Chapter 2

SELECTION OF A DRAINAGE SYSTEM

L INTRODUCTION

1.1 Ye Can be either natural or artificial. Most

arwine ave some natural surface and subsurface
handle ts When natural drainage is inadequate to
artier re water reaching the land by either natural or
‘tec cd Wee manmade or artificial drainage is
Smee red, fArtificial drainage thus fills the gap,
ncaa that provided by nature and the established .
i This is usually done by supplementing existing
natural systems. For example, natural streams and
watercourses can be resectioned, or where no suitable
Ones exist, new drainage channels can be constructed.
Almost every physical-aspect~and” Gondition of lands, as
well “as-man"s potential agricultural use of them, will~
affect the ultimate drainage requirement,

~i.2 ‘The drainage planner for a drainage system in_an

irri@a&ted
aréa must be constantly aware
of YJand and
water resources as well.as the agricultural aspects.
In drainage planning, environmental aspects should also
be considered carefully. Selection of a drainage
system
is arrived at “after careful examination of
various alternative methods. ~ Important drainage
methods are mentioned below: ~*~ ~~
—"* cor enn

Surface drainage, including land grading and

smoothing, :
\s Se

Subsurface drainage or pipe drainage,

Tubewell drainage, and
mW

Bio drainage
Preventive measures like (a) Lining of water
\

distribution system, (b) On-farm water management,

and (c) Maintenance of surface drainage system.-

Factors which are of prime importance in drainage are

enumerated below: ‘

i) Topographic factors.
ii) Soil factors,
iii) Water and climatic factors,.
iv) Crop factors.
2.1 UW :

ed Gye ne irrigataaltiobyn
i

aclan
te Oe

che eiiof rfthe

tienen wbeel

Era erro Or Me e ee ed-in

Se Ee e DL R s,he of
Wa te URTE “e on ve ya nc e™ ch an
m ne
gro ls
and
und sto rag
wat er e atsysatenhig
rine seeped fro imp ermeabes. le
pevarte
F l or
a Iev
t el lan d hav ing
—s elubevsoatitios—n.wi)th shallow top-soil frequently req uir
2.
“surface drainage because pipe drains are not practicay
s
“or econonical() Wherever mechanized farming operation
should meet its
Ace drainage system
are advantageous for removing
requirement. yOpen drains watery,
either surface OF subsurface
large ~volume$/of the watertable is-
stdérm water from land where for
including
Open drains are essential
ground surface. few
“near the
storm water also; However they have 4
disposing of ii).
i) take land out of production,
disadvantages: tii) require frequent cleaning,
erosion,
cause
ha rb ou r an d
soil
di st ri bu te obnoxious-weeds,
ae iv) . fi ve ca te gories: ZaAM
rs urface drainage br oa dl y co mp ri se s we) i

system - tt consi
sts Of
1 drainage
On-farm field £row
collect excess wa ter <

graded channels that :

fields.
ol le ct or or Carrier drains)
Inte rm ed ia te dra ins (C
2 een the various fiel¢
These are link drains betw ins. dra
drains and sub-main drains or main

Main/sub-main drains are principally

3 Main drains - water frot
excavated or natural drains, iollecting
or directly from fjield drains. eS
link drains

Seepage drains - Seepage drains are located alone.

4
earthen/iined canals and intercept surfacel
subsurface flow. These drains help in management
of excess discharge from fill reaches te
the adjacent fields. Bie spent

> 4 Lene eee and' smoothing Qmost natuial sett

aces | sn Uding-tany~cultivated fields’ aré mor!

or = Tes
Be EE T re ng Coo t en ae Fennay MIy
rib ute d el ev at ed and
~a reres
dep assi
' eiep efficien
.
eae ps NG RTM aloo a

