two types: one prefers maize and sorghum; the other, rice and forage
(pasture) grasses.
Symptoms & Life Cycle
Damage is done by the larvae (Photos 1&2). On young plants, the larvae eat the leaves except
for the waxy layer resulting in a symptom known as 'windowing'; seedlings may also be cut at the base.
On older plants, holes are made in the leaves, edges are eaten, and ears (cobs) of maize are bored
(Photo 3). Damage to the cobs may be much more serious than damage to the leaves.
Eggs are laid in masses (120-200) on the underside of lower leaves, covered in scales from the
female. Up to 10 batches may be laid by a single moth. Young larvae are green, with dark heads and
dark lines alongside the body; at first they feed together skeletonising leaves and making 'windows'. As
the larvae develop - there are six stages taking 14-21 days in total - they become brown with three
whitish lines along the back, develop dark spots with spines, and an upside-down Y on the head. When
mature, larvae are 4-5 cm long. They also become cannibalistic; on maize, only 1-2 larvae survive per
whorl. Larger larvae are nocturnal unless migrating in swarms.
 Pupation is underground, inside a loose cocoon made from silk and soil; more rarely it occurs
between leaves on the host. Pupation lasts about 12 days. Adults have a winspan of 32-40 mm, with a
brown or grey forewing and white hindwing (Photo 4).
The moth is a stronger flyer and travels fast; with wind assistance some travel up to 1000 km in
a lifetime. Spread also occurs via the international trade in vegetables and ornamentals.

Impact
Spread across Africa was fast; since its first detection in 2016, it has been reported in 28
countries, and tens of millions of hectares of maize have been infested, plus large areas of sorghum and
millet. Estimated losses from sub-Saharan Africa are put between US$2.5-6.2 billion a year. Similar
rapid spread has occurred across India beginning in 2018, and in January 2019 the armyworm reached
Sri Lanka, and several Southeast Asian countries.
Impact is considerable because early larvae require little food whereas later stages require a lot;
this means that early infestations are often missed, and outbreaks are seen only when the armyworm
matures. It may then be too late to prevent serious damage. However, though visual damage can often
be considerable (e.g., voracious feeding of maize whorls), this regularly is reflected in relatively low to
moderate economic impacts, i.e., 10-20% reduction in crop yields.
In Africa (and elsewhere), pesticide-based control is often ineffective as the moth was
introduced from the Americas with resistance to carbamate, organophosphorous, organochlorine, and
pyrethroid insecticides. Ample cost-effective and practical options exist for non-chemical control of
fall armyworm, including biological control and cultural means.
Detection & inspection
Look for the inverted Y on the front of the larvae (the head capsule) and four dark spots in a
square on the last but one segment. However, as there are several Spodoptera species, confirmation of
identification ideally needs to be done by specialists. There are morphological keys and molecular
methods available. Once identification has been done, use the app developed by FAO (FAMESWS) for
Android mobile devices to standardise monitoring in the field or when using pheromone traps.
Scouting information is added to a global database to track movement of the pest
(http://www.fao.org/fall-armyworm/en/), and help improve management. The app also has information
on IPM and biological control.

FAO Guidance Note 2 (http://www.fao.org/fall-armyworm/faw-management/pesticide-

guidance/en/) shows how to sample a small field (2 ha or less). Walk a letter 'W' covering the entire
field, selecting a group of 10 plants at the beginning and then at each turn so that there are five groups
(see Diagram). Count the number of infested plants in each group. An infested plant is where there is
fresh damage or fresh frass on the leaves or in the whorls of leaves (maize). Add the number of
infested plants, and calculate a percentage (x2 total). FAO Guidance Note 3 (same URL) describes
trapping using a pheromone.
Management
BIOSECURITY
Increasing transportation and international trade are likely to facilitate the further spread of the
fall armyworm outside Africa and Asia. Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Pacific
island countries are at high risk from the spread of Spodoptera frugiperda. However, although a
quarantine issue, it is also a biosecurity problem. The moth is high flying and so it is impossible to stop
its spread.
Moths caught in the vortices of cyclones in the southern tropical cyclone belt from Africa to Southeast
Asia could deliver the moth to Australia and Papua New Guinea.

NATURAL ENEMIES
Several wasps have been identified from larvae at different locations. Those of most interest are
Cotesia marginventris, Chelonis insularis, Trichgramma pretiosum, and Telenemus remus. Telenomus
remus, an egg paraitoid, gives control in the Caribbean and is now of interest in Africa. These and a
fly, Winthemia trinitatis, are mentioned in the FAMEWS app. Predators include, birds, rodents,
beetles, earwigs and other insects - ants, ladybird beetles, earwigs, predatory stink bugs, and others.
The avoidance of synthetic pesticides & diversification of corn fields can help conserve many
of the above natural enemies and contribute to pest control. Additionally, there are fungi, bacteria and
viruses that infect the armyworm and cause diseases. Death from pathogens is about 10-15%. Foliar
sprays of a pest-specific nucleopolyhedrosis virus (NPV) can be a highly-effective option for the field-
level management of fall armyworm. NPV inoculates can be collected in the field by farmers, and
stored in the fridge for future application.
CULTURAL CONTROL
Before planting:
 Plant crops early to avoid increases in fall armyworm as the season progresses.
 Use high quality seed, and fast-growing seedlings.
 Plant all cereal crops at the same time to avoid overlapping crops and movement of the fall
armyworm from older to younger crops.
 If not possible to plant all at one time, avoid planting new crops next to old, especially where
larvae are present.
 Use push-pull intercropping.
o The 'pull' - plant a trap crop, e.g., napier or Brachiaria grasses between rows of maize - the
moths lay their eggs on the grasses rather than maize, but the larvae do not survive.
o The 'push' - Desmodium is planted between rows of maize. This improves the soil and is
said to repel Spodoptera frugiperda moths.
 Interplant with e.g., cassava which is not a favoured host of the fall armyworm, or use
legume intercrops (e.g., peanut, cowpea) to diversify the cropping system and enhance
overall health of the maize plants. The establishment of intercrops also helps diversify
income sources, and moderates economic losses due to pest attack.
During growth:
  It is important to visit the crop frequently and regularly, at least once a week. See Detection
& Inspection for methods of crop monitoring.
 If scouting indicates Spodoptera frugiperda is present and requires control, do the
following:
o Crush egg masses by hand.
o Remove the larvae by hand if only a few are present, and the planted area is small (less
than 2 ha); if the area is larger or if infestation of larvae is high, consider using a
botanical or biopesticide. But consider carefully which ones to use (see below).
o Alternatively, for small plots, place sand or ash in the whorls of maize, or use diluted
sugar-water to attract ants to infested maize plants. See the FAO FARMEWS app for
details of these home remedies.
o Plant flowering trees, shrubs and herbaceous ornamentals to provide nectar for
parasitoids.
o Provide perches for birds.
 Provide adequate nutrients, by applying synthetic or organic fertilizers. Vigorously growing
plants are better able to replace damaged leaves.
After harvest:
 Collect and bury as much of the crop as possible.
RESISTANCE VARIETIES
 There are varieties of maize with resistance due to tougher leaves. GM varieties are available
that produce Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) toxins.
CHEMICAL CONTROL
Experience in Africa suggest that gains from using insecticides are rarely economically
justified for resource-poor smallholders. For maize at least, it is difficult for insecticides to reach the
armyworm when deep in the whorl and the entrance is covered with frass, plus the fact that yield loss
is rarely more than 20%, and often nearer 10%. There is also the harm to natural enemies, biodiversity
and human health to consider. However, if pesticides are needed, do the following:
 For small plots, use plant-derived pesticides (PDPs), such as neem, derris, pyrethrum and chilli
(with the addition of soap).
 Note, Derris, brought many years ago to Solomon Islands from Papua New Guinea, is effective
as a spray. It contains rotenone, an insecticide, so it should be used with caution. There may be
varieties of Derris (fish poisons) in your country that can be tried (see Fact Sheet no. 56).
 For larger plots where PDPs are often inappropriate use commercial biopesticides that contain
disease-causing organisms, such as
o Bt - Bacillus thuringiensis subspecies kurstaki (strain SA-11). Bt is best against young
larvae.
o Beauveria bassiana (strain R444).
o Spodoptera frugiperda multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (SfNNPV).
 Note, organophosphate, organochlorine, carbamate and synthetic pyrethroid products are
unlikely to be effective in the long run: i) the fall armyworm already has resistance to many
 kinds, or will develop resistance quickly, and ii) these insecticides will destroy natural enemies,
and make the crop more susceptible to pest attack.

RICE SHOOT FLY

Photo 1. Damage caused by the rice shoot fly, Atherigona oryzae.

Photo 2. Adult rice shoot fly, Atherigona oryzae.

Common Name
Root shoot fly; it is also known as the rice seedling maggot or the corn seedling maggot.

Scientific Name
Atherigona oryzae; another species, Atherigona exigua, of unknown host, has been confused
with the rice shoot fly. Atherigona oryzae is the only species known to attack rice.

Distribution
Restricted. Asia, Africa (Seychelles), Oceania. It is recorded from Australia, Federated States
of Micronesia, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Tonga, and Vanuatu.

Hosts
Rice, maize, sorghum, wheat and many wild grasses.
Symptoms & Life Cycle
The maggots damage upland rice and the (dry) nurseries of lowland flooded rice. Seedlings
attacked: leaves ragged, discoloured, with damaged margins; stems bored by maggots, killing the
shoots and causing ‘deadheart’ symptoms (Photo 1), like those caused by stem borers (see Fact Sheets
nos. 408-412). The seedling dies or survives by the production of tillers. Seedlings become resistant to
attack after they have produced 5-6 leaves.
Eggs are white, darkening near the time of maturity, elongate, 1.25 mm long, laid on the leaf blades of
seedlings, singly or in groups. Eggs hatch and maggots use dew drops to descend to the base of the leaf
sheath where they tunnel into the tillers with their strong mouth hooks. Larvae grow to 9 mm, and are
creamy-white becoming yellow with age. Pupation occurs at the base of the plant or in the soil. Pupae
are contained in the last larval skin; they are reddish-brown, and about 4 mm long. The adult is a small,
yellowish-grey fly, mostly 3-3.5 mm in length, with black head and thorax, and yellow abdomen with
two to three pairs of black spots on the back (Photo 2). The life cycle is from 15 to more than 30 days
depending on the location; in the humid tropics, the average time is 25 days.
Spread is on the wing; the adult is a strong flyer.

IMPACT
A serious pest of upland rice and maize, attacking seedlings up to 4 weeks old. Damage is
worse in the wet season. In Mindanao, Philippines, losses of 6% were recorded from 1985-1990 in the
seedling stage. Severely attacked fields have many missing plants. Plants may recover from attack but
tiller density is reduced, spikelets per panicle are fewer, crop maturity is delayed, and yields reduced.

Detection & inspection

Look for the egg masses on the leaves of seedlings. Look for the deadhearts, and open the
tillers to check for maggots. However, because there are several species with similar characteristics
specimens should be examined by a taxonomist familiar with the genus. Identifications are based on
the male sex organs.

MANAGEMENT

BIOSECURITY
Countries not yet infested by the rice shoot fly should consider all likely pathways for entry,
and apply quarantine measures accordingly. It is a major pest of rice, in particular. Many countries
throughout Africa, the Americas and also Oceania are at risk. Pathways of introduction are likely to be
via produce contaminated by pieces of stem of the hosts infested with larvae or pupae.

NATURAL ENEMIES
Trichogramma species parasitise the eggs, and Opius species (Braconid wasps) parasitise the
larvae. Many kinds of spiders prey on the adults.

CULTURAL CONTROL

Before planting:

 Sow when the weather is relatively dry (in many countries this is very early in the season or
very late). The fly is seasonal, passing the dry times in dormancy. Therefore, it can be avoided
by adjusting the planting time.
  Increase the seedling rate to compensate for loss of tillers due to deadhearts.
 Where farmers follow a rice-maize rotation, plant rice as early as possible after planting maize
(one month or less), with rates of 90-120 kg seed/ha rice.

During growth:

 Flood the crop occasionally to reduce the incidence of the shoot fly.
 If flooding is not possible, apply nitrogen fertilizer to promote recovery of the damaged plants.
RESISTANT VARIETIES
No varieties have been bred successfully for resistance.

CHEMICAL CONTROL
It is unlikely that chemical treatments would be economic for upland farmers, and are not
recommended.　

LOCUSTA MIGRATORIA (LINNAEUS)

LOCUSTA MIGRATORIA (LINNAEUS)

Taxonomic placing: Insecta, Hemimetabola, Orthoptera, Acridoidea, Acrididae.

Common name: Migratory locust.
Geographical distribution: Locusta migratoria occurs in all temperate and tropical parts of the
Eastern Hemisphere, from the Canaries and the Azores in the West to Japan and New Zealand in the
East. Commonwealth Institute of Entomology Map.

Host plants: This locust prefers gramineous plants but may feed on a large variety of rangeland flora
in its primary breeding sites, or on economic crops when present in the environment. Leguminous
plants are less compatible nutritionally.

Morphology: The female is up to 90 mm in length, the male measures up to 65 mm. The mottled
tegmina project beyond the end of the abdomen. Adults are grey brown in color. The hindwings are
transparent with a purplish cast, and a curved band of darker aspect runs diagonally across them. A
dull yellow line runs dorsally along the crest of the pronotum.

Within this species in its broad distribution, solitariform adults are characterized by a concave
pronotum. Their background coloration is cryptic, being green or brown, dependent on levels of
ambient humidity. Gregariform adults are much darker. Isolated males are substantially larger than
females whereas crowded males are similar to the females.

Life cycle: Within their vast geographic range the populations of the migratory locust show
morphological and biological diversity, and the existence of nine subspecies is nowadays accepted;
some are economic pests. Populations of L. migratoria that are endemic to temperate climates (some
classified as subspecies), undergo embryonic diapause, establishing 1-2 annual generations. However,
this does not occur in the subtropical Middle East. A non-swarming subspecies, L. m. cinerascens
(Fabricius), exists in some of the other countries surrounding the Mediterranean.

As a rule, the migration of L. migratoria is more limited than that of the desert locust, Schistocerca
gregaria (Forskal). Isolated migratory locusts fly at night, whereas crowded adults fly mainly by day.
Isolated locusts have 1-2 more larval instars than individuals in crowded populations, but this does not
prolong their development, which is more rapid than when crowded. In consequence locusts in
crowded populations raise fewer generations.

The Israeli migratory locust population is similar to another population that is established in irrigated
localities in central Arabia. Solitariform L. migratoria may occur in low numbers on field crops and
grasses during summer and autumn in Israel, disappearing in winter.

Economic importance: At low population densities, the migratory locust is a minor pest. Although
permanently Solitariform in the eastern Mediterranean, the behavior of occasional crowded
populations is reminiscent of its gregariform subspecies, the African migratory locust, Locusta
migratoria migratorioides (Reiche and Fairmaire), with which it can hybridize.

