ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

At the outset, we express our deepest thanks to our Allah, the most
merciful. We thankful to our parents who continuously look after us
right from our birth, provided us with the best facilities that they could
provide us and continuously encouraged us to perform well in our
studies and our daily life in general. All these factors were the favorable
conditions that made us to strive for the better future life. May the
almighty forgive us, our parents and all the believers on the Day of
Judgement . We express our deepest gratitude to our teacher Prof/Eng.
Abdullahi Mohamed Hussein who as a supervisor and as a professor in
the Department of Civil Engineering for his invaluable guidance and
inputs. We thank him for allowing us to work on this project and for his
constant help and support throughout our endeavor. We consider
ourselves fortunate to have worked under his supervision. It was a
matter of great pleasure to have him as a guide in the preparation of
this project thesis. We owe a lot to him for his kind gesture in serving as
our teacher. We also thank him for checking this thesis before
submission. We profoundly thank Prof/Eng. Abdirizak Abukar Hersi,

CONCRETE BRIDGEHead of the Engineering and Technology who has been an excellent
guide in our academic system. We also thankful to our teachers in the
1. Cabdixakiim maxamuud Yusuf
AASHTODepartment
LRFD DESIGN
of Civil Engineering for their support in giving suggestions
2. Xasan Maxamed Hashi
during the trip of our academic years3. Cabdirizak mahamud warsame
4. Mahamed Dahir Hashi

JAZEERA UNVERSITY
LOWER SHABEELE RIVER BRIDGE 09/07/2023
ENGINEERING
 Abstract
This project report has been prepared to fit the requirements of course syllabus
specified to the civil engineering final year course.

Knowing that the public buildings are the most challenging projects, we have chosen
a project titled “Feasibility Study of analysis and design on concrete bridge”. This
thesis project consists of five chapters.

Chapter one opens with the background of the study which outlines the structural
design theory. It shows the project description. It explains the research problem. It
also defines the objective and significance of the study.

Chapter two provides an overview of the previous studies on the structural

elements, compressive strength of concrete and design method used in this text.

Chapter three outlines the methods adopted in this research. It shows the materials
used in this dissertation, the tests we have done.

Chapter four shows the design calculations of the structural elements presented in a
tabular form. It also shows the analysis of statically indeterminate members using the
equation of three moments method and checked using ‘leap consy’ It also shows
reference to the appropriate clauses of standard codes of practice. It also shows
detailing of the members following the industry standard.

Chapter five shows the conclusions and the recommendations of the research. This
project helped us to gain knowledge on the analysis and design of buildings for
safety. We learned how to work in team and that will help us in the future. And last
two appendices were presented Appendix A presents architectural plans Appendix B
presents 3D views of project.

1
Contents

CHAPTER ONE.........................................................................................................................5
CONSTRUCTION OF CONCRETE BEAM BRIDGE.......................................................................5
1. Introduction........................................................................................................................5
1.1 Background of the study...................................................................................................5
1.1.1 Conceptual perspective............................................................................................5
1.1.2 Theoretical Perspective............................................................................................6
1.1.4 Contextual Perspective.............................................................................................8
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM........................................................................................10
1.3RESEARCH OBJECTIVE......................................................................................................11
1.3.2 Specific Objectives...........................................................................................11
RESEARCH QUESTIONS..........................................................................................................11
Scope of the Study................................................................................................................11
1.3.3 Geographical Scope.........................................................................................11
1.5.2 Content Scope..............................................................................................................11
1.3.4 Time Scope............................................................................................................11
1.4 . Significance of the Study.........................................................................................11
Operational Definitions.........................................................................................................12
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK..................................................................................................13
CHAPTER 2............................................................................................................................14
LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................................................................14
2.0. INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................14
2.1. CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION...........................................................................................14
2.2 BEAM BRIDGE..................................................................................................................24
2.3 EMPERICAL STUDY..........................................................................................................26
CHAPTER 3............................................................................................................................28
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ DESIGN....................................................................................28
3.0 Introduction....................................................................................................................28
3.1. Research design.............................................................................................................28
3.2. Area and research population........................................................................................28
3.3. Conceptual designs........................................................................................................28
3.4 detailed design................................................................................................................28
3.5 Schematic design.............................................................................................................29
3.6.0. Calculation requirement..............................................................................................30
3.7. Data collection (requirement gathering techniques).....................................................30
3.8. Feasibility study: -...........................................................................................................30