(pret
i ra n y e ane. Ar a

Artigation.
ot Ssulet

in te re ipt ed sW rr ac e” Tainage!
\@deficult ies oe ee fi el d op ér ations af
SO
PORoer TO E Te ne r e
y “nonuniformity of crop yield and poo).
 uality grain. In_many cases, _the areas can be
relieved of these problems by reEorming the lana
surface so as to provide continuous gentle slope
to = result inn_ regulated water Flow and adequate
drainage. -Gand grading and smooth
the simplest” ing is probably
puis yét the most
surface drainage. ¢ important
P
t e of
Ae
2.2.2 Subsurfac ainage - Subsurface
ed eee by drainaqe is
buried pipes Ot “pipeless--(motes)—d
ratns
ane iso by deep open drai ns (ditch). Open. drains nave
already been mentioned in para 2.2.1.
drains are described pe and mole
below: ai 2a acne
1 __Pipe
~ SerenedraiLTE
ns - Pipe drain
‘Of “pipes “made of baked age consists of a system
clay tile s, Gon erete;
Plastic tubing, or any other perforated conduit
Suitable for this purpose. ¢The excess soil watet
enters in lateral lines through butt joints, slots
Or
VF other
other~™ perforations and flows: towards the
collector and the main drains.) Pipe drains are
used to:

intercept the lateral flow of ground water

coming from a known source of seepage
upslope, to keep it from reaching the area to
be protected, and

- lower the ground water table and remove

excessive soil moisture in the plant's root
zone over the drainage areas
r

2 Mole Drains - Mole drains or pi peless drains are

cylindrical channels artificially produced in~the—
subsoil by means.of a molé plough. Principally
ana hydraulically mole drains are Similar to pipe
Grains except that they are i ith tiles
or other stabilizing materials. (Moling is often
considered to be a temporary method of drainagaé as
' the moles function efficiently for a few years and
then gradually deteriorate.

oc ;
2.2.3 Tubewell drainage \! Jnder..some..conditions1 Pumping
ground water to provide Jand drainage is an_effectité
mett
of lower
od ing a high watertable and reducing sal
hazards“in-irrigateda” areas <”] Tubewell with
-
ce A re hn ntti i NC! pumping —

2.3
 which extracts
q a nsWes pS
ee of TTon fini,geee syastem‘a whole consists
7
|
*c x
T s
O E S e ewe over the aréa
spread
ae went set
dr ai ne d et ente
er iondugnor
K
ca se s th e (frrig at
ly;3Ciofn_ irrigation water.
Chee ansuepped many
functions nner “and Ts
in a similar ma
drainage tibewell wa
d ys yg , .howevery
Theyun differ
c o n s t r
in th
u c
e t
sa e
me ts
|| acco
>

fo ll ow in
from each other on the
wa‘sah™~*

at any place
can be located
o

irrigation well well

.O)An
un de rn ea th . A drainage
-with a good aq
uifer
d a q u i f e r should be
the pum p e case oO
that
noe

s In
require to the wa te rt ab le .
interconnected the confining
in = co nf in ed aquifer, if
mn

wells
(not leaky), the wells wes
layer is impermeable method.
little utility as 4 drainage
have in
Pd
often avoidede
ll s is
pe tw ee n. we for drainage
t (binterference gation we ll s, whereas
of irri
case
te rference is desirable.
we ll s so me in
y l o c eed
atat on i the_.
are nece ss ar il to flow
y wells allow water
— Aerrrrisatiepo rtion of th e fa rm to no such
3 highest dr ai na ge , wells,
y. For water is to
through gravit ss ar y un le ss drainage
ce
condition is ne
be used for irrigation.

ing plants (exotic

Dyse of£ qu
qu ic
ic l
k gr ow
.2.4-Bio drainage. been “utilized to marshy and
improve
trees) has use such plants “draw
Tt “tg beca
waterlogged lands. Th is sy st em of dr ainage requires
to suit
r at a fave ra te .
st igations. on plant. peci.es .s
wate is
ly in saline solt
thor ou gh in st
ic ar ea s pa rt ic ul ar
speéif
s oem oA
erence