Management: Except on the rare occasions when the pest populations greatly increase, it does not
require control measures. In its areas of abundance, environmentally compatible control agents, such as
the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium flavoviride Gams & Rozsypal, applied in an oil-based
formulation, have been tested. Insect growth regulators (IGRs) prevent normal molting.
 ROOT GRUB

Root loss and larvae of root grub

ROOT GRUB
Leucopholis irrorata Chevrolat
What it does
Root grubs feed on roots or loss roots. This can lead to abnormal plant height, discoloration of
plant, and wilting.
Why and where it occurs
Root grubs generally prefer plants with fibrous root system.
They are widespread in upland and rainfed rice environments. The adults are nocturnal and are
attracted to light traps. Eggs are laid and developed in moist soil made by the burrowing females. In
the soil, they usually remain close to where moisture is available.
Root grubs feed on rice during the seedling stage of the crop. During drought, damage caused by the
insect pest is higher.

How to identify
A root grub-damaged plant has yellow orange leavesCheck the field for wilting plants, stunted
plants, and root loss. Orange-yellow discoloration in the leaves also occurs.
Other insect pests such as mealybugs and root aphids also cause plant stunting. The orange-yellow leaf
symptom is similar in appearance to nutrient deficiency.
To confirm root grub damage, check for presence of insect pest:
 ovoid and creamy white eggs
 adults feeding on the leaves
 grubs or larvae feeding on the roots
Inspect the rice crop for damages such as damaged roots, abnormal height, and yellowish color of
plants.
Why is it important
White grubs are minor insect pests of rice and usually in upland rice. Both the adults and larvae feed
on the leaves and roots, respectively.
How to manage
The population of root grubs is generally controlled by natural biological control agents.
Scoliid wasps parasitize the larvae. Carabid beetles, birds, toads, bats, and storks also eat the larvae
and adults. The larvae are also infected by fungal pathogens.

SPODOPTERA EXEMPTA (BLACK ARMYWORM)

Picture Title Caption Copyright
Larva Spodoptera exempta (black armyworm); larva, ©Rikus
extended position. Kikuju pastures, Greytown Kloppers/PANNAR Seed
South Africa. (Pty) Ltd, Greytown, South
Africa

Larva Spodoptera exempta (black armyworm); larva, ©Rikus

Kikuju pastures, Greytown, South Africa. Kloppers/PANNAR Seed
(Pty) Ltd, Greytown, South
Africa

NPV-infected NPV-infected larva of Spodoptera exempta ©David Grzywacz

larva of (African armyworm). The hanging attitude
Spodoptera with the head down is typical of late instars
exempta killed by NPV.

Larva Spodoptera exempta (black armyworm); ©Rikus

dorsal surface of larva, showing markings. Kloppers/PANNAR Seed
Kikuju pastures, Greytown, South Africa. (Pty) Ltd, Greytown, South
Africa

Larva Spodoptera exempta (black armyworm); ©Rikus

underside of larva, showing true-legs (in Kloppers/PANNAR Seed
anterior region) and pro-legs. Kikuju pastures, (Pty) Ltd, Greytown, South
Greytown, South Africa. Africa

Adult female Adult female S. exempta (museum set ©Georg Goergen/IITA

specimen). Insect Museum, Cotonou,
Benin

Adult male Adult male S. exempta (museum set ©Georg Goergen/IITA

specimen). Insect Museum, Cotonou,
Benin

Life stages - Egg ca 0.5 mm diameter, conical with a Dennis S. Hill

line drawing slightly rounded apex. Gregarious larvae with
velvety-black upper surface with pale lateral
lines, green or yellow ventral surface. Pupae
mahogany-brown, 10-14 mm long, with a
smooth, shiny surface.
 Picture Title Caption Copyright
Adult - line Stout-bodied moths of typical noctuid Dennis S. Hill
drawing appearance, 14-18 mm long with a 29-32 mm
wingspan.

SPODOPTERA EXEMPTA (BLACK ARMYWORM)

Preferred Scientific Name
 Spodoptera exempta Walker
Preferred Common Name
 black armyworm
Other Scientific Names
 Agrotis exempta Walker 1856
 Caradrina exempta
 Laphygma exempta Hampson 1909
 Leucania exempta
 Prodenia bipars Walker 1857
 Prodenia exempta Walker
 Prodenia ingloria Walker 1858
International Common Names
 English: african armyworm; armyworm, african; armyworm, true; hail worm; mystery
armyworm; rain worm
 Spanish: gardama africana; gusano soldado africano
 French: chenille defoliante; chenille légionnaire; chenille processionaire
Local Common Names
 Africa: Barnosay; mystery worm; Viwavi jeshi
 Australia: Day-feeding armyworm; Leaf-eating grassworm; variegated armyworm
 Ethiopia: Geiry; Temch
 Germany: Heerwurm
 Kenya: Keenyu; Kungu; Ngonga; Ng'Urrto
 Malawi: Chipakusu; Kapuchi; Nchembere; Zandonda
 Mozambique: nyanja
 Netherlands: Geelgestrepte legerrups; Legerworm
 Somalia: Diirta afrikaana
 South Africa: Kommandoworm
 Sudan: El-Afrigia; El-Dudah; El-Zahfa
 Uganda: N'Kungula; Omor
 USA/Hawaii: Nutgrass armyworm
 Yemen: Gidami
 Zimbabwe: Imhogoyi; Mhundururu
EPPO code
 LAPHEX (Spodoptera exempta)
Taxonomic Tree
 Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Uniramia
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Genus: Spodoptera
Species: Spodoptera exempta
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
This species was originally named Agrotis exempta by Walker in 1856. It was assigned to the
genus Laphygma by Hampson in 1909, and to the genus Spodoptera Guenée by Zimmerman in 1958.
The genus Spodoptera currently contains 22 species of which seven are found in Africa, one of them,
S. malagasy Viette being recorded only from Madagascar. Three of the species found in Africa are
significant pests: S. exigua (Hübner), S. littoralis (Biosduval) and S. cilium Guenée. Three species are
of significant pest status elsewhere: S. mauritia (Biosduval) as a severe pest of rice in Asia; S. litura
(Fabricius) as a serious pest of cotton and other crops in India, the Far East and Australasia; and S.
frugiperda (JE Smith) as an outbreak pest of poaceous crops in North America and the Caribbean. For
further information, see Brown and Dewhurst (1975).
Description
Eggs
The eggs of Spodoptera exempta are pale-yellowish, darkening through development until, just
before hatching, the black head-capsules of the larvae can be seen through the shells. Each egg is about
0.5 mm in diameter, conical with a slightly rounded apex and a densely sculpted surface. Eggs are laid
in batches of 10-600 which are covered by black scale-hairs from the tip of the female's abdomen; this
covering may be sparse on later batches.
Larvae
Larvae occur in two principle forms: the gregarious (gregaria) form characteristic of high-
density populations and the solitarious (solitaria) form found at low larval densities. Intermediate,
'transiens' forms may also be present. Gregarious larvae have a velvety-black upper surface with pale
lateral lines, a green or yellow ventral surface, and no hairs on the body. There are three parallel lines
on the dorsal surface of the prothoracic (first body) segment and a stripe running longitudinally down
the mid-dorsal surface of the body is always paler than the black pigmentation on either side of it. The
head is always shiny-black. Solitarious larvae are cryptically coloured in a variety of shades of green-
brown or pink, appear fat, and are extremely sluggish. They are difficult to distinguish from other
grass-feeding caterpillars (see section on Detection and Inspection Methods). Larvae of the IV and
later instars may be sexed by the presence, in females, of small pits on the ventral surface of the eighth
and ninth abdominal segments.
Pupa
Mahogany-brown, 10-14 mm long, with a smooth, shiny surface. They are difficult to
distinguish from pupae of other Spodoptera species. They may be sexed by examining markings on the
ventral surface of the terminal abdominal segments.
Adult
Adult S. exempta are stout-bodied moths of typical noctuid appearance, 14-18 mm long and
with a 29-32 mm wing span. The abdomen is covered with pale grey-brown scales except for the tip in
the female which has black hair-scales characteristic for this species. Forewings are dark-brown with
distinctive grey-black markings. An inner (orbicular) spot is elongated and pale in both sexes but more
pronounced in the female. An outer (reniform) spot is arrow/kidney shaped in both sexes but much less
apparent in the female. Hindwings are white with dark veins. See Rose et al. (1996) and references
therein.
Distribution
S. exempta is found in Africa, on the Arabian Peninsula, and in South-East Asia, Australasia
and Oceania (including Hawaii, USA). Moths have been taken in Japan and New Zealand but there is
no evidence that the species is established there. S. exempta is widespread in Africa south of the
Sahara, being most prevalent in the east and eastern central regions of the continent. In South-East
Asia, it is most frequently recorded from the Indonesian islands, including Kalimantan, Sulawesi and
the Philippines. In Australasia, it is confined to Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and New
Caledonia, and to the northern and eastern seaboard of Australia.
Records of S. exempta in California, Kansas, Oregon, Washington and Wisconsin (EPPO,
2014) published in previous versions of the Compendium are invalid as the original source of the
records (Arnett, 1993) does not mention the distribution of the pest in these states. There is no
evidence of S. exempta in the continental United States (USDA APHIS, 2020, communication to
CABI).
Risk of Introduction
S. exempta is not listed as a quarantine pest by EPPO.

Host/Species Affected
Hosts of S. exempta are primarily plants of the Poaceae and Cyperaceae. Major economically
important hosts are: barley, Pennisetum typhoides, Eleusine coracana, maize, oat, rice, sorghum,
sugarcane, Eragrostis tef, wheat and pasture grasses, especially Cynodon and Pennisetum species. The
larvae exhibit strong host preferences within the Poaceae and there are major differences between
varieties of cereal crops in their susceptibility to attack. S. exempta has once been found causing
serious damage to coconut seedlings and once to young tea and, during high-density outbreaks, non-
host plants including tobacco and cotton may be eaten, though not extensively. See Rose et al. (1996)
for a full list of wild and cultivated host plants.
Growth Stages
Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stage
Symptoms
The symptom of S. exempta attack is gross feeding damage to foliage, growing points and
young stems. Severe infestation results in total defoliation or destruction of the plant to ground level.
Biology and Ecology
S. exempta larvae develop in markedly different forms or 'phases' depending on larval densities
in the early instars. Although similar 'phase polyphenism' occurs in other Noctuidae, it is most strongly
developed in S. exempta, in which the highly conspicuous, heavily pigmented and active 'gregarious'
('gregaria') form, typical of outbreak populations, is the familiar armyworm. The cryptic, sluggish
'solitarious' ('solitaria') form, typical of low-density populations, is difficult to find and often not
recognized as an armyworm. A second key feature of the biology of S. exempta is the absence of any
pre-imaginal diapause; a single report of an extended pupal period has never been confirmed.
In eastern Africa, there are typically six to eight outbreak generations per year, with four to five
in southern Africa. There is a period of 3-5 months when no outbreaks are reported, during which low
density populations persist in areas supporting continued growth of host plants, where a total of 13
generations per year is possible.
Oviposition usually begins at 20.00-21.00 h, eggs being laid in batches of 10-600 and covered
with black hair scales. A single female lays about 1000 eggs over a period of up to 6 nights but little or
no oviposition occurs at temperatures below 20°C. Oviposition often occurs on substrates other than
host plants, including dry grasses, leaves of tall plants, twigs of bushes and trees, or on buildings. Eggs
hatch in 2-5 days (typically 3 in normal outbreak conditions), with a temperature threshold for
development of 10-12°C. Eggs generally hatch in the early morning and the translucent larvae, after
feeding on the egg shells, drop from the oviposition site on silken threads to be dispersed on the wind,
often over several metres. Mortality can be high, with larvae failing to reach suitable hosts, being
drowned by rainfall, or taken by predators. On reaching a host plant, positive phototaxis and negative
geotaxis takes them to the upper, often youngest, foliage where they commence feeding by rasping the
lower lateral epidermis of the leaves, creating 'windows' and gradually becoming green. They remain
green for the first three instars, diverging into the solitarious or gregarious forms at the III-IV instar
moult. At this moult, the form of the mandibles also changes, enabling the larvae to feed on the leaf
edge. There are normally six larval instars and food consumption increases rapidly in the latter stages,
reaching about 0.2 g/day for a fully grown larva on maize. The increase in weight from first to last
instar is about 1000-fold.
Gregarious larvae are predominantly black, very active, and feed on the upper parts of host
plants, exposed to the sun and avoiding shade. They are adapted behaviourally and physiologically for
accelerated development; in particular, their behaviour and pigmentation result in elevated body
temperatures by the absorption of solar radiation. The development of gregarious larvae in outbreaks is
often highly synchronized, with most larvae pupating over a 3-7 day period. There may also be fewer
than six larval instars. Older gregarious larvae may 'march' in large numbers, especially when food
plants are locally depleted or when development is complete and they are searching for pupation sites.
Solitarious larvae are predominantly greenish and highly cryptic in their coloration and behaviour.
They are sluggish, actively avoiding the sun, and sheltering and feeding at the bases of grasses.
Although usually sparsely distributed and difficult to find, they can occur at relatively high densities
(e.g. 10/m²) where thick vegetation prevents contact between early instars.
The full grown larva burrows into soft, damp soil to construct a silk-lined chamber 2-3 cm
below the surface, where it pupates. High mortality may occur if the ground is too dry and hard.
In addition to temperature and larval density, development rates are influenced by food-plant
type and quality, sex and the effects of parasitism. The larval period lasts from 11-24 days (21 days in
typical outbreak conditions). Pupal periods range from 7-12 days (typically 10 days in outbreaks). The
temperature threshold for larval and pupal development is 13-14°C. The larval period of females is
longer, and the pupal stage shorter, than for males and, as a result, the peak of female emergence
during outbreaks is usually one night earlier than that of males.
Moths emerge in the early part of the night, peak emergence being between 20.00 and 22.00 h.
In a single outbreak, emergence may extend over about 12 days with a peak during the first 4 days.
Moths are ready for flight in 1.5-2 h when some ascend in migratory flight to be carried downwind.
However, the majority fly into nearby trees greater than 1.5 m in height where they may accumulate in
numbers of several thousands. Numbers of these moths may embark on migratory flights at any time of
the night, forming ascending 'plumes'. Those that remain in the trees at dawn undertake short flights to
shelter during the day in grass clumps, under cowpats or in crevices in the bark of trees. The following
dusk, they emerge from their day shelters to embark on downwind migratory flights, some moving
briefly into trees before ascending. Where nectar is available, moths feed voraciously.