2
3.9. Feasibility report............................................................................................................32
CHAPTER FOUR.....................................................................................................................34
SOFTWARE DESIGN...............................................................................................................34
4.0 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................34
4.1 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN.................................................................................................34
4.2 OWNER INTERFACE DESIGN............................................................................................34
4.3 DESIGN NORMALIZATION................................................................................................44
CHAPTER FIVE.......................................................................................................................45
IMPLEMENTATION................................................................................................................45
5.0 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................45
5.1 DESIGN DEVELOPMENT...................................................................................................45
5.2 DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION.............................................................................................45
Appendix A: Architectural Plans............................................................................................46
References............................................................................................................................47

3
 CHAPTER ONE
CONSTRUCTION OF CONCRETE BEAM BRIDGE
1. Introduction
This chapter starts with the background of the study. Followed by the problem
statement, general and specific objectives, and research questions. This chapter also
covers significance and scope of the study and the definitions of key words. Lastly it
concludes with conceptual framework.

1.1 Background of the study

1.1.1 Conceptual perspective

Beam bridges are the simplest structural forms for bridge spans supported

by an abutment or pier at each end. No moments are transferred throughout
the support, hence their structural type is known as simply supported..

The simplest beam bridge could be a log (see log bridge), a wood plank, or
a stone slab (see clapper bridge) laid across a stream. Bridges designed for
modern infrastructure will usually be constructed of steel or reinforced
concrete, or a combination of both. The concrete elements may
be reinforced, prestressed or post-tensioned. Such modern bridges
include girder, plate girder, and box girder bridges, all types of beam bridges.

Types of construction could include having many beams side by side with a

deck across the top of them, to a main beam either side supporting a deck
between them. The main beams could be I-beams, trusses, or box girders.
They could be half-through, or braced across the top to create a through
bridge.( Wai-Fah Chen and Lian Duan)

Because no moments are transferred, thrust (as from an arch bridge) cannot

be accommodated, leading to innovative designs, such as lenticular
trusses and bow string arches, which contain the horizontal forces within
the superstructure.

4
Beam bridges are not limited to a single span. Some viaducts such as
the Feiyunjiang Bridge in China have multiple simply supported spans
supported by piers. This is opposed to viaducts using continuous spans over
the piers.

Beam bridges are often only used for relatively short distances because,
unlike truss bridges, they have no built in supports. The only supports are
provided by piers. The farther apart its supports, the weaker a beam bridge
gets. As a result, beam bridges rarely span more than 250 feet (80 m). This
does not mean that beam bridges are not used to cross great distances; it
only means that a series of beam bridges must be joined together, creating
what is known as a continuous span.

A beam bridge is a strong, horizontal structure that rests on two end

supports, and carries traffic by acting as a beam.

Beam bridges are often used for heavy cars and trains to pass, and some are
also built for people to walk on. Beam bridges used to be made from wood
and were called log bridges. Modern ones are mostly made of steel. Beam
bridges are usually placed over highways, rivers or gaps in the earth so
people or cars can cross over them. Beam bridges are simple but they
cannot be as long as more complex and expensive kinds. Beam bridges can
be connected to make one longer bridge

1.1.2 Theoretical Perspective

The basic purpose of a bridge is to carry traffic over an opening or discontinuity in
the landscape. Various types of bridge traffic can include pedestrians, vehicles,
pipelines, cables, water, and trains, or a combination thereof. An opening can occur
over a highway, a river, a valley, or any other type of physical obstacle. The need to
carry traffic over such an opening defines the function of a bridge. The design of a
bridge can only commence after its function has been properly defined. Therefore,
the process of building a bridge is not initiated by the bridge engineer. Just like roads
or a drainage system, or other types of infrastructure, a bridge is a part of a
transportation system and a transportation system is a component of a city’s planning
efforts or its area development plan. The function of a bridge must be defined in
these master plans. A bridge should be “safe, functional, economical, and good

5
looking.” Safety cannot be compromised. A bridge must be safe under all of the
loads it is designed for. Otherwise, the bridge cannot be opened to traffic.
Functionality should not be compromised. If four lanes are required, for example, it
must provide four lanes. But in certain cases, it may still be acceptable if some lane
widths are slightly different from the standard width recommended in the
specifications, as long as this does not affect safety.