— Preventio n is better i
.2.5 Preventive measures
that has a direct robeqs sox. 0
- old adage
In s
area S anwh re
sa li ni ty .
soil have not developed er ®
water lo nging toTeshere s
is possible Uo ates che
oat measures
soil health cecte sation Bas .
measu res could be classified tne> eevee rin ded Aaa
_ groups:

Lining of wa
Wartermdi stri
2 - farm
Onn- wate udi wa
3 Mainte 7
ance of surface drainage
~.
n syste m.
 Lini
heer ,
icons distribution system - Loss of
ayeten eoapeae seepage in an irrigation canal
of water 11tutes one of the most serious forms
OSS, Table 2,1, It is due to this
ieriy wae
reas at waterlogging Problem appears much
en pense much faster. It is recognized
: su Stantial saving in the loss of water can
e achieved by lining of canals.

Table 2.1 Seepage losses in unlined and lined canals

Type of canal Average seepage

losses through
wetted perimeter

Cumec.
Cusec
per million
per million
sqm
sq ft

1 Unlined canal
8 , 2.27
a) Silt clay loam soil
20 aa3 to
sandy 15 to
b) Sandy loam/ loose ~6
; ;
soil
35 10.00
Porous gravelly soil “4
c)

Bi 2 0.567
2 Lined canal with pucca
lining

with LDPE film 045 — 0.142

3 Lined canal

(Source —- WAPCOS, 1986)

management - Efficient utilization

2 On-farm water the farm reduces the
of the irrigation water on
ground water recharge. It is estimated that as
much as 50 per cent of the water delivered at the
field goes waste due to application losses. To
a water, on-farm water management should
eet al ee eee land grading and shaping,
ient design and layout of irrigation methods,

2.5
 Leap ev Va RE CERT os. epee rermey
Trp Wbemry 1?
A Comer cbr Ppepy
Prom tle stead. citpercdy 0 Pte dy ey
drains are poor dy imatul
Vs that the the reason tery,
are
“a=

attrib uted
this has been solely
fief roneny
ab le . hough, efficient
rising wa te rt of rising
ne can not solve the problem
of drains alo rake of rice,
ou ld reduce jks
ab le , yet it sh
watert restoring bed
on

maintenance should include

The 7
nteertntmd
a ee
the
mn

mat
——"

level, repa iring yee bh at pe

side Slopes,
neta the ald To “want rol
aheieaeDe 0
ll ary works a
th -i n th e dr ai ns . ‘Ty pha a nd bulrush are A
grow grow in jrrigation 145
water loving plants which gh t;
Typha has 4 hi
well as drainage channels.
effect on the drainage system.
restrictive

eee
7
INFLUENCING
, >A
Peach
; 7 : wh ich is of primePeete
R341 Topoqgra
s.. & pofl
Toin apnc
grue ,
hyes cues anes eek pe
ainna
Cho
Pa dr ge, the
eee
ance in

te on(Qe enof
easti.(jEv the outl et, sube ut let, and & .
. he drain
. . 7
and 1

-collector rains before reaching “The

the plat
plann ing
sta .;
ant—design drainage, the—importance
of
ee oe Where surface
suffi poanpoee be recognisedtY
slopes are precipitation,
irrigation
CAE
and From the aren. oe
waher
: bee Flow rapidly
pid Cet ic P e
on ee engees -~excess surface water diminishes
nenla‘rati
Such
ne
le (G ) Favorable topography
ot he wa te rt ab and reduce the
may provide ace “trainage
surf at
ificial ae subsurface O/tnvestia
for artifi drainage tor
heed
oe pography may reve Lack ° . ek r - l

Irrigation Se es eee
eveal the
ontjyeks 3 for
:
ge
draina ag ‘s :
wa ter. afr?
nt . g¢
by broad and
areaS Characterized
her 2
youally deve
Flat ae rors ae
ea si lyNns irri ga ted. Of: ten ie these
2S
s : are
SrGafad sh ei ea e ae .
de pr es si : thout *
any
aoa as
drainat
i cien. t
>LO Wi
rsryl
_
|
areas, there
neers in arid
i tai a ated Gb pes gyre '’) iS ey ush
ecetgre
eVe
| Iyertpniee bs weber vp.
yh.