Current evidence suggests that S. exempta is an obligatory migrant, i.e. all individuals emigrate from
the site of their emergence. Reports of successive generations at the same site are rare; they appear to
occur only when emigration has been prevented by rainfall after moth emergence or by re-invasion by
immigrant moths from distant sources. When they occur, they are likely to suffer high mortality from
natural enemies, including pathogens and exhaustion of local food plants.
During the main outbreak season in East Africa, the prevailing easterly to south-easterly winds
are strong in the first half of the night so migrants embarking at dusk or early in the night can be
carried for long distances, of 100 km or more. Radar studies show migratory flight at up to 420 m
above ground level in open savanna country and double that altitude in the Rift Valley near the Nairobi
escarpment. The winds tend to lighten and become variable in the second half of the night when
migrants may orientate across or upwind and displacements are consequently more limited. Radar also
shows that the moths do not fly in cohesive swarms but are dispersed as they move downwind. In
moderate to heavy rain, migrants descend to the ground.
`In females, migration terminates when reproductive development reaches the stage at which the moths
call (release sex pheromone) and is, therefore, exclusively pre-reproductive. Thereafter, only local
flights occur during mating and oviposition. The oocytes are not developed when the females emerge
but develop to approximately half full size within 24 h. Oocyte development may then be arrested for
up to 13 days. Whether this arrest occurs, and for how long, is genetically determined. Once it is over,
females require water to hydrate the maturing oocytes and complete development. Moths have been
seen to feed avidly on nectar and to drink dew before, between, and after migratory flights but the
availability of food or water does not terminate the arrest of oocyte development.
Variation between individuals in flight capacity (duration) on individual nights is also
genetically determined although there is evidence that it is moderated by larval density (moths from
gregarious larvae show enhanced flight performance). A high level of variation in both of the traits
which determine migratory potential (capacity for displacement), i.e. flight capacity and pre-
reproductive period (the number of nights over which migratory flights occur) has been demonstrated
in field populations. This variation is thought to reflect the selection imposed by the pattern of
distribution, within and between seasons, of suitable habitats. On average, male moths reach maturity
earlier than females and the available evidence suggests that they may continue migration after
attaining maturity, mating with females at different locations on different nights.
Marked moths have been recovered up to 147 km from an emergence site but studies of the
spread of outbreaks suggest the frequent occurrence of much longer displacements of 200-700 km. In
New Zealand, they have been recovered 3200 km from the nearest known source although these moths
must have been constrained to fly by day and night across the sea.

Thus, moths emerging from a high-density outbreak become widely dispersed downwind, in both
space and time, as a result of: emergence and emigration over a period of about 10-12 days; differences
between individuals in migratory potential; and dispersal in flight on winds which vary in speed and
direction across both time and space. The usual outcome is widely dispersed oviposition resulting in
low-density, solitarious populations.
However, during the rains, flying moths have been shown, on radar, to be concentrated by wind
convergence associated with rainstorms and topography. Particularly important is the strongly
convergent airflow in rainstorm outflows, at the gust front, where further dispersal is often curtailed by
the descent of flying moths as they encounter the rain. The complex patterns of eddies established in
the lee of hills and other topographical features may also accumulate moths flying into them. It is the
localized oviposition by these concentrations of moths that result in outbreak populations of gregarious
caterpillars.
At the end of their migratory flight, mature female S. exempta settle in trees, releasing sex
pheromone to attract males. The pheromone has two major (Z-9-tetradecen-1-yl acetate and (Z,E)- 9,
12-tetradecen-1-yl acetate) and four minor components. Mated pairs are found from 21.00-05.00 h
with a peak between 24.00 and 02.00 h. Multiple mating is common.
S. exempta has an extremely high reproductive capacity and thus potential for population
increase. Laboratory studies indicate Ro (net reproductive rate) from 15 on poor quality grasses to 125
on Cynodon sp. and 142 on maize. Assuming Ro = 100 and 80% mortality, increases of 10,000-fold
are possible in two generations. These levels are easily achieved for early season infestations feeding
on flushes of new grass growth.
The annual cycle of S. exempta in eastern and southern Africa can be summarized as follows.
In eastern Africa, the rains are associated with the passage of the Inter-Tropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ) which moves northwards and southwards seasonally, moving over northern Sudan and
the southern Arabian Peninsula in July to August, southward through Ethiopia and Somalia during
October, across Kenya during November, and reaching Tanzania by December and as far south as
northern Mozambique and Zimbabwe in January. During February and March, it moves north through
Tanzania, crossing Kenya in April and May and southern Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia in May to June,
to reach western Arabia by July. The southward movement of the ITCZ is associated with the 'short
rains', and the northward movement with the 'long rains', in southern Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya and
northern Tanzania. Regions at the extremes of its traverse usually have only one rainy season.
During the dry season, grasses dry out over most of eastern Africa, becoming unsuitable for
larval development. However, populations persist where host plants continue to grow, for example,
where there is intermittent rainfall through this period. In the absence of concentrating weather
systems, these populations remain at low densities in the solitarious form. In eastern Africa, dry season
populations have been detected in Malawi, western Uganda, on the shores of Lake Victoria and in
highland areas, and probably most importantly, in coastal regions of Kenya and Tanzania. Similar
areas presumably support dry-season populations elsewhere in Africa. These populations are the
source of moths initiating the first outbreaks of the subsequent rainy season.
First outbreaks typically occur in Kenya and Tanzania where there are two rainy seasons. They
are associated with the first rainstorms of the short rains which tend to occur on the eastern side of high
ground where moths, flying from coastal source areas on the dominant easterly winds at this time, meet
storm-induced wind convergence. These 'primary' outbreaks, derived from low-density populations,
are distinguished from subsequent 'secondary' outbreaks which are initiated by moths originating from
earlier outbreaks. Outbreaks (usually primary) leading to significant sequences of secondary outbreaks
are termed 'critical'. The sequence of outbreaks that occurs seasonally follows the pattern of seasonal
winds. In eastern Africa, outbreaks move progressively westwards from eastern Tanzania and Kenya,
in some years as far as Burundi, before the start of the major northward movement with the passage of
the ITCZ through Kenya and Uganda, Ethiopia, Somalia and southern Sudan, in some years reaching
the Yemen. In southern Africa, the spread of outbreaks seems to originate in southern Tanzania,
northern Mozambique and Malawi, moving into Zimbabwe, Swaziland and South Africa, with less
frequent invasions of Zambia and Botswana.
The extent and severity of outbreaks appears to depend largely on the successful development
of primary outbreaks at the start of the rains. This has been shown to be associated with preceding
drought, frequent early storms to concentrate flying moths and initiate flushes of grass growth, and dry
and sunny periods during the larval stages to promote survival and rapid development. Therefore,
major upsurges occur in seasons of sporadic rainstorms and long sunny periods throughout the
outbreak period. Prolonged cool, cloudy and rainy weather in the short rains is associated with high
larval mortality, particularly from viral disease, and suppresses the development of subsequent
outbreaks.
With its rapid development, high reproductive capacity, and mobility by migration, S. exempta
is well adapted to exploit the highly seasonal and ephemeral habitats provided by the rain-induced
growth of host plants in tropical grasslands.
This account is based on extensive, long-term studies in East and southern Africa. Very little is
known of the biology and ecology of S. exempta elsewhere in its range.
Notes on Natural Enemies
 Natural enemies sometimes have a significant impact on S. exempta populations though their
influence is difficult to quantify. Lists for eastern and southern Africa of species attacking all stages
are given by Rose et al. (1996). There is no published data on natural enemies elsewhere in the species'
range. Of the 21 genera of Diptera and 23 of Hymenoptera represented among armyworm parasitoids,
only four Diptera and four Hymenoptera are regularly found in significant numbers. Because of its
short life cycle and obligatory migration, there is little opportunity for parasitoid populations to build
up to levels capable of constraining population development significantly. Only on rare occasions,
when successive generations occur at one location, have high levels of parasitism (exceeding 70%)
been recorded. Avian predators (storks [Ciconiidae] and crows [Corvus]) may decimate small
outbreaks but have little influence on larger ones. The major cause of mortality in S. exempta larvae is
probably the species-specific nuclear polyhedrosis virus (SpexNPV). First outbreaks of the season may
be virus-free because of the lack of transmission in low density populations but later outbreaks may be
almost eliminated by this virus, mortalities of >98% being frequent. Widespread virus attack is often
associated with overcast, cool, wet weather. A Cytoplasmic Virus (CPV) is also an important
pathogen, killing pre-pupae and pupae. Fungi and bacteria are thought to be of minor importance. See
Rose et al. (1996) and references therein.
Impact
Losses to agricultural production due to S. exempta are frequently significant and intermittently
devastating on a local, national and regional scale. Significant losses are most consistently reported
from eastern and southern Africa. However, in recent decades, the frequency of reports from West
Africa has increased, possibly due to the extension of suitable grassland habitats following forest and
bush clearance for agriculture. Outbreaks are occasionally reported from elsewhere in the species'
range, notably from Papua New Guinea, northern Australia and Hawaii, USA.
Damage to cereal crops results principally from direct attack on young plants by larvae
hatching or dispersing into the crop as first instars, and by invasion of the crop by older larvae from
adjacent wild grasses. Where these invasions are caused by late-instar larvae moving from heavily
infested grasslands, even maturing crops can be totally destroyed. If drought conditions follow an
outbreak, plants may not recover from defoliation and replanting may fail to produce a crop.
Smallholders are particularly vulnerable to the effects of infestation as they rarely have the
resources for effective control or spare seed for replanting. Infestations frequently affect large areas,
eliminating the possibility of relief by mutual support and assistance between farmers. Government
crop protection and extension services may be able to provide only limited assistance as a result of
financial and logistical constraints.
Yield reduction caused by defoliation in maize is almost directly proportional the percentage of
leaf area available to the larvae at the time of attack. Reported losses range from 9% in plants attacked
at the early whorl (four leaves) stage to 100% in those damaged at the pre-tassel stage. The ability of
young maize plants to recover from armyworm damage depends on the position of the apical meristem
at the time of attack and the amount of root development when the larvae cease feeding. Damage is
always serious if the apical meristem is affected but, as it remains at the base of the plant until near to
the pre-tassel stage, it may be below ground during the outbreak and remain undamaged.
Tentative nominal action thresholds for control measures have been determined for maize. To
avoid yield losses of >15%, action thresholds for early whorl maize should be taken as 200 second (II),
80 third (III), or 20 fourth (IV) instar larvae per 100 plants. Serious damage develops rapidly once
larvae reach the IV instar.
Replanting maize after armyworm have eaten the first-sown plants to the ground is frequently
unsatisfactory as the optimum planting dates will have been missed. Yield losses of 6% have been
estimated for each day's delay after the optimum planting date in high-rainfall areas in Kenya. Late
planting may result in much higher losses in areas with less rainfall; yield losses of up to 92% have
been recorded in such areas in Malawi and Kenya.
In sorghum, millet, rice and Eragrostis tef, armyworm damage may stimulate tillering which
can, in favourable conditions, increase yield. If subsequent rainfall is adequate for crop growth and
development, yield losses may be limited, providing the damage occurs before the critical grain-
initiation stage has been reached.
Damage to pasture and rangeland can be extensive and severe. Armyworm damage to grasses
and the consequent advantage to dicotyledonous weeds results in changes in the composition of the
sward which may be re-inforced by drought and overgrazing. However, good rainfall after infestation
is an important factor in pasture recovery. Surveys in Tanzania indicate that effects of infestation may
last for more than eight weeks but, in areas with good rainfall, they seldom last more than 5 weeks. In
Kenya, vegetation changes in infested pastures have been reported to persist for many years before
good grass cover has been restored by management of dicotyledonous weeds. As a general rule,
control measures for the protection of pasture are not recommended unless larval densities exceed
10/m².
Deaths among cattle grazing recently infested pasture have been reported by herdsmen in
southern Ethiopia, Somalia (where 100 cattle were reported to have died on one occasion), and Kenya,
as well as in southern Africa. Speculations as to the causes of death include high cyanide levels
induced in Cynodon spp. grasses by armyworm damage, and ingestion of larvae or fungal mycotoxins
on armyworm faeces.
Detection and Inspection
Infestation of the crop by S. exempta is evident from the `windowing' or skeletonizing of
younger leaves caused by rasping of the epidermis by young larvae, or gross feeding by older larvae.
The horizontal middle leaves of the plant, where photosynthetic activity is greatest, are particularly
affected, but the growing points, other leaves, and the stems of younger plants are also affected. Large
numbers of black larvae feeding on poaceous plants can be assumed to be S. exempta, whereas larvae
feeding in significant numbers on leaves of dicotyledonous plants are unlikely to be (although damage
to non-poaceous plants has occasionally been reported). S. exempta egg batches can be distinguished
from those of all other Spodoptera spp. by the presence of a covering of black hair-scales. The main
distinguishing features of gregaria-phase larvae are:

 velvety black-dorsal surface

 three pale parallel lines on the dorsal surface of the prothoracic segment
 central longitudinal stripe along the top of the body always paler than the black areas on either
side
 pale lateral lines
  green or yellow ventral surface
 lack of hairs on the body
 shiny black head
They can be distinguished from the following species, with which they are sometimes confused, by the
following features
 Spodoptera exigua - often very similar but paler dorsally than laterally
 Helicoverpa spp. - the larvae are green or brownish, covered with short hairs, and do not have a
black head-capsule
 sawflies (Symphyta) - larvae are typically black and hairless with more than five (usually
seven) pairs of prolegs on the abdominal segments. Spodoptera larvae lack prolegs on the first
two abdominal segments.
Solitaria-phase larvae may be difficult to distinguish from other grass-feeding caterpillars. Their
green, pink or brown coloration is cryptic and the larvae hide in the grass mat during the day, emerging
to feed at night. When found, they appear fat, are usually curled up, and behave very sluggishly. The
distinguishing characters of older larvae of both phases are the three parallel pale lines on the dorsum
of the prothoracic segment, the white spot at the rear of each abdominal segment, and the shape of the
mandibles. Pupae of all Spodoptera species are very similar and can only be distinguished with
difficulty. However, if very large numbers of pupae are found over large areas by digging, they are
likely to be from an outbreak of S. exempta. Adults may be distinguished from other Spodoptera spp.
by their forewing pattern and genitalia using keys published by Brown and Dewhurst (1975) and
modified by Rose et al. (1996). The black hair-scales at the tip of the abdomen of the female moth and
the grey, racket-shaped scales on the outer part of the genitalia of males are characteristic of S.
exempta, and useful for identifying moths which have lost their wing scales, e.g. in light traps
PREVENTION AND CONTROL
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of
registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally
allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used
in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Forecasting and Control