1.1.3 Historical Perspective

throughout the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, both structural
analysis and material science have undergone tremendous progress. Before that
time, man-made structures, such as bridges, were designed essentially by art, rather
than by science or engineering. Theory of structures did not exist, and structural
knowledge was extremely limited. Therefore, bridges designed in that period were
based almost entirely on the empirical evidence of what had worked previously. As
the principles governing the structural behaviors were better understood,
computations of those principles came to serve as a guide to decision making in
structural design. Simultaneously, with the progression in production of the main
bridge material, concrete and steel, bridge design has become more science than
art. In ancient times, bridges were built from easily accessed natural resources such
as wood, stone, and clay with very limited span lengths, until mortar, the early form
of Portland cement, was invented. With mortar material and the arch structure
shape, Romans were able to build strong and lightweight bridges and even long
viaducts, such as the one shown in Figure 1.1, which is built in the first century. In
the seventh century, China was able to employ cast iron as dovetails to interlock
stone segments during the construction of the Anji Bridge as shown in Figure 9.1,
which is still in use after surviving numerous wars, flood, and earthquakes.
Techniques did not improve until the eighteenth century when new scientific and
engineering knowledge was more widely known. New construction material, iron,
especially the cast iron in mass production, enabled the creation of new bridge
systems such as trusses. The world’s first cast iron truss bridge was built in
Coalbrookdale, Telford, England, in 1779, shown in Figure 1.2. This bridge is still in
use carrying occasional light transport and pedestrians. Modern bridges are the

6
evolution of the early bridges using modern materials, concrete, and steel. With the
aid of modern technology, especially after the invention of the computer and the
associated computational

1.1.4 Contextual Perspective

There are no built-in supports for beam bridges
The Lake Pontchartrain Causeway is a fixed-link of two parallel bridges that cross
the lake in southern Louisiana. The northern terminus of the structure is located in
Mandeville, while the southern end is based in Metairie. Since 1969, this bridge
(which is almost 24 miles long) has been listed as the longest continuous bridge over
water in the world. The weight of the desk is supported by over 9,500 concrete
pilings.
Although beam bridges can be built in such a way that they can support quite a lot of
length, most of them are used for short spans because there are no built-in supports
for the structure. Only the piers work to provide relief from the stresses that the
passenger traffic creates. Most of them are 250 feet or less in total size.

 Beam bridges can sometimes start to sag as they age.

The weakness of the beam bridge design is that it does not offer any weight transfer
as traffic crosses on the top of the deck. If it should receive a weight that is consistent
in its placement on a specific area of the bridge, then the support mechanisms can
begin to buckle. The sagging continues to worsen unless maintenance interventions
occur. That is why you will see some weight limits posted on small bridges in rural
communities. A bridge could actually fail if it sees a reduction in support at the same
time heavy vehicular traffic begins to pass on the overhead deck.
Span limitations exist for beam bridges.
You can only cross a specific amount of space when using the beam bridge design
since it requires ongoing pillar support. Although you can use natural materials and
this option has a high resistance to bending forces, you will rarely find a single span
of more than 250 feet with this option. You can go for an unlimited length if you use
multiple spans together with thousands of pilings, but that work may not be feasible
in communities that experience severe weather events frequently.
If you chain multiple beams to create a longer span, then you will increase the
construction time of the project as well. The work will still go faster than other

7
design options, but it is an advantage with severe restrictions as you contemplate a
longer length.

The cost of steel often dictates any price advantages which may be present.
There are times when the construction of a beam bridge is more expensive than other
options because of the presence of steel tariffs, import shortages, and other
marketplace factors that raise the price of the construction material. Some
communities may decide to wait on the final approval of a bridge since the variation
in costs can be as high as 25% in some years. Since you need the strength of this
metal to get the work done, you might find that the cost disadvantages of this project
might outweigh the possible benefits.