4 P
 Caner ice. ae ested areas must often include the
; on: a nage outlet syste
Ob je
eopeeect ivr.
iaa e j S to key the drainage’ : em ‘ to
syst A
the

Table 2.2. shows how v arious topographici

influence factors will
the type of drain needed.
Table 2.2. Various topographic factors influence the type of
drain needed
Topographic factors Implied drainage considerations

1, Steep,hilly a) No outlet problem; surface drainage

adequate.
b) Single line interception in
swale bottoms.
c) Look for seepage at toe of
slope, or at outcrops, OF along
waterways.

2, Rolling Probably no outlet problem; surface

drainage adequate.
Single line or herringbone pattern .£
drain system.
c) Single line along wet waterways.

3-Benches Probably no outlet problem.

b) Grid system on bench and probably an
interceptor line at‘“toe of bench.

4. Gently sloping a) May have outlet problem; surface

‘. drainage generally adequate.
b) Grid system or open drains on grid
parallel to canal system.
Single line along wet waterways.

5 Flat lake bed. or a) Probably needs outlet drain.

flood plain Grid system or open drains on grid
parallel to canal system in direction
- of greatest slope.
Drainage pump occasionally needed.

6 Closed basin Would need outlet facility.

om

Drainage well or sump with pump might

solve drainage and outlet problems.

(Source — Donnan and Schwab, 1974)

2.7
 ~~

2.3.2 Soil factors - (Soils are the results of complicatey

geological processes, Wide varieties of geologiy
have important bearing on drainage
1 tuations
—

of drainage needs,
1 >

tevestigations and determinations

_and. the
Therefore, in the-interest Of accuracy,—tianme,evaliiation
arainage system,
of an effective |
or gn
deSi
a qualified géologist is
@ geologic situationby
. knowledge
Another important factor i é the
desirable.
Barr riers.or
or e pans in
harra
ha e
inththa
“ofr the presence of soil bi“Ba movement of
‘These pans restrict the = 9
Soti—profite. conditions.
water, thWS“~causing waterlogging
others are extremely difficult to
soils drain — easily,
the co arse-t extured soils drain
Grain. “Gen eral ly the coar shia texture
than the fine téxturéd soils, although
better
SSaTrtly rel ated to permeabilan ity. In_most
—trs—~nre menses
RS eteiga td on
are formed -tnto complex
iyr “thé soils
“areas ted
silts, and clays
profile patterns. Stratified sands,
are commonly found. (Fine-textured clay layers are often
coarse-textured sands. Thus,
underlain or overlain by
it is importart to bor@é Holes to find out where the
coarse, draina ayers are located. The sequence of
pérmeable and imperm eab
soils their
and le ability to
transit water determines both the type of system that
should be installed and their design criteria. Table
2.3 has been developed to help assess soil factors and
their influence on drain choice.

Table 2.3- Assessment of soil factors and their influence on

drain choice

Soil factors Implied drainage considerations

1 Deep (2m or more) Open

; drains or tube drain
permeable sands, sandy suitably spaced.
loams or clay loams.

2 Deep (2m or more) Careful management of irrigation

impermeable silty clays water plus molé drains suitably
and clays. Spaced; surface drains and/or
tube drains.
3 Shallow (1m or less)
permeable
Consider deep plowing to 120-cm
sands, sandy depth and then installation of
ee and clay loams
underlain by drains at 120 cm depths with
imperm- careful irrigation
eable soils. water
— Management; tube drains at 1] Mm
depth in humid areas.
2.8
A 2.3 (continued)
Shallow (1 m or less) Tube drains suitably spaced with
jays or silty clays periodic subsolling of upper
nderlain by permeable soil strata; surface drains in
oils. humid areas, <

Soils that gradually Tube or open drains will have

hange to more permeable greatest effect if placed as
trata with depth. deep as possible.