Effective forecasting and management of pests like S. exempta, whose long-range migrations
result in the rapid spread of outbreaks from country to country, requires international cooperation. This
is most easily achieved if regional organizations have responsibility for coordinating information and,
if possible, the infrastructure required for both forecasting and control. Several national crop protection
services, especially in eastern, central and southern Africa and the Yemen, have departments with
special responsibility for control of migrant pests, including armyworm. These may assist farmers in
countries where armyworm is a notifiable pest, by providing and/or applying insecticide. The Desert
Locust Control Organization for Eastern Africa (DLCO-EA) and the International Red Locust Control
Organization for Central and Southern Africa (IRLCO-CSA) have regional responsibilities for
armyworm. Where infestations are widespread, governments have the option of requesting (or hiring)
spray aircraft from them. International cooperation also allows the development of a strategic approach
to limiting the development and spread of outbreaks. By focusing attack on early season infestations
providing sources of migrants, it should be possible to reduce or eliminate the occurrence of
subsequent outbreaks, or sequences of outbreaks, downwind. Such an approach has been developed
and implemented by DLCO-EA and its member countries. For further discussion of strategic control of
S. exempta, see Cheke and Tucker (1995), Rose et al. (1996), and references therein. Forecasting An
effective forecasting system is essential for successful management of Spodoptera exempta, to allow
preparations to be made in time to control infestations and reduce crop losses. There may be little time
to respond as infestations frequently go unnoticed until larvae become conspicuous at the fourth instar
and the amount of damage then increases exponentially with every day that passes. A forecasting
system for S. exempta has been in operation in East Africa since 1969. All forecasts and warnings are
currently based on: the distribution of armyworm populations currently reported through the
monitoring system; the distribution of previously reported populations, with allowances made for their
development with time (timing of oviposition following large trap catches of moths and subsequent
hatching and development of larvae, timing of emergence of, and emigration by, moths from earlier
outbreaks); predominant winds during the periods of moth migration, and synoptic and meso-scale
zones of wind convergence in which moths could become concentrated; the distribution of rainstorms
with associated wind convergence capable of concentrating moths, particularly early in armyworm
seasons; and historical precedents for the development anticipated. The necessary information is
derived from monitoring outbreaks and sampling larvae. Accurate monitoring and prompt reporting of
armyworm outbreaks is essential for forecasting and control. The procedures developed in member
countries of DLCO-EA involve: searches for newly hatched larvae one week after first high catches in
pheromone traps, especially catches associated with the first heavy rains after a drought period; larval
sampling to determine the age of outbreaks; reporting outbreaks to local district agricultural offices and
national plant protection services immediately they are found, preferably with samples of larvae;
assessment of larval age by national plant protection service laboratories. Details of these procedures
are given by Rose et al. (1996). Trap data from moth trap networks Networks of moth traps in each
country are the most effective way of monitoring armyworm populations. Pheromone traps are
recommended for widespread use in national networks. However, they catch only sexually receptive
males so some light traps, which catch immature, migrating moths (sometimes in large numbers),
should be included at selected sites where electricity and expertise for sorting and identification of
catches is available. Detailed information on trap design, pheromone lures (chemistry, formulation and
availability), and siting and operating traps is provided by Rose et al. (1996). Meteorological data
Forecasting services require rainfall, windfield and rainstorm distribution data. These are generally
available through national meteorological services with which close cooperation is essential. In recent
years, satellite remote-sensing data have become available at an affordable cost. In East Africa, Cold
Cloud Duration data from Meteosat are used to identify locations of rainstorms with the potential to
concentrate moths, as well as to determine whether there has been little or no, intermittent and
scattered, or prolonged and widespread, rainfall on a regional scale. This information is used to guide
monitoring to locate outbreaks and to assess the level of infestation that can be expected, given the
known influence of weather, especially rainfall, on the population dynamics of S. exempta (see section
on Biology and Ecology). Historical data archives Archives of S. exempta trap and outbreak data have
been accumulated nationally and regionally in eastern Africa (these archives are stored also at DLCO-
EA, Nairobi and, up to 1988, at the Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK). The archive data are
now routinely accessed by forecasters and provide analogues of outbreak distribution and trap
characteristics for the evaluation of current armyworm situations. Computerised databases, using the
specific data management system 'WormBase', are established in eastern Africa (Crop Protection
Branch in Kenya, Pest Control Services, Tanzania, DLCO-EA), and are being introduced in IRLCO-
CSA countries of central and southern Africa. Historical meteorological data are available from
national meteorological services. Forecasts and warnings have different levels of urgency: forecasts are
prepared weekly, or every 2 weeks, based on information received at the national or regional offices
from the monitoring systems and describe expected future armyworm developments. They may be
regional or national in scale. An expert system to produce computer-assisted forecasts has been
developed at DLCO-EA. A warning is issued as an alert to the immediate potential occurrence or
redistribution of infestations, ideally while they are still in the moth or early larval stages. Warnings
should be sent by the quickest possible means (telephone, radio, or broadcast media and newspapers)
to agricultural offices in the affected areas, to be acted on immediately. Verification of the reliability of
forecasts and warnings is essential if their accuracy and value are to be improved. This is now
undertaken routinely by the Regional Forecasting Office at DLCO-EA, Nairobi, by plotting locations
of reported outbreaks in relation to predictions, using a computer. Reasons for errors are analysed to
avoid repetition. Further information on forecasting is given by Rose et al. (1996).

Cultural Control
Weed-free maize crops greater than 50 cm high are unlikely to become infested by newly
hatched larvae of S. exempta because the leaves are too tough to allow them to establish. However, if
larvae are able to develop on grass weeds, subsequent infestation of the crop may occur. Farmers are
advised to keep crops free of grass weeds but, if fields do become infested, to leave the weeds until the
larvae have pupated or been controlled. Some maize varieties are more susceptible to attack than
others, e.g. Katumani, a dryland variety grown widely in Kenya. These varieties are most at risk where
probabilities of armyworm infestation are high.

Biological Control
Predators and parasitoids of S. exempta are never numerous enough to achieve natural control
of outbreaks. The nuclear polyhedrosis virus (SpexNPV) has been used to control infestations by
spraying with a water suspension of diseased larvae. The feasibility of laboratory production and
formulation of the virus has been demonstrated. Recent field trials in Tanzania indicate that SpexNPV
could have a potential role as a substitute for chemical insecticides in strategic armyworm management
programmes (Grzywacz et al., 2008). A formulation of Bacillus thuringiensis has also been identified
as promising. Full laboratory and field evaluation of these products may result in their adoption in the
future.
Chemical Control
Only the larval stage is accessible to control by insecticides; eggs are difficult to find, pupae are
underground and moths fly at night at extremely low aerial densities. S. exempta larvae are susceptible
to a wide range of insecticides and there is no record of resistance; insecticides are never applied
consistently enough, in space or time, to impose adequate selection for it to evolve. The major problem
is that larvae are not usually detected until they turn black at the III-IV instar moult, when they have
already been developing for 7-10 days and serious damage is imminent. Any delay in applying control
measures, during the further 8-12 days until pupation, will result is escalating levels of damage. Rapid
response is, therefore, essential and can only be achieved by being well prepared and equipped for
control operations and acting on forecasts and warnings. In the absence of warnings or trap data,
farmers are advised to check crops for newly hatched larvae one week after a rainstorm, particularly
the first storms of the rainy season. Recommended insecticides include organophosphorous
compounds, carbamates and synthetic pyrethroids, several of which (especially fenitrothion and
cypermethrin) are effective when applied at low dose rates by Ultra Low Volume (ULV) spraying. For
environmental and safety reasons, organochlorine insecticides are not recommended for armyworm
control. Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) have recently been shown to have considerable promise for
use against S. exempta (Fisk et al., 1993) but require further field evaluation. ULV spraying is the most
efficient method of armyworm control, allowing rapid treatment of large areas with low volumes of
insecticide. Application may be achieved by hand-held, vehicle-mounted, or aircraft-mounted rotary
atomisers, according to the scale and accessibility of outbreaks and the resources available. Lever-
operated knapsack sprayers, fitted with low-volume hydraulic nozzles, are frequently used for
armyworm control. Further details of chemical control (calibration of equipment, conditions for
spraying, application techniques, assessment of kill, environmental considerations, safety, logistics and
responsibilities) are provided by Rose et al. (1996)

MAIZE ASIAN CORN BORER

Photo 1. Caterpillar of the Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis, inside a maize cob. The

caterpillars are pinkish brown.

MAIZE ASIAN CORN BORER

Common Name
Asian corn borer
Scientific Name
Ostrinia furnacalis
Distribution
Widespread. Asia, Europe, Oceania. It is recorded from Australia, Guam, Federated States of
Micronesia, Northern Mariana Islands, Papua New Guinea, and Solomon Islands.
Hosts
Maize, including sweet corn, ginger and sorghum are the main hosts, but also found on
capsicum and sugarcane, and more recently a pest of cotton. It is recorded on maize from Solomon
Islands.
Symptoms & Life Cycle
Eggs are laid in groups at the base and underside of leaves. They hatch after 3-4 days and the
caterpillars go through five stages. The caterpillars are pink-brown with spots on the back (Photo 1). In
the early stages the caterpillars feed in the whirl of leaves, but as they grow they move to the tassel (the
male flowers) and then into the ear, feeding on the silk (female flowers) and kernels. The late stages
bore into the stalks to feed. After 3-4 weeks of feeding the caterpillars form pupae within the stems;
this stage lasts 7-9 days before the moth emerges.
The female moth lays up to 1500 eggs. The female is pale yellow brown with irregular bands
across the wings; the male is darker. The wingspan is 20-20 mm; females are slightly larger than
males. The moth is a strong flyer.
Impact
This is an important pest, with caterpillars doing the damage. They bore holes into the stems
and cobs, and feed on the silk as well as the kernels. The mature caterpillars commonly feed on the
stalks. Frass is seen around the holes. The leaves may wilt above the entry holes.
Detection & inspection
Look for plants that are wilting. Look for small piles of frass on the stems or cobs. If there are
entry holes, open the stem and cob (Photo 1) and look for the pink caterpillar with pink-brown spots on
the back.
MANAGEMENT
IPM strategies have been used to manage this pest, especially in the Philippines. However, they
are complex, and better suited to commercial plantings. They involved scouting to check the number of
caterpillars per plant, the use of a microbial pesticide, Bt or Baccillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki,
release of predatory earwigs, the use of moderately resistant varieties, sanitation and chemical
pesticides.
NATURAL ENEMIES
There are a number of natural enemies of Ostrinia of which the egg parasitoids, Trichogramma
species, are reported to be the most efficient. Within the Pacific island countries, they are reported
from Guam, Northern Mariana Islands and Papua New Guinea. Trichogramma chilonis is the most
important parasitoid in Guam, but without other control measures it cannot keep the pest below
economic threshold levels. No larval or pupal parasites have been found that help to control
populations of the Asian corn borer.
CULTURAL CONTROL
Remove the tassels from 75% of the plants; this i) removes the caterpillars from the plants, and
ii) takes away pollen that would otherwise have fed the caterpillars.
RESISTANT VARIETIES
Resistant varieties have been selected/bred in a number of countries, so check if they are
available in your country.
CHEMICAL CONTROL
Synthetic insecticides are not recommended as they interfere with the parasitoids that control
Ostrinia furnacalis.
 Biopesticides. Neem (water extracts from seed kernels) has been used in trials in Papua New
Guinea and found to be effective. The research there found that removing the tassels from 75% of the
plants, release of Trichogramma plasseyensis, an endemic species, and one application of neem gave
satisfactory control of Ostrinia furnacalis.

THE WHITE-BELLIED PLANTHOPPER (HEMIPTERA: DELPHACIDAE) INFESTING

CORN PLANTS IN SOUTH LAMPUNG INDONESIA

ABSTRACT
The White-Bellied Planthopper (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) Infesting Corn Plants in South
Lampung, Indonesia. Corn plants in South Lampung were infested by newly-found delphacid
planthoppers. The planthopper specimens were collected from heavily-infested corn fields in Natar
area, South Lampung. We identified the specimens as the white-bellied planthopper Stenocranus
pacificus Kirkaldy (Hemiptera: Delphacidae), and reported their field population abundance.

Key words: corn white-bellied planthopper, Lampung, Indonesia, Stenocranus pacificus.

ABSTRAK
Wereng Perut Putih (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) Menginfestasi Pertanaman Jagung di Lampung
Selatan. Sejenis wereng ditemukan menginfestasi pertanaman jagung di Lampung Selatan, Lampung.
Hama ini diidentifikasi sebagai wereng perut putih jagung, Stenocranus pacificus Kirkaldy
(Hemiptera: Delphacidae). Infestasi masif hama ini terjadi pada pertanaman jagung di kawasan Natar,
Lampung Selatan.

Kata kunci: wereng perut putih jagung, Lampung, Indonesia, Stenocranus pacificus.