  Beam bridges can go through a significant amount of wear-and-tear in their

lifetime.
Most beam bridges have an average lifespan of 50 years or less. Even when you use
reinforced concrete and steel for the bridge, a span which receives heavy traffic
might have a rated lifespan of just 25 years. If you create a simple bridge with natural
materials for pedestrian traffic, you might receive 5-10 years of life. Ongoing
maintenance can sometimes increase their usability, but the costs eventually start to
add up.
Although it isn’t a beam bridge, the 1935 construction of the Deception Pass Bridge
connected Whidbey Island, WA to Fidalgo Island across Pass Island. Almost 1,600
tons of steel were provided for the construction. When crews had to paint the bridge
in 1983, it cost more to do that work than it did to build the bridge in the first place.
Beam bridges encounter a similar circumstance.( Chung C. Fu ).

 Beam bridges do not offer a lot of flexibility.

The design of a beam bridge is meant to provide a safe deck to cross a span and
nothing more. There are limited options available to engineers when there is a need
to handle challenging atmospheric conditions at the placement site. If there are
severe side winds that impact the structure consistently, then there is no protection
for the traffic or the deck from this pressure. Your ongoing maintenance costs will
become much higher in that situation because of the increased levels of wear-and-
tear.

8
Flexibility is not part of the beam bridge design. Although there is an advantage in its
rigidness, this issue may create some specific disadvantages at some geographic
locations.

The width of the deck span is limited with a beam bridge.

Most beam bridges will support two lanes of traffic because of its size and strength
limitations. That is why the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway is technically two bridges
that run parallel to one another. The design is mean to hold a specific amount of
traffic weight and nothing more. If you need to support four lanes of traffic, you’ll
still see the double bridge design used for overpasses. The only difference is that the
unit is placed side-by-side instead of running next to one another.
Although it is still cheaper to build two beam bridges than one long span of a
different design that can support an equal amount of weight, there are more size and
placement considerations to evaluate when choosing the beam bridge option.( Wai-
Fah Chen and Lian Duan).

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

the basic purpose of a bridge is to carry traffic over an opening or discontinuity in
the landscape. Various types of bridge traffic can include pedestrians, vehicles,
pipelines, cables, water, and trains, or a combination thereof. An opening can occur
over a highway, a river, a valley, or any other type of physical obstacle. The need to
carry traffic over such an opening defines the function of a bridge. The design of a
bridge can only commence after its function has been properly defined. Therefore,
the process of building a bridge is not initiated by the bridge engineer. Just like
roads or a drainage system, or other types of infrastructure, a bridge is a part of a
transportation system and a transportation system is a component of a city’s
planning efforts or its area development plan. The function of a bridge must be
defined in these master plans. A bridge should be “safe, functional, economical, and
good looking.” Safety cannot be compromised. A bridge must be safe under all of
the loads it is designed for. Otherwise, the bridge cannot be opened to traffic.
Functionality should not be compromised. If four lanes are required, for example, it
must provide four lanes. But in certain cases, it may still be acceptable if some lane

9
widths are slightly different from the standard width recommended in the
specifications, as long as this does not affect safety.

1.3RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
1.3.1 General Objective

The Purpose of this study is to identify The Role of bridge construction on

environment and population at Lower Shebelle.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

1) To allow individuals and vehicles to cross expanses in a safe and
efficient way.
2) To reduce traffic jams.
3) To carry utilities such as pipeslines and cables

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. How the individual and vehicles cross for obstacles ?
2. What is the Role of Reducing traffic jam?
3. What is the Role of bridge for carrying utilities such as pipelines and
cables?

Scope of the Study

1.3.3 Geographical Scope
The study will be conducted in lower Shebelle -Somalia.

1.5.2 Content Scope

This study will be conducted at some selected farmers in lower Shebelle – Somalia.

1.3.4 Time Scope

The study will be conducted Between March 2022 to July 2022.

1.4. Significance of the Study

10
Bridges are structures that allow us to cross over obstacles such as rivers, valleys, or
terrain. Bridges provide essential links between places and people, and enable access
to resources, health care, education, or employment. Bridges also save time, reduce
traffic, and improve safety. Bridges are built and used since ancient times to
overcome rural isolation and poverty.

More than mere symbols of technical prowess however, bridges are also important
landmarks of civilization and the triumph of human organization over the inherent
chaos of nature. Bridges have proven so useful to humans that every “easy” bridge
that can be built in the world has already been built.

bridges are important to society for their practical functions in transportation and
emergency response, as well as their cultural and symbolic significance. They
connect communities, facilitate commerce and trade, and represent our desire to
overcome barriers and bring people together.