Soils that gradually Tube drains will have greatest

if placed as shallow as
hange to less ‘permeable effect
possible below the root zone
trata with depth.
-and surface drains.

well; surface
7 Deep (3 to 4 m thick) Sump or drainage
impermeable clays and drains in humid areas.
silty clays underlain
by water-bearing coarse
sands or gravels...

- Donnan and Schwab, .1974)

(Source
source of all waters
climatic factors. One
2.3.3 ter and
the irrigation areas TUSt be determined.
coming into wa sf ta or importance tn
The common. sources ton,
drainage prodlblem areasaS ,aré pre
pre itation, -rr1gs
cipita
cip
-h hydrostat ic. pre manies
ssure pro te sten a_key
so ree
ur c sur vey vid
water
needed to remedy und jrabre—arainage ~
6 Sesures SESE Source often
Gonditions. More & eS Thus; if
d.
bé_ installetl
rainage to it
overn : ation,—f e_ re
: pe—to—precip if
drainage;
measure woulorobably be better surface inter tion
seepage, a_ seepage Or-.an
d 3 Ganal le to arte‘ sian
i - and il
drain may -be _1n the mos. t practicable
re , pu mp ed wel ls may provide
pressu e pertinent information
ay . Co ns id er at io n of all th
Fene ta, and watertable is
on geology, Eopography, 80°! Stra watery
_ peeded-€ o ae rmine the source of
LETTE ASL EDIT POT Tt et sk
te APL
seni

- Rainfall causes flow on land and,

Precipitation some
“to the drainage channels with
. thereafter
must be carried
infiltration into. the soil. This water
away from agriculture lands within a period which does
of waterlogging. Since
/ not create harmful, conditions
water moves towards the topographic low points, both

2.9
 the main factors which have
are:
created waterloggi
gging and
high ground water levels

fi) Supply and application of full irrigation supplies

| to the command area even though the commands. are
only partially developed.

ii) Farmers have still to adjust to irrigated

agriculture, |
network only partly completed in the
iii) Drainage
command area whére irrigation is introduced.

as tubewells, wells etc. dug using

iv) Structures such
pre-irrigation period get 7
goundwater. in
farmers because of cheaper rates P
disregarded by
canal water. The irrigation projects are eae
both from canal and groun
designed for supplies,. water
sources. Hence, use of earlier ground
water or neglect to
facilities: and extremely slow pace
water structures viciates. the
add new-ground
design assumptions. Provision of adequate
pro ject
to the fields for irrigation keeping
water supply
in view-the status of development of command area,
farmers readyness to use irrigation water
efficiently, extent of drainage. costruction and
the use’ of ground water facilities .
are the most
important measures against waterlogging
conditions. :

2.11
 Chapter 3
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.1.1 Need for in ‘O.

conditions to’ ddeeeene -( nvestigations of site
system and ite a ermine feasibility of a drainage
alm are essential for a successful
drai nage proje are accomplished through
mucveva. dak ct.(2)These
aa Gata colléction, borings, observations and
nquiries From loca l péop le and con cer ned
agencies/departments.(svit i8 advisable to carry out an
ascertai n whet her
exploratory drainage survey to is drainage need
drainage makes any sense. (Once
drainage investigations should precede the
established, to select a
identify the specific problem and
survey to
technically and economicall viable so luti on. Gthei se
should 4 etaie information on site,
investigations
topography, geology, hydrology, soils, ground
watertable fluctuations, crop practices, cropping
area etc. For the irrigation projects,
pattern of the
and drainage plans should be developed
irrigation
simultaneously.

to investigate - One of the important

3.1.2 How much
in any investigative plan is to determine
questions This mainly
what information is needed for a project.
investigator's know ledg e of the area,
depends upon the
available, data already in hand,
manpower and funds
the project and availability of performance
Size of
projects executed earl ier. As a rule,
data of similar
projects will require more intensive
larger and complex
investigations. The kind of investigations for surface
subsurface drainage are different, but they are
and
normally investigated simultaneously.