INTRODUCTION but rarely reached an epizootic level. Other

Corn plants are susceptible to the attacks of
planthoppers. The commonly known
planthoppers infesting corn plants in Indonesia
are Peregrinus maidis (Kalshoven, 1981).
Peregrinus infestation varies in time and place
planthoppers, Nilaparvata sp., have also been
known to associate with corn plants (Susilo &
Swibawa, 2002). In November 2016, heavy
planthopper attacks occurred in some farmer’s
corn fields in South Lampung District. Were
these the infestations of Peregrinus, Nilaparvata, The observation consisted of two activities, ie.
or other kind(s) of planthoppers? collecting the planthopper adult specimens
and recording their field abundance. Both
Are the planthoppers attacking corn plants in
activities were done on 18th March 2017 and
South Lampung the white-backed planthopper
25th March 2017.
Sogatella? The first specimens of the corn Adult planthoppers (macropters) were
planthoppers were available at FP-UNILA’s fieldcollected using a cup trap or aspirator
Department of Plant (Figure 1). The cup trap consisted of a
disposable mineral water cup (top dia. = 6.5
Protection Clinic. The specimens were originated
cm, bottom dia. = 4 cm, height = 9.5 cm)
from UPTD-BPTPH-Lampung Province that
while the aspirator consisted of a 4.5 cm dia. x
have been collected on 25th November 2016 and
5.2 cm high plastic jar equipped with two
19th December 2016, respectively, from the
plastic hoses (long = 50 cm, short = 20 cm) of
heavily infested farmer corn fields at South
0.5 cm dia. each. The catches in the aspirator
Lampung. Upon quick inspection, we noted
or cup were flushed with mineral water,
general appearance of light brown notum and
picked up using a small brush, and gathered
tergum with a median longitudinal pale stripe in
into a glass vial containing 70% ethanol
each of the specimens and thought of them as the
solution. The vials were then brought to FP-
white-backed planthopper. However, that did not
UNILA’s Laboratory of Arthropod Pests for
match with the black mesonotum and black
later handling, general morphology
tergum characters of the whitebacked planthopper
observation, and specimen identification.
Sogatella furcifera Horvath as described in
Kalshoven (1981). Therefore, there was a need The male specimens were used for
for more detailed inspection in order to identify identification. Their abdominal tagmata were
the specimens more accurately. cut and cleared overnight in 10% KOH
solution. The cleared abdomens were then
The available planthopper cathes were
transferred to glycerin drop on an object glass
numerous but consisting of only nymphs.
for observation and identification. An insect
Based on these specimens, each being
pin was used to gently tease the last abdominal
characterized by a large apical and movable
segment to expose its genital structures.
tibial spur or calcar of the hind leg, we
Specimen identification and morphology
confirmed the family name of these
documentation were done under a dissecting
planthoppers as the Delphacidae (Wilson,
stereo-microscope (LEICA EZ4HD) using
2005). However, the unavailability of adult
Wilson (2005), Asche & Wilson (1990),
(especially male) specimens in the catches
Kumaresan et al. (2016), and Dupo & Barrion
made it impossible to identify the
(2009).
planthopper’s taxa below the family level.
The planthopper population abundance was
The objectives of this study were 1) to collect
recorded by direct counting. Five farmer fields
and identify specimens of delphacid
were observed, ie. two fields on 18th March 2017
planthoppers infesting corn plants in South
(size: 0.15 and 0.75 ha; age: 88 and 108 days
Lampung and 2) to document the dynamics
after planting, DAP) and three fields on 25th
their field abundance.
March 2017 (size: 0.5, 0.5, and 0.75 ha; age: 30,
MATERIALS AND METHOD 40, and 70 DAP). The first two fields were
Study Site. The planthoppers were observed observed by systematic sampling of 4 rows field-1
on corn fields in Natar area, South Lampung. and 5 plants row-1 while the last three fields by
The site is located + 15 km north-east of random sampling of 5 rows field-1 and 5 plants
Bandarlampung City, Lampung, Indonesia. row-1. In each sampled plant, one leaf with
maximum
Planthopper number of planthoppers
identification. was selected
Observation on the trenches
as measuredor mass
fromon thethetipabaxial sides of the
of vertex-frons turncorn
to
for the counting.
collected female The number
and male of all planthopper
macropters (Figure 4) leaves
the tip (Figure
of wings2A-B).
= 4.93+ Then0.03planthopper
mm for femalecolonies
stages
shows (adults
that theand nymphs
female combined)
cathes were moreon the emerged
versus 4.20on +the0.04
leaves,
mm for as in Figure
male, 2C that
t-value =
sampled
prominent.leafFemale
was tallied directly
abdomen wasusing a handtally
white-colored shows abundant nymphs, exuviae, and
14.39**, p-value = 0.000, calculated from nmale =female
counter.
while that of male was orange. Female body size brachypters. TheThat
nfemale = n = 30). planthopper
made themassive
female attacks
more
was bigger than male (length resulted in hopperburn
conspicuous than male.plants (Figure
Between 2D-E).
the two
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The corn plants in Natar area, South Lampung, Figure 3 shows part of a corn leaf after
were generally heavily attacked by the delphacid removal of the white-cottony wax trench. The
planthoppers (Figure 2A-E). Hybrid corn wax is a kind of covering mass secreted by the
cultivars including female planthopper to protect her eggs that she
A P27 andB BIOSEED 54 were C laidDby insertion into Ethe corn leaf tissue in
grown in the area. The planthopper attack was
initiated by appearance of white-cottony wax patterned spots (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Oviposition spots (openings) of the planthoppers in a corn leaf as seen under a LEICA
EZ4HD microscope.Two rows of the zigzag spots along an edge of leaf vein after removal of
the white-cottony wax cover.

Figure 4. Macropters of the planthoppers attacking corn plants. Female ventralview (A), female lateral
view (B), male ventral view (C), male lateral view (D). Female with white-colored abdomen
(A, B), male with orange abdomen (C, D).Note conspicuous tibial spurson hind legs (arrow,
C). Also note rounded, less acute angled vertex-frons transition (arrow, B, D).

sexes, female was also more frequently
encountered in the field (55.2% female, z-value =
3.54**, p-value = 0.0002, n = 1150). As afore-
mentioned, female was the one responsible for
secreting the white-cottony wax mass covering
her ovipositing spots on corn leaves and this
white mass indicated the start of their presence or
attacks on corn plants (Figure 2A-B). The
whitecoloration of female abdomen should have
to do with the secretion and deposition of this
white mass that indicates the presence of the
species on the corn plants. After this remarkable
female, we propose a common name for our
specimens as the corn white-bellied planthopper
(CWBPH).
To start identification, twelve delphacid genera
(Wilson, 2005) were selected as the candidate
genera for our planthopper specimens. The
delphacid genera sensu Wilson (2005) are (in
alphabetical order) Caenodelphax, Eoeurysa,
Javesella, Harmalia, Laodelphax, Nilaparvata,
Peregrinus, Perkinsiella, Saccharosydne,
Sogatella, Tagosodes, and Toya. Nilaparvata are
characterized by the presence of lateral spines on
the first tarsi of their hind legs. The next eight
genera (Saccharosydne, Caenodelphax,
Eoeurysa, Peregrinus, Javesella, Harmalia,
Laodelphax, and Toya) have a common character,
that is no median longitudinal pale stripes on their
mesonota. Sogatella are characterized by U-shape
pygofer diaphragm margin while the key
character of Perkinsiella is their frons with
median carina forked near ventral aspect of eyes.
Identification was then worked through by
selecting one genus out of the twelve based on
the Wilson’s key characters (Wilson, 2005).
Genera whose key character did not match with
that of our specimens (Figure 5-7) were
eliminated. In addition to having hind tibia with a
large apical movable spur or calcar (spur, Figure
5 A, see also Figure 4 C) which confirms their
inclusion in the Delphacidae, our specimens have
other key morphological characters. Their hind
first tarsal segments are each without lateral
spines (Figure 5 A) which eliminates Nilaparvata
as the candidate genus for our specimens. The
mesonota of our specimens are light brown with
median longitudinal pale stripe (Figure 5 B-C,
Figure 7 B) which eliminates Saccharosydne,
Caenodelphax, Eoeurysa, Peregrinus, Javesella,
Harmalia, Laodelphax, and Toya. The pygofer
diaphragm margins of our specimens are not U-
shape (Figure 6 A, 6 C, eliminating Sogatella).
Our specimens have median carinae forked at the
dorsal aspect of eyes (Figure 7 A-B, eliminating
Perkinsiella). That forking of median carina is
the key character for Tagosodes (Wilson, 2005).
There are some other genera of delphacid
planthoppers, ie. the Sogatella groups sensu
Asche & Wilson (1990) that need to be
considered or eliminated in the process of generic
designation for our specimens. This group
includes Sogatellana, Latistria, Matutinus, and
Tagosodes (Asche & Wilson, 1990). Sogatellana
is characterized by two pairs of anal processes
while

Figure 5. Hind tibiae and mesonota of the planthoppers attacking corn plants. Tibial spur or calcar
large, apical, and movable (spur, A). First tarsal segment without lateral spines (ts1, A).
Mesonotum (n2) brown or lightbrown with median longitudinal pale or white stripe (B-C). =
macropter, C = nymph.

our specimens by only one pair (apc, Figure 6 A). Mediodorsal pygofer diaphragm of Latistria is with
sinuate protrusion; in contrast, the protrusion on the pygofer diaphragms of our specimens is not
sinuate (pro, Figure 6A, 6 C). The head of Matutinusis is with acute transition angle of vertex to frons.
In our specimens, the transition of vertex to frons is rounded and less acuteangled (Figure 4 B, D).
Consequently, the choice of generic designation for our specimens was, once again, narrowed down to
Tagosodes.
However, we could not designate our specimens to Tagosodes sensu Wilson (2005) or Asche & Wilson
(1990) because their Tagosodes male genitalia did not match with those of our specimens. Our
specimens are each characterized by a unique aedeagus (aed, Figure 6 A-B). The aedeagus is
1) long and shaft like, 2) with a ring-like sub-apical hook, and 3) without spines (aed, Figure 6
A-B). The aedeagus of Tagosodes or the other delphacid genera, in contrast, are mostly
compressed, twisted, and/or ornamented with various patterns of spines or teeth (Wilson,
2005; Asche & Wilson, 1990).
Figure 6. Pygofer (pyg) and male genitalia of the planthoppers attacking corn plants. A and C =
ventro-caudal view, B = ventral view. Anal tube (atb), anal process (apc), paramere or style
(sty), diaphragm (dia), protusion on the diaphragm (pro), and aedeagus (aed). Note the
diaphragmal protrusion (pro, C) which is not sinuate and not U-shape. Note also the shaft-like
aedeagus (aed, A-C) with a ring-like sub-apical hook (A, B).

Figure 7. Median carinae of the planthoppers attacking corn plants. Ventral view (A) and dorsal view
(B). Longitudinal pale or white stripe indicated the median carinae. The median carina not
forked at the ventral aspect (frons, yellow arrow, A) but forked at the dorsal aspect (vertex,
red arrow, B). Note also median longitudinal pale or white stripe at the brown or light-brown
mesonotum and metanotum (B).

It is true that some delphacid planthoppers each also has shaft-like aedeagus but
conspicuously differs from the aedeagus of our specimens. A species of Perkinsiella has
shaft-like aedeagus (Wilson, 2005) but without a sub-apical ring-like hook as is in our
specimens. Instead, the Perkinsiella aedeagus is equipped with an obvious sub-apical tooth.
The aedeagus of Peregrinus maidis is also shaft-like, not compressed, and with subapical
hook (Wilson, 2005) but is ornamented with a row of spines and the hook is straight (not ring-
like). A species of Sogatellana is also known to have a shaftlike aedeagus (Asche & Wilson,
1990); however, this aedeagus is short and ornamented with a sub-apical
 clump of minute spines. In sum, no known species of delphacid planthoppers so far in the
Nearctic or Palearctic regions has aedeagus as is in our specimens.
We then compared the aedeagus of our specimens with that of Asian species. Among the 65
species of 31 genera of Asian delphacid planthoppers (Dupo & Barrion, 2009), therein exists
one species named Stenocranus pacificus Kirkaldy whose aedeagus (Plate 37f in Dupo &
Barrion, 2009) is similar to (or of the same form as) that of our specimens (aed, Figure 6 A-
B). Therefore, we identified the scientific name of our specimens as Stenocranus pacificus
Kirkaldy (Hemiptera:
Delphacidae). To indicate the host plant, we also use the corn S. pacificus as another name for
our specimens. That way, the corn S. pacificus and the corn white-bellied planthopper
(CWBPH) could be used interchangeably.
The body size of CWBPH is in the body size range of S. pacificus sensu Dupo & Barrion
(2009). As afore-mentioned, the body sizes of our specimens are 4.20 + 0.04 mm for males
and 4.93 + 0.03 mm for females, respectively. Those are in the range of S. pacificus body size
of 4.0 – 6.3 mm (Dupo & Barrion, 2009; species features). In their identification key,
however, Dupo & Barrion (2009) attributed another, albeit larger, body size interval of 6.8 –
7.8 mm to the rice S. pacificus. So far, the population of S. pacificus sensu Dupo & Barrion
(2009) with larger body size has not been found attacking corn plants in Lampung.
The number of calcar spines and the vertex-frons morphology of the corn S. pacificus also a
bit deviate from those of S. pacificus sensu Dupo & Barrion (2009). Dupo & Barrion (2009)
characterized the hind tibiae of S. pacificus as each having 24-25 calcar spines. Our
specimens each has 26-27 calcar spines (n = 20). S. pacificus sensu Dupo & Barrion (2009) is
also with noticeably narrowed or produced head in front of eyes (Dupo & Barrion, 2009). In
contrast, the heads of our planthopper specimens are not narrowed in front eyes. It is difficult
to conclude at the moment whether these deviances are merely statistical or true
morphological differences that are consistent and unique to the population of the corn S.
pacificus.
S. pacificus might be exotic species for Indonesia and has been reported to attack other plants
in the Poaceae family. Dupo & Barrion (2009) mentioned that in addition to attacking rice
plants, S. pacificus could also attack sugarcane and grasses and they were distributed across
Philippines, Western Caroline Island, Palau, and Fiji. Wilson (2009) reported that S. pacificus
was native of Viti Levu Island, Fiji. Recently, the infestation of S. pacificus has been very
massive on corn plants that were grown continuously in Natar area, South Lampung District,
Sumatra-Indonesia.

Planthopper field abundance. The trend of S. pacificus or CWBPH abundance in Natar area
was illustrated in Figure 8. At 30 DAP, only a few individuals were present on corn plants.
About half population of the corn plants of this age was still free from the planthopper attacks
while the other half was attacked by 1 or 2 macropter individuals leaf-1. The sign of whitecottony
wax deposition was rarely found at this age. At 40 DAP, however, the white wax trenches and
smudges (as in Figure 2 A-B) were prominent. At this plant age, the abundance of combined
planthopper stages (nymphs + brachypters or macropters) increased multiplicatively than before
with nymphs (and brachypters combined) being 4 times more abundant than macropters. The
planthopper total abundance at 70 DAP was about double than that at 40 DAP and the total
abundance at 88 DAP was also about double than that at 70 DAP. The condition and appearance
of the corn plants at 70 DAP or 88 DAP, however, were similar to those at 40 DAP (as in Figure
2 C). The hopperburn symptom (as in Figure 2 D-E) started being detected at 88 DAP and
massively evident at 108 DAP. At 108 DAP, the planthopper abundance dropped drastically to a
very low level.
The abundance of CWBPH on corn plants peaked at 88 DAP (averaged 118 + 28 individuals
leaf-1, Figure 8). With a leaf number average of 11 + 1 plant-1 (calculated from n = 110 plants),
the planthopper abundance could reach 1,298 individuals corn plant-1 which was comparable with
(or higher than) the brown planthopper (BPH) highest abundance on rice paddy (> 500
individuals hill-1; Mochida & Okada, 1979).
Was the 88 DAP peak on corn plants the only abundance peak of CWBPH? No easy answer
based on our perliminary data. However, it has been known that BPH on rice plants had multiple
abundance peaks at a 3-4 week interval (Sawada et al., 1992). One generation time of BPH
ranged 23-32 days (Mochida & Okada, 1979) suggesting that the multiple peaks of BPH be
actually their generation peaks (Sawada et al., 1992). On the rice plants, the abundance trend of
BPH were similar to that of the white-backed planthopper (WBPH) (Win et al., 2011). If
biological similarities indeed existed among delphacids, it could be predicted that our
planthoppers (CWBPH) have multiple abundance peaks during one corn growing season. The
prediction could be tested by routine observations, including weekly recording of the planthopper
abundance on

Figure 8. Mean abundance of the planthoppers attacking corn plants in Natar area, South
Lampung. DAP = days after planting. Bars = standard errors of the means (n = 20 plants for
observation on 88 DAP and 108 DAP; n = 25 plants for observation on 30 DAP, 40 DAP, and 70
DA

CONCLUSION
We identified the planthoppers that attacked corn plants in Natar area, South Lampung, as Stenocranus
pacificus Kirkaldy (Hemiptera: Delphacidae). We proposed their common name as the corn white-
bellied planthoppper (CWBPH) after the unique character and ecological importance of their female
abdomens. The key morphological characters of the planthopper specimens are as follow.
1) Hind tibia with a large apical movable spur or calcar(females and males).
2) First tarsal segment of the hind leg without lateralspines (females and males).
3) Mesonotum light brown with median longitudinal palestripe (females and males).
4) Margin of pygofer diaphragm not U-shape (males).
5) Protrusion on margin of pygofer diaphragm not sinuate(males).
6) Frons with median carina forked at dorsal aspect ofeyes (females and males).
7) Aedeagus shaft like and without spines but with aring-like sub-apical hook (males).