.
Operational Definitions

Individual and vehicle cross

 Individuals and vehicles on bridges are mostly calculated by dead load effect, The
length of the beams, or the span, affects the amount of load the bridge can carry.
the vehicle that will be able to fit on it, so the higher the load it will have to be able
to carry. heavy trucks, cars, and trains. Engineers must estimate the traffic loading.
On short spans, it is possible that the maximum conceivable load will be achieved—
that is to say, on spans of less than 30 metres (100 feet), four heavy trucks may cross
at the same time, two in each direction.

Traffic jams

Traffic congestion is a condition on transport that is characterized by slower speeds,

longer trip times, and increased vehicular queueing. Traffic congestion on urban
road networks has become increasingly problematic in major cities across the globe.
Traffic congestion occurs when a volume of traffic or modal split generates demand
for space greater than the available street capacity. As demand approaches the

11
capacity of a road (or of the intersections along the road), extreme traffic congestion
sets in. When vehicles are fully stopped for periods of time it leads to a traffic jam.

Beam deck type

A bridge can be considered as a beam when the ratio of width to length of

the whole bridge is within a certain amount so that the applied loads cause

the bridge to bend and twist along its length while the cross sections do

not change shape.

Slab deck type

A slab bridge is usually made of concrete and behaves like a flat plate. The

slab is isotropic if its stiffness properties are the same in all directions

Beam slab-deck type

A beam slab bridge consist of number of longitudinal beams connected either

compositely or noncompositely across the top by continuous slab.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

(Independent Variable) (Dependent

Variable)

BRIDGE

Beam deck type

Slab deck type

CONSTUCTION DESIGN
12
 Beam slab-deck type

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0. INTRODUCTION
Beam bridge or girder bridge is the simplest and oldest bridge type. It generally
consists of one or more spans which are supported by an abutment or pier at each
end.

2.1. CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

Concrete is one of the most common materials used in the construction of bridges. At
the very least,

concrete is used in the substructure even though it may not be used in the
superstructure. Concrete

responds very well under compression but it does not respond well in tension. The
tensile resistance is

usually only a small fraction of the compressive strength. Because of this, concrete
used in bridges usually also contains other materials to resist the tensile forces that
are created in a bridge member. This

chapter discusses concrete design theory and practical design procedures used in
highway structures.

Concrete used in bridges is usually composed of hydraulic cement concrete

combined with some sort

of element used to resist tensile stresses. The added elements are usually made from
steel, although

13
other reinforcing elements have been tested and tried in concrete. The focus of this
discussion will be

on properties that affect the design of concrete. It will not be on the properties that
affect the service

life of concrete. Recent developments in concrete have been focused on the

improvement of the strength

characteristics of concrete as well as the service characteristics of concrete.

Concrete properties that are important to the design of bridges include the following:

• Strength is important for obvious reasons. This will control the size of members
especially for shear and compression. The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications (AASHTO, 2012) require that the minimum specified compressive
strength not be less than 2.4 kips/sq in (ksi) for structures, and that the minimum
compressive strength for prestressed concrete and decks not be less than 4.0 ksi.

• Creep is important because it affects the final deflected shape of the member and it
also can affect how forces in the reinforcing elements will change over time. For
example, in a column as the concrete creeps, it transfers some of the load carried by
the concrete to the reinforcing steel. In structures where the continuity changes over
time, creep can redistribute the forces in the structure. As an example, if there are
two simple spans and then they are made continuous, then the simple span dead load
moments creep toward the continuous dead load moment. For most permanent loads
the creep deflections will vary between two and four times the instantaneous
deflections.

• Shrinkage affects the design of bridges in two ways. Shrinkage is the shortening of
the member over time as excess water leaves the concrete. As the concrete shortens it
can impart loads to the reinforcing members and it also can cause the concrete to
crack to relieve tension stresses in the concrete. The ultimate shrinkage strain in
concrete can vary between 0.0003 and 0.0006 for wellcured sections.