of existing data Ore is essential that the

a Collection in
4. whole of the project command be marked and divided
zones, which should be named on the basis of
drainage
the or
villages. the main irrigation distribution
channels. (Z)This would facilitate surveys and
preparation of the estimates for each drainage system
in the zones.(3)A number of different agencies corn
field data which are relevant to drainage design (yy a
step therefore, is to prepare a- list of these
useful of the
agencies and the available data with them ‘Some
which can be contacted for this purpose
departments
y
Ag ri cu lt ur e, Ir ri ga ti on and Drainag,
are: Revenu e,
rt me nt s of the st at es , Ce nt ral and State Groun,
depa o, Irrigati
Survey of India, Minor
Water Boards, othe,
meteorological observatories and
Corporations, in the area. ()th,
research organizations located
these departments could b,
information available with
grouped as under.

- Survey of India and revenue

\ Topographic maps
aerial photographs (details about
maps and are given in
maps and aerial photographs
cadastral
Appendix B).
and geologic reports.
2 Soil survey
3 Well logs.
4 Watertable fluctuations.
data
Irrigation and drainage mapS- ic
5 ar
Climatological and meteorological 3
6 irrigation methods.
7 Information regarding
and crop yields.—
8 Cropping pattern
and ownership.
3 Size of land holdings
of the
farmers and officers
“Local interviews with
the data.It may be
departments can supplement
related s of these people can
remembered that experience ~~
no
€
* .
which
.
otherwise may
information
. .

sometimes provide
be available in records.

3.2 - TYPES OF INVESTIGATIONS

Types of investigations - Investigations of a drainage

3.2.1
project can be mainly divided into three groups:
- Reconnaissance
- Preliminary
‘- Design
\ first ex at qa be
362.2 Reconnaissance survey One first exploration shoul
intended to have a quick The
overall lo at: = S\For
reconnaissance sttvey, a map OF 1:50,000cescal e i®
generar hy adequate, survey In any reconnaissan
be ihe Luded RS eye eect teaion.should alway$
area, in wee survey consis tsng around Ene
of movi
base map intora — local people and to locate on thé
the physical boundaries!
water Benqieeiee
surface ons. outcrop condit ions, croppin: g
conditi «5 ; ; ns
location, ° ’ urce of water for irrigation and its
area, any da to =
watertable in existing wells in the
o£ mottling indicating the highest 4n4
3.2
 lowest watertable heights, and the positions_and.
availability of natural drainage and outlets. (5)the \
existing grades excessive erosion areas, natural side
Slopes OF @Xisting channels, flows
drains
d and
existing sites—of—culverts—and bridges are also noted
in

at appropriate place y7Pynigh water marks on old

buildings, bridges and ream banks will generally
reveal the severity of floods in the area.
The major aim of RACH. is Vs get familiar with
the area and Simultaneously get as much informatton as
can be gathered Once the reconnaissance survey is
completed, more ailed Surveys are undertaken./2)The
care with which the reconnaissancesurvey is made
have considerable influence on the other surveys will
and
will Getermine t he amount of time and money that can~be
spent on various items. :
\ .
3.2.3 Preliminary Survey - Preliminary survey is an initial
step for collecting broad. details of prop
area osed project
so as to enable preparation of a Feasibility
Project Report. It should include the following:

i) ) Area, shape and land use in the watershed

ii) Rainfall data
iii) Topographic and physical features of- the command
area
iv) Watertable depths and fluctuations
v) Extent of waterlogged and salt effected areas
(These should also be marked on copies of revenue
maps).
vi) A study of the present cropping pattern and
yields, as well as the level of soil productivity
While surveying the physical features of the command
area, the. following aspects should be looked into:

i) Outlet position. ls

natural channe
,

including
2

Topography
as
li
heprens ane; and lake level (if any) etc.
iii) Size of the area,
iv). mexeure and physical condition of the soil.
v) Bridges, highways, railway Lines, and canals,
vi) Property boundaries.
vii) Present land use.
 4 i) Cross-sections at every 100 meters or less in
full land width.

ii) Natural ground, design bed and design water

levels at every 200 meters.

iii) Location of inlets of link and field drains

with related hydraulic data.
iv) Full data of all crossings like roads,
railways, irrigation canals etc.
v) Representative soil samples to determine the
Probable stable side slopes and impermeable
and pervious (murum) strata.
Vi) Ground Water levels to be observed from
wells.