The field abundance of the corn S. pacificus in the Natar area was initiated by a lag phase at the first
month, followed by a geometric increase in the next 22.5 months that inflicted bad damage on the corn
plants, and ended with a drastic drop by the end of the corn growing season.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was made possible through various facilitations. We thank farmers in Natar area, South
Lampung, for permitting us to observe their corn fields and for their participation in the
observations (Mr. Jalal & Mr. Yono). We are also very grateful to Prof. Irwan Sukri Banuwa (Dean
of Fakultas Pertanian Universitas Lampung, FP-UNILA) for accommodation and transportation
support. Mr. Joko Prasetyo (Head of Plant Protection Clinic, Department of Plant Protection FP-
UNILA) deserves our appreciation for appointing some of us as members the corn planthopper’s
task force. We also thank our former students (Hendi Pamungkas, Nana Ratnawati, Fransiska Dina,
and Eko Saputro) for valuable assistance during the field observation. This publication is part of the
outcome of the joint activities between FP-UNILA’s Agricultural Clinic and the Department of
Plant Protection Clinic.
 TOMATO GREEN LOOPER

TOMATO GREEN LOOPER

Common Name

Green looper caterpillar, green garden looper. In Fiji, this has been called the green semi-looper.
In this app it is called the "tomato green looper".

Scientific Name

Chrysodeixis eriosoma; the identification of this moth in the Pacific may have been confused
with a similar moth, Chrysodeixis chalcites, which in Fiji is listed by Swaine (1971)1 as Plusia
chalcites. However, CABI (2014) lists no records of Chrysodeixis chalcites in the Pacific, and quotes
(Zang 1994): "Literature referring to C. chalcites (= chalcytes) in southern or eastern Asia or Oceania
actually refers to C. eriosoma (Zhang, 1994)". However, the SPC surveys of Federated States of
Micronesia and Palau record Chrysodeixis chalcites in Palau and Northern Mariana Islands2.

Distribution

Worldwide. Asia, North (Hawaii) and South America (Chile), Europe, Oceania. It is recorded
from Australia, Fiji1, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Tonga.

Hosts

Wide. The larvae feed on plants in the daisy (Asteraceae), brassica (Brassicaceae, potato
(Solanaceae), cucumber (Cucurbitaceae), legume (Fabaceae) and corn (maize) (Poaceae) families, and
many more. Many ornamentals and weeds in these families are hosts, too. In Fiji, it is a pest on
tomato, dwarf beans and cocoa seedlings in the nursery.

Symptoms & Life Cycle

Larvae eat holes in leaves and shallow pits in fruits. Early larval stages do not eat all the way
though the leaves, creating 'windows'; later stages make holes in the leaves, and, when numerous,
defoliate plants and damage flowers and fruits.

Eggs are laid singly or in batches on the underside of leaves. The larvae are up to 40 mm long, blue-
 RICE SWARMING CATERPILLAR
(SPODOPTERA MAURITIA) AND ITS MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

1. National Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi

2. Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack
3. Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, and
4. State Agriculture Department, Orissa
Rice swarming caterpillar, Spodoptera mauritia Boisduval (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
INTRODUCTION
Rice swarming caterpillar or armyworm, Spodoptera mauritia Boisduval (Noctuidae:
Lepidoptera) is considered to be a sporadic pest which occasionally causes serious losses to rice
crop. The insect is polyphagous and infests various graminaceous crops and weeds. Upland rice
is its preferred host. It is widely distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent, East and
Southern Asia and the Australian region. It is one of the most serious insect pests of South India
and possibly the most serious of the armyworms in other areas of Asia. During the last few years
it has emerged as a major pest in eastern India and caused severe losses to wet season rice
production. In Orissa the swarming caterpillars have swarmed over thousands of hectares of land
in 2009 completely damaged the paddy plants in the fields and look as if grazed by cattle
especially in Sambalpur district where complete loss had been reported. Sundergarh district in
Orissa was also severely affected and complete loss occurred in some places
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Swarming caterpillar, S. mauritia was identified as nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus)
armyworm in 1899 from Hawaii, USA Swarming caterpillar, S. mauritia larva 2 where it was
also found infesting rice. Later, its identity was confused to a very similar noctuid species,
Laphygma frugiperda also found in Hawaii. In a study of the pests of Guam in 1936, an
armyworm appeared to be very similar to nutgrass armyworm as the egg-laying habits of both
the insects were almost similar and was occurring on rice seedlings. On careful study, the Guam
species was found to be in agreement with the descriptions and figures of Spodoptera mauritia
(Boisd.) available in literature (Hampson, Fauna of British India, Moths, Vol.II, p. 248, fig.140,
1894). In India, incidences of this pest were reported from Tamil Nadu in 1935
( Ananthanarayanan and Ramkrishna Ayyar, 1937) and later from Kerala and Orissa in 1943 and
1952, respectively.
IDENTIFICATION
The larvae are described to differentiate the several armyworm species from each other:
1. Rice swarming caterpillar or grass armyworm (S. mauritia): Mature larvae are 3.8-4 cm long
and are green, grey, or brown in colour with dark dull dorsal and sub dorsal longitudinal stripes.
Two rows of C-shaped black spots are visible along the backs.
2. Paddy armyworm, true armyworm (Mythimna separata) : Mature larvae are 3-4 cm long,
green to pink in colour and provided with longitudinal light grey to black stripes running along
the entire length of their bodies. Head is brown to orange with an A-marking.
3. Armyworm (Pseudaletia unipuncta): Mature larvae are about one and half inches long having
yellowish or yellow-brown head capsule with dark net-like
(entomology.unl.edu/charts/armywcht.shtml; 2009 Department of Entomology, University of
Nebraska-Lincoln) S. mauritia larva Mythimna separata 3 markings and a yellowish or greyish
ground colour, more or less tinged with pink but a broad dark stripe dorsally and along each side.
A light pale orange subspiracular stripe mottled, and edged with white often is found laterally
beneath the dark stripe.
4. Spodoptera exigua: The larvae are 3-4 cm long, green in color with many light stripes along
the backs and a broader stripe down the sides. The undersides are usually yellow in colour.
5. Spodoptera litura: Larvae are brown or green with longitudinal stripes but are distinguished by
the black spots ringing the body about 1/4th of the body length behind the head.
DISTRIBUTION
This pest has been reported from Afghanistan, Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma,
Fiji, Guinea, Hawaii, India, Indonesia, Kampuchea, Korea, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia,
Marquesas, Mauritius, Myanmar, Nepal, New Zealand, Pacific Islands, Pakistan, Papua New
Guinea, Philippines, South China, South East Asia, Sri Lanka, Tahiti, Taiwan, Tanzania,
Thailand, Uganda and Vietnam. In India it is found in all the rice growing areas especially along
the west coast and delta in Kerala and Tamil Nadu (David and Ananthakrishanan, 2004). In
eastern India, it has become a regular pest in western Orissa and has also been recorded in
coastal districts of the state. This pest is also recorded from Jharkhand, Bihar and Chhatisgarh
during kharif rice crop in 2008 and 2009.
PEST STATUS, DAMAGE AND LOSSES
In Bangladesh, S. mauritia has been reported as a serious pest of rice, particularly of Aus
rice (June-August), though it occurs in Boro rice (April-May) and Amon rice (August-October)
throughout the country. In India, earlier it was considered as a sporadic and minor pest of rice
but for the last one decade, it has emerged as serious pest of rice seedlings. It has attained the
status of a major pest of rice in eastern India especially in Orissa, Chhatisgarh, Jharkhand and
Bihar
The swarming caterpillars damage paddy crop by cutting off leaf tips, leaf margins,
leaves and even the plants at the base, more severely on the seedlings in nursery and direct
seeded crops and early tillering stage in transplanted rice. Newly hatched larvae cause the plants
to look sick with withered tips and cut leaves. They appear suddenly in masses and move like an
army from field to field so that the seeds or direct seeded fields look as if grazed by cattle,
warranting to re-sowing or replanting. Generally a transplanted crop is not seriously affected.
Rice plants older than 6-7 weeks are usually not attacked by this pest.
The swarming caterpillar occasionally caused yield loss up to 20% (Dale, 1994).
Attacked plants are recorded to be damaged from 10-100% depending upon the density of the
pest larvae. Under severe infestation a complete damage of the plants has been reported which
warrants re-sowing or replanting the crop. During kharif2009 alone, about 90% plant damage
was reported in Orissa in about 1.25 million hectares (Anonymous, 2010).
HOST RANGE
Swarming caterpillar attacks a wide range of graminaceous plant species. Rice is the
main host of S. mauritia. This pest, in general, breeds on other hosts like different kinds of
grasses and occasionally on maize, oat and sorghum. The nutgrass, Cyperus rotundus is a
common weed in paddy fields in western Orissa and is found to be an alternate host of this pest
during the off-season
Table: Host range of S. mauritia