• Modulus of elasticity affects the relative distribution of forces between concrete

and the reinforcing steel. It also affects the deformation properties of the concrete
under load. It is not only important to make sure that bridge members can resist the
load imparted to them, but they also have to provide a shape that can carry moving
14
vehicles. So it is important to know how a bridge deck, beam, and so on will deflect
over time. In the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (AASHTO, 2012)
the modulus of elasticity is given by

Ec=33,000K1Wc1.5(F’c)0.5

Historically, concrete has been reinforced by uncoated mild steel. This steel has
taken various forms over

the years, but basically it is some sort of steel reinforcement oriented to resist the
tensile forces in the concrete member.

Currently, the reinforcing steel is in the form of round steel bars with deformations
on them to improve the bond characteristics with the concrete that it is imbedded in.
Steel wire is also used that may or may not be deformed.

In addition steel wire is sometimes made into welded wire fabric where the wire is
placed perpendicular to each other and welded at all of the intersections of the wires.

Predominantly individual bars are used most in concrete members.

Corrosion of the reinforcing steel is prevented by the acidity of the cement that coats
the reinforcing steel. Therefore, it is important to have an adequate cover and limit
crack sizes in the cover concrete to limit the corrosion potential of the reinforcing
steel.

2.1.1 PEOPLE AND VEHICLES LOADS

The AASHTO “design vehicular live load,” HL93, is a combination of a “design

truck” or “design tandem,”

and a “design lane.” Both the design truck and design lane are from AASHTO
Standard Specifications,

but combined. A shorter, but heavier, design tandem is combined with the design
lane and the force

effects used if a worse condition is created than with the design truck.
Superstructures with very short

spans, especially those less than 20 ft (12 m) in length, are often controlled by the
tandem combination.

15
The design vehicular live load was replaced in 1993 because of heavier gross vehicle
weights and axle

loads compared to the design live load in previous Specifications (AASHTO, 2002),
and because a statistically representative, notional load was needed to achieve a
“consistent level of safety.” The notional

load that was found to best represent “exclusion vehicles” that is trucks with loading
configurations

greater than allowed, but, routinely granted permits by agency bridge rating
personnel, was the HL93.

It is notional in that it does not represent any specific vehicle (FHWA, 1993). The
mean and standard

deviation of truck traffic was determined and used in the calibration of the load
factors for HL93.

The AASHTO “design truck” is shown in Figure below, The variable axle spacing
between the 32 k (145 kN) loads is adjusted to create a critical condition for the
design of each location in the structure.

In the transverse direction, the design truck is 10 ft (3 m) wide and may be placed
anywhere in the standard 12 ft (3.6 m) wide lane.

The wheel load, however, may not be positioned any closer than 4 ft (0.6 m) from
the lane line, or 2 ft (0.3 m) from the face of curb, barrier, or railing.

The AASHTO “design tandem” is similar to the design truck in the transverse
direction, but consists of two 25 k (110 kN) axles spaced at 4 ft (1.2 m) on center

16
For fatigue loading, the LRFD Specifications use the design truck alone with a constant axle
spacing of 30 ft (9 m). The load factors vary for finite and infinite fatigue life as discussed in
Chapter 5. The load is placed to produce extreme force effects.

In lieu of more exact information, the frequency of the fatigue load for a single lane may be
determined by multiplying the average daily truck traffic by “p” where “p” is 1.00 in the
case of one lane available to trucks, 0.85 in the case of two lanes available to trucks, and
0.80 in the case of three or more lanes available to trucks.

If the average daily truck traffic is not known, 20% of the average daily traffic may be used
on rural interstate bridges, 15% for other rural and urban interstate bridges, and 10% for
bridges in urban areas.

California has created an additional fatigue truck and fatigue load combo to account for
frequent permit vehicles. The design vehicle is shown in Figure 6.3 and is factored by 1.0.

Caltrans permit truck—Strength II.

17
2.1.2 TRAFFIC CONGESTION

Congestion is one of the major pre-occupation of urban decision-makers. A quick

scan of policy statements from across OECD/ECMT cities highlights the importance
of congestion to the public, elected officials and road and transport administrations in
many urban areas.

there is little consensus across the OECD/ECMT member countries on the types of
policies that are best suited to tackling congestion in cities. There is perhaps even
less consensus on what precisely congestion is, whether or not it is a “solvable”
problem and, in some locations and cases, whether it is problem at all.