Governed by the topography of the

the
area, layout of
irrigation - drainage system can be finalized,
This should reveal alignment and slope of
channels, maximum length of field laterals, and
depth of drains in relation to drainage outlets.
Soil survey - Detailed information on soils of the
area to be drained is basic to any drainage
design. A whole profile in situ to the depth of
2-3 m needs to be examined. Standard soil survey
is adequate for planning a surface drainage
system. For a subsurface drainage system, usually
greater details are needed. fThe following
characteristics are important frdm drainage point
of view.

a Texture
,; :
' Structure, particle size distribution ana
aggregation
- | Salinity and alkalinity
Depth and suitability for cropping

Ta fact, a detailed soils and land irrigability

classiffeation of the area should be conducted.
Criteria for preparing soils and and irrigability
classifications are given in Table 3.1 and 3.2
respectively.
 Land use and other Support data - Land use effects
on drainage
physical.
design
Data
are basically to economic
are needed prior
and
improvements
of Proposed changes after project #
and
installation, ana use alters the physical
I Sig Mainly porosity |
AL and hydraulic
greater in soils
tend to be
with Ctivity which on arable lands,
term grass than Ehe
Ec ag largely dependent on
of drai nage is
Onomics land land use will
Proposed use. The proposed as
mainly determine the degree of drainage as well
oe of the drainage system needed for the area.
ntensive land use will call for es
Grainage system.

Outlets Drainage systems -will perform

Satisfactorily only if they are connected to an
adequate outlet. For an outlet to be adequate,
three basic requirements should be examined,

of the outlet ahoulra be

i) The capacity at
to pass the design flow
sufficient enough
equal f0 oF less than that
ey eG@ievation of the lang me
for adequate drainage|
required out tha ae.
the project. TE is useful _to work s Gx
ti on ship Er oR PE oe
di sc ha rg e re la
t e ensures
measurements : adverseja
actual schargedi aoe
that additional
area.
affect the down stream
3 EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS FOR DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS

3.1 To develop an adequate drainage plan and prepare cost

surface and subsurface investigations of the
estimate, carried out. To. provide-a complete
project area are
list and description of equipment is neither possible
nor needed as most engineers/soil scientists are
familiar with the equipment: needed to accomplish.a»job.
A general listing of equipment is, however,. made for
reference.

1 Soil survey equipment- Square blade spade, post

“hole spade, Screw auger, maps, planimeters,
sketchmaster, soil survey kit.

Land survey equipment - Chains and tapes, plumb

bob, hand drainage
(special or carpenter's
level), level,rod, dumpy
level plane level
table
survey equipment.
 | rs ted equipment : - Haand auc ers
na aug
uge
ger s li
rel
anddril a ng and jetting equipment, recs
samplers. z

;
Equipment f or hole
measuring
method
hydraulic
(see
conductivity~-
auger
Appendix p),
Kit for

Watertable measuring equipment - Electric of

sounding equipment.

Discharge measuring equipment - Parshall flumes,

water meters, H flumes or ar’ other suitable
measuring device.

Laboratory equipment - Weighing balance, EC meter,

flame photometer, pH meter, oven, sieve set,
hydrometer, international pipette method
apparatus, pressure plate apparatus (optional),
glassware, chemicals (Refer USDA Handbook, 60),
soil cores for bulk density measurements.

Infiltration rate - Infiltrometer rings, hook

hammer, etc. en ns
gauge,