S. No. Host plant Family Reference

1. Nutgrass, Cyperus rotundus Cyperaceae Hill, 1983
2. Cabbage, Brassica oleracea Linne Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae)
(Capitata Group)
 3. Kale, Brassica oleracea, L. Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae)
botrytis
4. Cauliflower, Brassica oleracea Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae)
5. Rapeseed, Brassica napus Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae)
6. Mustard, Brassica juncea Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae)
7. Broccoli, Brassica oleracea, L. Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae)
italica
8. Turnip, Brassica rapa var. rapa Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae)
9. Sugarcane, Saccharum Poaceae alt. Gramineae
officianarum
10. Safed Musli, Chlorophytum sp. Liliaceae
11. Quack grass/wheatgrass Poaceae alt. Gramineae Dale, 1994
Agropyron sp.
12. Broadleaf carpet grass, Lawn Poaceae alt. Gramineae
grass, Axonopus compressus
13. Para grass, Brachiaria mutica Poaceae alt. Gramineae
14. Nagarmotha, Cyperus scariosus Cyperaceae
15. Torpedo grass, Panicum repens Poaceae alt. Gramineae
16. Buffalo grass, carabao grass, Poaceae alt. Gramineae
Paspalum conjugatus
17. Setaria sp.
18. Jungle rice, Echinocloa colona Poaceae alt. Gramineae Recorded under e-
surveillance project
The common alternate hosts of the pest are tabulated above. Heavy infestation has also
been reported on ‘Safed Musli’ (Chlorophytum sp.) in Chhattisgarh. Setaria sp. and Echinocloa
colona have also been found as alternate hosts of this pest as recorded during the recent survey
conducted during kharif-2010 in western Orissa under ‘e-pest surveillance’ project.
SEASONAL OCCURRENCE AND PEST OUTBREAKS
Although the pest has been recorded year round in multicropped areas yet it occurs in
high numbers only during May and July. This pest occurs in all rice environments but is least
abundant in irrigated fields. This is essentially a seedling pest and rarely infests a crop more than
6-7 weeks after transplanting. Infestation starts at the onset of monsoon. Seedlings of 2-20 days
old in poorly drained fields suffer most serious attacks. Direct seeded crops at early stage are
seriously attacked and in certain cases the entire fields are devastated and warrants resowing.
The larvae are generally found on crops which are less than 20-25 days old. Early stages of the
caterpillars are inconspicuous and escape notice. The damage to crop becomes evident from the
third instar of the caterpillar. The grown up caterpillars feed voraciously by night devouring the
entire plant and hide during the day time. Later in the season they migrate from older rice fields
to grassy areas where subsequent broods cause severe damage. Their migration is facilitated by
the absence of the standing water in the fields. The larvae suffer high mortality from heavy rains
and are victims of various bacterial diseases, parasites and predators. The inability of larvae to
swim is a weakness. In flooded fields they are forced to stay on the plants which they defoliate.
They are thus exposed to birds and other predators. In south India, this pest is more prevalent in
the wet season crops during October December and it oviposits by the end of February when the
weather becomes hot and dry.
Outbreaks occur after a period of prolonged drought followed by heavy rain. Drought
kills their natural enemies and flooding allows S. mauritia larvae to concentrate on rice plants.
Outbreaks of this pest are more common in broadcasted rice sown in ill-drained soils. Its severe
outbreaks, as one of the worst pests attacking paddy in nursery, was reported from Sarawak,
Malaysia during 1957-61. It migrated from field to field and caused severe damage. In India its
outbreaks had been reported in different states.
 In 1993 its severe outbreak was recorded in Tamil Nadu.
 In July 1999, an outbreak was reported in Changari and Gohendra villages of Kotma
Block in Shahdol (Central India) covering an area of around 250 ha. During the survey,
S. mauritia caused severe damage to the rice crop, more in late-sown rice and in low-
lying rice fields. In the lowland, the larval population density (LPD) was 1–2 per plant. In
nursery beds, the LPD was 138–142 m2, with a population density of almost 7–9 per
plant. The transplanted fields had a comparatively lower LPD (76–79 m2), with 3–5 per
plant.
 During kharif 2007, a severe outbreak was observed in Tangi Block of Cuttack district.
 During kharif 2008, outbreak was reported in 13 blocks of Sonepur district in western
Orissa where 6-8 larvae/hill were recorded in the initial stage. • During 2009 severe
outbreak of this pest was observed in about 1.25 lakhs hactares of kharif paddy in 13
districts of western Orissa recording about 80-90% damage.
Factors favouring population buildup
 Prolonged dry condition followed by heavy rainfall favours its outbreak.
 Wind and rainstorm helps in migration of moths to long distances.
 Pest occurs throughout the year on alternate hosts and move to paddy in kharif season.
 Heavy rainfall leads to high mortality of larval population.
 Pest migrates from older rice to grassy areas for off season survival.
LIFE CYCLE
The life cycle of this pest is completed in 25 to 40 days on rice plant as the main host,
through eggs, larvae/caterpillars, pupae and adults. It completes 3-4 generations in a year.
Adults
The adult is stout built, dark brown moth measuring about 15-20 mm in length and 30-40
mm in wing expanse. Forewings of female moth are greyish brown with wavy lines and a dark
spot sub centrally. Male moth has immense tufts of hairs on the forelegs. Wings of the male
moth are more greyish. The hind wings are brownish white with thin black margins. 9 The moths
are nocturnal and hide in the crevices in soils or under vegetation during day time. The adult
moths are strong fliers and move long distances for oviposition. The moths mate 1-2 days after
the emergence and start ovipositing shortly after mating. Usually 4 to 20 days seedlings in
flooded or direct sown fields with standing water are preferred for oviposition. During early
infestation, egg laying rarely occurs on the rice plants and first instar larvae generally migrate
from the grasses/ weeds to rice plants. Usually females tend to congregate and oviposit in the
same area. The first generation moths usually appear when the seeds are germinating in the
nursery beds or in direct-sown fields.
Eggs
A single female generally lays 5-6 oblong egg masses each containing 150-200 eggs at
the tips of upright leaves. Eggs are covered with gray hairs/setae from the anal tuft of the female.
An egg is spherical and creamy in colour when laid and acquires a brown tinge as development
proceeds. Oviposition period is 5-6 days. Maximum number of eggs laid by female ranges from
528 to 1084 on the first night after mating. A total of 1332 to 2368 eggs laid/female have been
recorded in Kerala and a maximum egg laying of up to 2750 eggs was recorded in Tamil Nadu.
Incubation period of the eggs is 3-9 days.
Larvae
Hatching usually occurs during the morning hours. The newly hatched larvae are very
active and feed by scraping the green matter from the leaf tips. They rest within the rolled edges
of young leaves where they are almost invisible. Occasionally, they spin a silken thread and
suspend themselves from the plants with the help of the threads. They then drift by wind to other
plants with the help of the thread. The newly hatched/ young larvae/caterpillars are light green
with yellowish white lateral and dorsal stripes and are about 2 mm in length and difficult to be
noticed on the foliage. First instar larvae prefer succulent young foliage for feeding. The larvae
undergo 5-6 instars during larval development period of 17-32 days. Those beyond the third
larval instar are strictly nocturnal and hide during the day. During cloudy weather, they remain
active during the day. As the caterpillars grow, they become greyish brown with a crescent
shaped black spot on the side of each segment. The lateral stripes have a reddish upper margin.
Larvae turn dark brown when populations are high. This feeding pattern explains the cause of
sudden devastating damage by late instar armyworms in the field. The weight of frass produced
by last instar caterpillar is almost 5 times of that of previous instar. Head capsule of the full
grown larva is dark with pale forked line. There are three lateral lines along the body with dark
segmental marks above. Full grown larvae are 35-40 mm long, dark to pale green, with dull
dorsal and sub dorsal strips. The colours vary greatly and show a phase variation pattern as in
locust. When disturbed, larva curls into a ring which is a characteristic common to all cut worms
and armyworms.
Pupae
For pupation the mature larvae burrows in the soil to find a suitable place for pupation.
Pupation takes place in the soil in an earthen cell slightly below the ground level. The pupa is
dark brown in colour and measures 13-17 mm in length, having two slender apical spines. Pupal
period lasts for 7-10 days.
POPULATION DYNAMICS AND FIELD INFESTATION IN ORISSA
Under the ‘e-Pest Surveillance’ programme, sponsored by Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
(RKVY) for the management of major pests of rice in Orissa, the infestation and population of
swarming caterpillar (S. mauritia) was monitored regularly in 13 districts of Orissa in paddy
based cropping system jointly by State Agriculture Department (Orissa), Institute of
Management of Agricultural Extension (Orissa), NCIPM (New Delhi), CRRI (Cuttack, Orissa),
CIPMC (Orissa), and OUAT
(Bhubaneswar, Orissa). The data was collected from 126 blocks and 1760 sample villages
covering 13 districts namely Sambalpur, Bargarh, Jharsuguda, Deogarh, Sundargarh, Koraput,
Nawrangpur, Rayagada, Malkanagiri, Kalahandi, Nuapada, Bolangir and Subarnapur.
Compilation of data from different locations indicated that during the kharif 2010 rice season the
infestation of swarming caterpillar remained below Economic Threshold Level (ETL) in most of
the districts except a few villages in Malkangiri and Sambalpur districts which could also be
managed by timely application of pesticides. As indicated in the table, the infestation of S.
mauritia was at moderate level in 29th Standard Meteorological Week (SMW) at Sambalpur
(12.91 %) and Sundergarh (7.43 %) districts and was immediately managed due to the strong
linkage under the project involving chain reactions such as e-pest monitoring, issue of advisory
and IPM interventions. At Malkangiri district the Infestation appeared at moderate level (3.43 %)
but was effectively managed. In Deogarh, Nuapada and Kalahandi districts, though the pest
showed its presence throughout the season but remained at low level. The larval population, in
general, remained low at most of the places except Bolangir, Malkangiri and Kalahandi where
the larval population showed increasing trend. The population of S. mauritia reached
exceptionally high level at Kalahandi in 35/36 SMW. This was due to drifting of larval
population from different places in the area along with floodwater in a river (Hathi river) during
the period. Monitoring of the pest and advisory issued under the project and subsequently the
implementation of the advice has helped in successfully containing S. mauritia infestation during
kharif 2010 season in Orissa.
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
Based upon the available literature and studies carried out under the ‘e-Pest Surveillance’
project, it is evident that swarming caterpillars survive on alternate hosts and migrate in swarms
to paddy crop destroying the entire crop within a short time. Therefore, there is a need to develop
strong linkage among State Agriculture Department, State Agricultural University, Research
Institutes and farmers to implement Integrated Pest Management (IPM) at village level.
Important components of IPM are regular pest monitoring, cultural and mechanical means of
pest management, and augmentation and conservation of natural enemies and intelligent usage of
insecticides.
Pest Monitoring
Monitoring of the pest is an important component of IPM for identifying the hot spots at
early stage when the crop has yet to initiate or has just initiated. At early stage the pest can be
managed by spot application or with low doses of insecticides without adversely affecting the
environment. The monitoring can be done by survey and surveillance by employing scouts or
progressive farmers. As the pest appears in May, therefore, the monitoring is to be initiated by
middle of April. At the initial stage the pest should be observed on alternate host plants
especially weeds such as Echinocloa colona and Cyperus rotandus which are the most preferred
host. These plants are completely defoliated by feeding of the caterpillar except the midrib.
Therefore, based upon the feeding symptoms one can expect the presence of larvae. The
population can be further confirmed by digging the soil up to 6-9 inches where the S. mauritia
larvae burrow for pupation. As the moths are attracted towards light, therefore, the light trap can
also be utilized as an important tool for monitoring the moth population. Number of moths
attracted towards the light will give an indication about the severely of the pest.
IPM interventions
a. Cultural control
 Crop rotation in endemic pockets helps.
 Deep ploughing the field in summer exposes the larvae and pupae for
predation by birds.
 Remove excess nurseries and weeds from the field and bunds
 Flooding the nurseries and small fields brings out the larvae to the surface,
which get predated by the birds. Ducks if let into field, will feed on the
caterpillars. A herd of ducks can easily destroy these caterpillars if let in to
the fields.
 Use of bamboo perches facilitates predation by birds.
 In case of severe infestation, small plots can be isolated and the movement
of the caterpillars can be prevented by digging a trench around the infested
field wherever possible.
b. Mechanical
 The inability of S. mauritia larvae to swim in water is a weakness and in
flooded fields they are forced to stay on the plants which they defoliate.
Therefore, kerosene oil may be poured into the stagnant water in the
bunded fields (2 L kerosene per hectare). With the use of a long rope
stretched across the field (two persons walk through the field) the paddy
 plants are shaken rigorously. The larvae fall into the kerosenized water
and ultimately die
 Application of malathion dust (2% dust applied at 25 kg ha–1) or
chlorpyriphos dust (1.5%) or endosulfan dust (5%) along the bunds of the
field kills the pest and also prevents the migration of larvae to other rice
fields. The technique was widely adopted because it proved to be a cheap
and effective method for managing the S. mauritia within a short time.
 Before the paddy season, grasses near the fields earmarked for paddy, may
be destroyed mechanically which provide shelter and act as reservoir for
migration of larvae.
 As the moths of S. mauritia are attracted towards light, therefore, light
traps can also be utilized for mass trapping of the moths.
c. Biological control/natural enemies
Parasites/parasitoids
Under natural conditions, the egg parasitoids have been found effective in
containing the population of S. mauritia. In Hawaii, under natural conditions, the
parasitization of S. mauritia egg masses ranged from 80-90 per cent by
Telenomus nawai Ashmead (a scelionid egg parasite). The parasitoid was also
released in island Guam from Hawii for controlling rice swarming caterpillar.
A number of larval parasites viz., Apanteles ruficrus Hal., Apanteles sp.,
Meterorus sp; Charops bicolor (Szepl.), C. dominans Wlk; Charops sp.,
Cuphocera varia Fabr; Drino unisetosa Bar; Gonia cinerascens Bond.,
Pseudoperichaeta orientalis Wied, Strobliomyia aegyptia Vill, Pseudogonia
cinerascens Round, Sturmiopsis semiberbis Bezzi., Tachinia fallax Meig, Sturmia
inconspicua Mg., Sturmia bimaculata, Chelonus sp, and Netelis sp., Actia
aegyptica, Drino sp., Isomera cinerascena Rond., Isomera rufifrons and
Euplectrus euplexiae Roh. & uplectrus sp. of this pest have been recorded (Alam,
1964; David and Ananthakrishnan, 1994). In Hawaii, a braconid, Apanteles
marginiventris (Cresson), a solitary internal larval parasite has also been recorded.
This parasite preferred to oviposit on the minute first instar caterpillars although it
could also parasitize second and third instar larvae. An entomopathogenic
nematode, Hexamermis sp. has been isolated from the dead larvae of S. mauritia
collected from the paddy fields in Uttar Pradesh (Murad, 1969)
Predators
The vertebrate predators such as the common crow, Corvus splendens, the
jungle crow, Corvus macrorhynchos; the cattle erget, Bubulcus coromondus, the
17 paddy berd, Ardeola grayi, the white breasted water hen, Amaurovius
phoenicocurus and the mynah, Acridotheres tristis have also been found to
predate on the larvae of this pest.
 NPV
In Hawaii, a nuclear polyhedrosis virus of this
insect was discovered (Bianchi, 1957). It is believed that
the nuclear polyhedrosis virus might have entered Hawaii
together with its host (Tanada and Beardsley, 1957).
Cross infectivity test confirmed that the exposed SWC
larvae succumbing to the virus showed the typical
symptoms of nuclear polyhedrosis i.e., their skins become
fragile and their internal contents a fluid mass, a typical
“wilt” condition. Larvae which become infected in their
early instars and die before the fourth instar usually begin
to turn pale 2 to 4 days prior to death and, at death, have a
whitish or creamy appearance. After death the larvae
rapidly darken in color. Older infected larvae which die in the fifth or older instars
gradually turn slightly pale with a pinkish tinge several days before death, but
otherwise remain nearly as dark brown as the healthy larvae. Thus, in older
larvae, change in coloration is not as marked as in the younger larvae. However,
no reference of polyhedrosis disease of the this armyworn has been found outside
of Hawaii. In South India a disease of this armyworm was considered as probably
of bacterial origin, but the symptoms recorded by them resemble somewhat those
of the nuclear polyhedrosis (Ananthanarayanan and Ramakrishna Ayyar, 1937).
d. Chemical control
 Spray of chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 2.5 litres/ha or quinalphos 25 EC @2.0
litres/ha or triazophos 40 EC @ 1.0 litres/ha or dichlorvos 76 SL 600
ml/ha on the paddy crop during evening hours
 Dusting of chlorpyriphos 1.5 % D or endosulphan 5% D @ 30 kg/ha
controls this pest.
 Spraying at early stage is very effective
RICE (MAIZE) ARMYWORM

Photo 1. Larva, rice armyworm, Mythimna separata.

Photo 2. Mature larva of the rice armyworm, Mythimna separata. Note the thin line along the back.

 
 Photo 3. Mature larva, rice armyworm, Mythimna separata, from the side.

Photo 4. Underside view of adult rice armyworm, Mythimna separata.

Photo 5. Top view of rice armyworm, Mythimna separata.

RICE (MAIZE) ARMYWORM

Common Name
Paddy armyworm, rice armyworm, oriental armyworm, rice ear-
cutting caterpillar.
Scientific Name
Mythimna separata; previously known
as Pseudoaletia separata.

Distribution
Widespread. Asia, Southeast Asia, Europe, Oceania. It is recorded from Australia, Cook
Islands, Fiji, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands,
Tonga, and Vanuatu.
Hosts
Rice, maize, sorghum, sugarcane and small cereal grains are the main hosts, but it is also
a pest of many food legumes, Chinese cabbage, sugar beet, and weeds in the grass family.
Symptoms & Life Cycle
On rice, the larvae eat the leaves, often including the veins, and the inflorescence. Later,
at grain filling, the larvae cut the panicles at the base so that they bend over or collapse.Plant in
seedbeds are also attacked.
On maize, the mature larvae, climb the stems and eat the leaves from the edges; they are
often found in the axils of leaves within piles of frass. Severe damage reduces the size of cobs.
Young plants may be cut off below ground, or the leaves badly eaten.
The larvae are often a problem after rains and floods. The young larvae develop on
grasses (e.g., Echinochloa and Setaria) and later move to the older rice plants.
On rice, eggs are laid in rows along a leaf blade (green or dead). The number of eggs laid
by a moth during its life is from 500 to nearly twice that number. It depends if nectar is
plentiful, and how soon the moth mates after emergence. At first, the larvae scrape the leaves to
feed; later, they eat through the leaves.
Young larvae 'loop' as they move, and fall from leaves on silken threads when disturbed.
Mature larvae do not loop, grow to 40 mm, and have a narrow, yellowish-white stripe along the
back and two others at the sides (Photos 1-3). They are  nocturnal, in the day concealed by
foliage at the base of the plants or in cracks in the soil (in dryland rice). Adult forewings are
pinkish-light brown with two pale spots, and the hindwings have prominent veins (Photos 4&5).
Spread occurs in several ways. In parts of Asia, the moth is migratory, traveling long
distances by wing, assisted by weather systems. Spread over shorter distances occurs when food
is scarce: late-stage larvae move in large numbers in search of new fields, hence the name
"armyworm".
Impact
The impact on rice can be substantial if the attack comes when the crop is in ear as the
spikelets are bitten off at the base. The impact is large when larvae move from field to field in
search of food. The damage done by this moth is far greater on dryland rice, and is said to have
declined in recent past decades as irrigated rice cultivation has increased.
Detection & inspection
Look for the larvae at the base of the rice plants; look for frassson the leaves,
remembering that the larvae may not be present as they are nocturnal. A sex pheromone is
available for this moth. Light traps, too, can be used for attracting adults and estimating the
likelihood of outbreaks. Attraction is great if the light traps are baited with molasses or a mixture
of wine, vinegar and sugar.
Thresholds for rice are nine larvae per m2 in the pre-panicle stage. Look for larvae weekly
throughout the field as the larvae are not evenly distributed.
Management
NATURALENEMIES
Releases of Cortesia ruficrus have been made with success in New Zealand, even though a
hyperparasite is present. Tachnid flies are also parasitoids. The hornet, Polistes olivaceus is said
to attack the larvae in Fiji, and elsewhere. Spiders feed on the early larvae.