Faced with such a divergence of views on approaches and policies for dealing with
congestion, what advice can be given to policy-makers seeking to ensure the best
possible transport policy outcomes?

Congestion takes on many faces, occurs in many different contexts and is caused by
many different processes. Because of this, there is no single best approach to
managing congestion – and the report is therefore not prescriptive about specific
congestion management measures.

However, there are many things that congestion management policies should take
into account if they are to achieve the goals they set themselves.

time is an important factor to consider when acting on congestion since road

networks do not operate at capacity all of the time. It follows that congestion is a
temporal phenomenon, affecting some periods more than others and some not at all.
Which periods are affected is linked to the temporal scale (daily, weekly, monthly
and/or yearly) and the timing of urban activities which is linked to decisions made by
individuals and firms relating to the purpose of their trips.

Most people are acutely aware that space is “timed”. Shops operate on fixed
schedules, children’s activities commence and end at fixed intervals and most work
activity, despite all the discourse surrounding the long-awaited emancipation from

18
the industrial age time-keeper, still takes place following a remarkably regimented
schedule.

Production systems depend also on fixed and reliable schedules in order to minimise
“down” time and maximise productivity. Observed congestion follows

a daily cyclical pattern that reflects activities that are constrained in time. For
individuals, these timing decisions are taken in the context of household time budgets
whereas logistical systems dictate the timing of production activities– including
freight delivery – for firms.

Typically, these cycles of traffic peaks and troughs have been principally influenced
by the rigid and recurrent timing of the work day.

Traffic has flowed to areas where jobs are concentrated in the morning and flowed
back after the work day is completed in the early evening.

Is all congestion always a bad outcome? Obviously – if one takes the amount and
tone of public and policy discourse surrounding the topic – all congestion is bad and
many have concluded that it is a sensible and desirable policy goal to eliminate it
altogether. Kilometres of traffic slowed and stopped traffic, hours lost
unproductively waiting in queues, frustration, stress, increased pollution – all of
these are the result of what many feel to be one the most important dysfunctions
faced by urban areas today.

Most roadway users view congestion as bad, most transport planners view it as bad
and most elected officials equally view it as bad… who could possibly argue the
contrary – e.g. that it is not all bad!

Economists could… and they have – as have any number of observers from such
diverse fields as urban planning, sociology, etc. What these specialists share in
common is that they have spent much time seeking to understand how urban regions
function as a whole – and not just at how transport systems function within urban
regions. So can congestion be explained away as something that is not necessarily all
bad? – or, at least, as something that is less bad than people generally agree it to be?

Economists generally operate under the assumption that most people seek to
maximise their

19
welfare at the least possible cost. In this context, if crowded roads experience
congestion, and people are crowding these roads, it must be because somehow those
people derive some net welfare gain from being on the network, in their vehicle and
at that time. Most queues should be seen as a trade-off between reaching a desired
outcome and the time it takes to do so8. This is certainly true for queues for movie
openings, popular attraction parks, renowned restaurants, sporting events, etc. so why
should it not be for queues on roads?

2.1.3 CARRY UTILITIES

The cables used in cable-supported structures have the same composition of the
cables

used in prestressed concrete. There is similarity not only in the material properties,
but

also in the physical aspect (different kinds of cables will be presented later on).

Both types of cables have to sustain very high tension; in the prestressed concrete,
the

tension is used to keep the concrete always in compression, whereas in cable-

supported

structures, the high tension result from the load transmitted from the structure it to
the

supporting elements).

The idea of prestressing main elements in a structure is very old. The Egyptians used
to"prestress" the hull of their ships by cooling hot metal strips attached to it.

Prestressing concrete became known and applied due to the work of Eugene
Freysinnet

(French engineer 1879-1962) who is considered the "inventor of prestressing".

The research done by this remarkable engineer, led to a better understanding of the

properties and behavior of the cables to be used.

20
Even though the work of Eugene Freysinnet was done on the cables in reinforced
concrete, the cables used in cable-supported structures are very similar and behave in
a same manner, and, therefore, the principles he developed can be applied to these
structures as well.

The main difference between the two types of cables is in the ductility or the strain at
breaking.

In prestressed concrete, a high ductility is required to overcome creep whereas in

cable-supported structure, an extremely low ductility is a must to ensure minimal
displacement of the structure that may be caused by cable elongation.