CULTURALCONTROL
Before planting:
 Avoid following rice after crops of maize; follow with a food or forage legume.
 Weed the field.
During growth:
 Weed crops, especially removing grass species.
 Visit fields at least once a week, to check for the number of larvae and their maturity.
 Put ducks in the fields to find and eat the larvae at the base of the plants or in the soil.
 Place perches in the fields for insect-feeding birds to use.
 Alter water levels to drown pupae, and to limit spread of larvae between plants.
After harvest:
 Plough the field after harvest, burying the stubble, preventing mature larvae from
pupating, and to expose the pupae buried in the soil. 
RESISTANTVARIETIES
There are no resistant varieties, but cultivars of rice that produce many tillers can reduce
the amount of damage cause by the larvae.

CHEMICALCONTROL
Synthetic pesticides are not normally recommended for the control of the rice armyworm.
However, they may be required in dryland rice crops. Two methods are recommended, and they
should be applied before the larvae reach maturity. The final stage can do considerable damage.
 Use a spray prepared from diseased larvae collected from the field. After
collection, macerate, strain and transfer to a sprayer and use.
 Synthetic pyrethroids are likely to be effective but will also kill natural enemies.
COMMON INSECT PEST OF CORN
And Respective Insect Pest Management Practices
APHIDS (Rhopalosiphum maidis)

 Common name: Maize aphid, corn leaf aphid, green corn aphid
 Order or Family: Hemiptera: Aphididae
 Filipino Names: Aplat (Ilokano), Dugos-dugos (Cebuano)
 Nymph:
o Pale green
 o Slightly darker on the sides
o Legs darker than body
o Head: dark green
 Wingless Adults
o Elongate/oval
o Short, swollen siphunculi
o Blush-green/yellow green/dark olive-green
o Powdery wax
o 0.9-2.4 mm long
 Winged adults
o Yellow green to dark green abdomen
o No dark markings at back next to siphunculi
 Stages of Development
o Nymph: 9 days
o Adult: 4-12 days
 Host Range: Corn, Sorghum, Sugarcane, and other graminaceous plants (grass family
Gramineae)
 Damage Characteristics
o Stunted growth
o Withering
o Death
o Leaf surface soot
APHIDS MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
 Cultural control
o Crop rotation
o Resistant Varieties
 Biological Control
o Lady beetles
o Syrphids
o Lacewings
 Chemical Control
o Neonicotinoids
o Organophosphates
o Carbamates
o Granular pesticide per hill basis at planting

ARMYWORM SPODOPTERA EXEMPTA

 Common name: Black Armyworm (BAW)

 Order or Family: Lepidoptera: Noctuidae
 Filipino Names: Harabas (Tagalog), Igges ti bonobon/Arabas (Ilocano), Uod sa
humay/Anogba (Cebuano), Balulo (Misamis Oriental), Ulad queng punlang pale
(Pampango), Alabag (Pangasinensi), Tagus-tus (Panay-Visayan)
  Larva: Black with yellow lines at the back
 Stages of Development
o Eggs: 3-5 days
o Larva:13-17 days
o Pupa: 7-10 days
 Host Range: Corn, Legumes, Rice, Sorghum, Sugarcane, and Wheat.
 Damage Characteristics:
o Leaf blades irregularly chewed
o Whole plants stripped bare
o Only midrib left
o Tassel damage

ARMYWORM MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

 Cultural Methods
o Remove weeds
o Light traps
o Pheromone traps
o Crop rotation
o BT corn hybrids
 Mechanical Control
o Egg masses
o Larva
 Chemical Control
o Pyrethroids
o Methomyl
o Chlorpyrifos

CUTWORM SPODOPTERA LITURA

 Common names: Taro cluster, caterpillar, taro armyworm, tobacco cutworm, tropical armyworm
 Order or family: Lepidoptera: Noctuidae
 Filipino names: Uod
 Adults’ moths:
o Nocturnal
 o Attracted to light traps
o Hide at bases of plants and grassy weeds
Eggs
o Usually hatch in the early hours of the morning
 Neonate larvae
o Feed on the leaf tips or from the base of the leaf toward the apical area
o (Daytime) under leaf litter (dryland)
o On plants above the water (wetland)
 Stages of Development:
o Egg: 2-4 days
o Larva: 20 days
o Pupa: 8-10 days
o Adult: 5-7 days
 Host range: Cucurbits, Solanaceous crops, Legumes, Brassicas, Cotton, Tobacco
 Damage characteristics:
o Skeletonized leaf surfaces
o Presence of eggs and feeding larvae
o Cut seedlings
o Eaten leaves
CUTWORM MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
 Cultural control
o Monitor
o Hand pick
o Trap crops
 Sunflower
 Taro
 Castor plants
 Physical/mechanical control
o remove weeds and volunteer plants
o pheromone traps
 Biological control
o Pathogen
 Nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV)
o Entomopathogenic fungi
 Aspegillus falvus
 Beauveria bassiana
 Metarhizium anisopliae
 Chemical control
o Lambda-cyhalothrin
o Cypermethrin
o Fenitrothion
CORN BORER OSTRINIA FURNACALIS
 Common names: Asian Corn Borer
 Order or family: Lepidoptera: Pyralidae
  Filipino names: Dalipog, Gitagit (Ilocano), Tuhob (Cebuano), Tamasok/Tipgoy (Bicol),
Ulad (Kapampangan)
 Eggs
o Flat, scale-like, whitish
o 0.5 mm in size
o Turn black before hatching
 Full grown larva:
o Light brownish yellow
o 17-29 mm long
o Spotted with numerous brown and semi-circular spots
 Adults:
o Yellowish brown with waxy dark lines on wings
o Wing expanse about 35 mm
 Stages of Development
o Eggs: 4-5 days
o Larva: 18 days
o Pupa: 5-12 days
o Adult: 4-10 days
 Host range: Corn, Cotton, Legumes, Millet, Morning Glory, Okra, Onions, Panicum
species, Pepper, Sorghum, Tobacco
 Damage Characteristics:
o Pinholes on leaves
o Borings on stalks, base of tassels or ear shanks
o Clumping tassels and dropping of ears in severe cases
o Granular excreta or frass on perforations, broken stalks, and tassels
CORN BORER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
 Cultural Methods
o Detassel
o Moth traps
o Plant BT corn as trap crop
 Biological Control
o Trichogramma evanescens
 Chemical Control
o Pyrethroids
o Carbamates
o Organophosphates
 Botanical
o Neem
o Other botanicals

CORN EARWORM HELICOVERPA ARMIGERA

  Common name: Fruitworm
 Order or family: Lepidoptera: Noctuidae
 Adults:
o Wingspan: 30-45 mm
o Wings: light to reddish brown with darker bands on the lower part of the hindwings
 Larvae:
o 40 mm long
o Varies in color from greenish yellow to red brown with 3 dark stripes along the back
and yellow on the side
 Stages of Development
o Egg: 3-9 days
o Larva: 13-19 days
o Pupa: 7-15 days
o Adult: 7-10 days
 Host Range: Castor, Corn, Cotton, Crucifers, Cucurbits, Legumes, Okra, Onions, Potato,
Sorghum, Tobacco, Tomato, and Wheat.
 Damage Characteristics:
o Young fruits: invaded and fall-off
o Older fruits: bored into, fall off, possible point of entry for pathogens
 Secondary infections may lead to rotting
 Signs:
o Larvae hidden in the flowers or fruits
o Presence of frass or excrement may be visible from bored holes

CORN EARWORM MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

 Natural enemies
o Bugs
o Beetles
o Spiders
o Lacewings
o Ants
 Cultural control
o Field sanitation
o Removal of crop residues
o Planting sunflower
 CORN PLANTHOPPER (CPH) STENOCRANUS PACIFICUS
 Common name: Corn Planthopper (CPH), Corn leafhopper, corn lantern fly, maize leafhopper, maize
planthopper, corn delphacid
 Order or family: Hemiptera: Delphacidae
 Filipino names: Sipsi/Silam-silam (Ilocano), Ngusong kabayo (Tagalog), Waya-waya (Cebuano and
Ilonggo)
 Nymphs:
o Varies from whitish upon emergence to yellow green on second instar and turn brown in late
instars
o Red eyes
 Female:
o White waxy substance in the abdomen
o More robust
o 4.5-5 mm in size
 Male:
o Lack waxy substance
o Slender
o 4-4.2 mm in size
 Adults
o Orange brown in color
 Stages of Development
o Egg: 4-10 days
o Nymph: 16 days
o Adult
 Male:
o Winged: 2-27 days
o Wingless: 3-18 days
 Female:
o Winged: 7-45 days
o Wingless: 8-39 days
 Host range: Corn
 Damage Characteristics
o Dried leaves
o Blackened leaves
o Hopper burn

CORN PLANTHOPPER (CPH) MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

 Cultural methods
o Fallowing
o Crop rotation
o plow under
o burn corn stubbles o plant debris
o increase planting distance
o intercrop leguminous plants
 Biological control
o Fairy wasp (Anagrus species)
o Mirid bugs (Cyrtorhinuslividpennis)
o Dragonflies
o Damselflies
 o Spiders
 Chemical control
o Recommended fertilizer requirement
o Split nitrogen application

CORN SEEDLING MAGGOT ATHERIGONA ORYZAE

 Common name: Corn Seedling maggot

 Order or Family: Diptera: Muscidae
 Filipino names: Apihis (Cebuano), Langaw (Bicolano)
 Eggs:
o Elongated
o Pearl-white, turns dark when about to hatch
 Larva: wormlike
 Newly hatched:
o Creamy white to transparent
o Elongated and tapering toward the head end
o Turns dark yellow at last instar
 Adult
o Gray
o With 3 blackish stripes on its back

CORN SEEDLING MAGGOT MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

 Cultural methods
o Clean culture
o Removal of alternate weed hosts
o Synchronous planting
 Chemical control
o Neonicotinoids, organophosphates, and carbamates
o Granular insecticide per hill basis at planting
o Spray week after sowing
 CORN SEMILOOPER CHRYSODEIXIS ERIOSOMA
 Common name: Corn semilooper
 Order or family: Lepidoptera: Noctuidae
 Filipino names: Dangan-dangan (Ilocano), Dangaw-dangaw (Cebuano), Mandadangkal
(Tagalog)
 Larvae:
o 3-4 cm (final instar)
o Two pairs of abdominal prolegs
o Blue green
 Adult moths
o Dark grey to brown
o Bunched hairs on its head
o Males
 long, orange, hair-like scales on either side of the abdomen
o figure of eight colourings on the forewings
 Stages of Development
o Egg: 3 days
o Larva: 14-28 days
o Pupa: 7 days
o Adult: 9-14 days
 Damage characteristics
o Only the midrib and parallel veins of leaf blades left
 Host range: Abaca, Banana, corn, Crucifers, Jute, legumes, Solanaceous plants,
Sorghum, Tobacco, and Wheat.
CORN SEMILOOPER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

 Cultural methods
o Remove weeds
o Light traps
o Synchronous planting
o BT corn hybrids
 Mechanical methods
o Handpick and crush larva
 FALL ARMYWORN (FAW) SPODOPTERA FRUGIPERDA

 Common name: Fall armyworm (FAW)

 Order or family: Lepidoptera: Noctuidae
 Larva:
o Upside-down “Y” mark on the head
o Second last segment on the back has 4 distinct spots forming a square like pattern
 Symptoms
o Windowing
o Seedling cut at the base
o Ears (cobs) of maize are bored
 Host range: Corn, Rice, Sorghum, Wheat, and other vegetable crops

FALL ARMYWORM (FAW) MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

 Cultural methods
o Resistant variety
o Plough under corn stubbles
o Synchronous planting
o Weed management (sanitation)
o Hand picking
 Biological control
o Trichogramma chinolis
o Euborellia species
o Metarhizium species
 GRASS ARMYWORM (GAW) SPODOPTERA MAURITIA

 Common name: Rice armyworm

 Order or family: Lepidotera: Noctuidae
 Filipino names: Uod ng punlang palay (Tagalog), Ig-ges ti bonobon (Ilocano), Tagus-tus
(Visayan)
 Forewing: grayish brown with varying line margins and dark spots near the middle
 Headwings: whitish with dark margins
 Host range: Corn, Rice, sorghum, sugarcane, wheat
 Damage Characteristics
o Irregularly chewed leaf blades
o Whole plants are stripped bare leaving only the midrib

GRASS ARMYWORM (GAW) MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

 Cultural methods
o Plowing
o Light traps or pheromone traps
o Crop rotation
o BT corn hybrids
 Mechanical control
o Collect and rush
 Chemical control
o Pyrethroids
o Methomyl
o Chlorpyrifos
 ORIENTAL MIGRATORY LOCUST LOCUSTA MIGRATORIA
MANILENSIS
 Common name: Oriental Migratory Locust, grasshopper
 Order or Family: Orthoptera: Acrididae
 Filipino names: Nymphs: Locton (Ilocano, Visayan, Tagalog)
Adult: Apan/talapan (Visayan), balang (tagalog), dewit (bicol), dodon
(Ilocano), Duron (Pampanga)
 Host range: Bamboo, Coconut, corn, legumes, rice, sorghum, sugarcane, sweet potato,
wheat
 Eggs:
o Mass laid in soil
o Look like bananas
o Covered with white substance
 Nymphs:
o Similar to adults without wings
o Bright red orange color
 Adults
o Large hind legs
o Green or brown during solitary phase
o Yellow and grey/brown during migratory phase
 Damage Characteristics:
o Leaves irregularly chewed
o Whole plants stripped bare

ORIENTAL MIGRATORY LOCUST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

 Cultural method
o Trenching
o Catching
o Hand picking
 Biological control
o Predators: birds, toads, lizards, man, etc
o Parasites/parasitoids: nematodes, tachinid flies, parasites, mites
o Entomopathogen: Metarhizium
  Chemical method
o Baiting for nymphs
o Spraying for adults
o Use of contact insecticide

TRUE ARMYWORM (TAW) MYTHIMMA SEPARATA

 Common name: Paddy climbing worm, rice ear-cutting worm

 Order or family: Lepidoptera: Noctuidae
 Larvae:
o Newly hatched: dull white
o Later turn green
o Head orange brown
o Mature larvae: greenish to light mauve-brown, marbled orange-brown, with a narrow
white line at the back
 Adults
o Forewing: “dead grass” appearance
o Hindwings: dull cream, lightly suffused with greyish brown, the veins are of same
color but darker
o Body: greyish
 Stages of development
o Egg: 35 days
o Larva: 16-18 days
o Pre-pupa: 1-2 days
o Pupa: 8-9 days
o Adult: 5-12days
 Host range: corn, cotton, crucifers, cucurbits, potato, rice, solanaceous plants, sugarcane,
sweet potato, and wheat.
 Damage characteristics:
o Whorled leaves
o Leaf blades irregularly chewed
o Plants stripped bare, only midrib left

TRUE ARMYWORM (TAW) MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

 Cultural methods
o Remove weeds
o Light/pheromone traps