Due to extensive research in the field, cables are undergoing constant improvement.

Massive efforts are being made to improve the actual material and to discover new

materials (or alloys) with better properties. Table 2 shows the evolution of the steel
cable

strength with time .

The fact that the strength has tripled in a century and a half is a proof of the effort
being put into that field.

Different kinds of cables are manufactured and used. Each type has its advantages and it
disadvantage and, most important of all, its unique area of applicability. It is up to the
design engineer to choose the type and specification of the cable to be used on a particular
project. The most common types of cables found in the market are: " Parallel-bar cables "
Locked-coil strand cables: " Parallel-wire cables " Stranded cables A cable may be composed
of one or more structural ropes or structural strands. A strand (with the exception of
parallel wire strands) is an assembly of wires formed helically around a center wire in one
or more symmetrical layers (see fig.1) [9]. A rope is composed of a plurality of strands
helically laid round a core (see fig.2). The main differences between a strand and a rope are:

 At equal sizes, a strand has a greater braking strength than a rope

 The modulus elasticity of a strand is higher than that of a rope
 A strand has less curvature capabilities than a rope

For the reasons stated above, strands are usually preferred to ropes in cable suspended
bridges.

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Parallel-bar cables

Parallel-bar cables are formed of steel rods or bars, parallel to each other in metal
ducts,

kept in position by polyethylene spacers (fig.3)[5,6]. Since the maximum

manufactured bars length is 12m, threaded couplers are used to achieve longer spans.
The rods or bars can slide in the longitudinal direction allowing individual
tensioning. Once tensioned, grout (usually cement grout) is used to fill the large void
ratio in the metal duct.

Parallel bar cables are composed usually of 7 to 10 round steel bars of diameter
ranging

from 16 to 36mm.

Locked-coil strand cables

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Locked-coil strand cables (fig.4) are helical shape strands composed of two types of

twisted wires [5]. The inner layers are made of round wires twisted (helicoidally)
over a straight core. The outer layers are arranged the same way using helicoidally Z-
or S shaped wires.

The main advantages of locked-coil cables:

 Locked-coil cables have a higher resistance to corrosion due to the tight

external arrangement of the wires
 " Higher modulus of elasticity

Parallel wire cables: The cable is made of several parallel wires (of the same diameter)
arranged in a hexagonal shape (see fig.5)

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2.2 BEAM BRIDGE
Bridges are built for improving the mobility of people and materials and enhancing
the quality of life of the society. Such man-made structures may have some adverse
effects on the environment and bring changes in the landscape also. The bridges have
to not only satisfy the immediate and future demands of mobility but also be
acceptable to the people in terms of visibility, noise and pollution during and after
construction. The society has to pay for the cost of structure directly in form of taxes
and levies and/or indirectly as tolls. Hence they will look at the development in terms
of cost: benefit, and overall economy.

These form the social dimension of the project. There can be certain amount of
political dimension also involved in the choice of the facility in choice of alternative
location, form (road or rail) and priority over other social needs of the immediate
vicinity and country. The social dimension is closely inter- linked with the other two
dimensions.

Once need for the bridge is accepted, traffic assessed and feasible sites have been
chosen, the implemen- tation of the project is done in four steps, viz., Pre-feasibility
or Reconnaissance study (items 4 and 5 listed in Para 1.4.2); Preliminary engineering
or Techno-economic feasibility study including choice of the best site (items 6,7and
8); and Detailed Project Report (item 9) or final location followed by

(iv) fixing agency for construction and construction (item 10). Works involved in the
first three steps are briefly described below.

In this stage of study, the entire reach of the river to be crossed falling within the area
to be served has to be studied to find out possible sites which satisfy various
considerations for locating a bridge (listed in Para 1.4 above). The number of factors
each site satisfies is listed and those which satisfy most are selected for further
consideration. It should be possible to narrow down the choice to three or four
alternative feasible sites. Work at this stage will involve the study of maps to choose
sites that appear suitable for locating the bridge; visits to the various likely sites to
understand the local features; gather- ing information on the behaviour of the river at
the sites by studying available reports, holding discus- sions with knowledgeable

24
people, doing a comparative study of past survey maps, studying the existing traffic
pattern, and studying the routes and modes used for crossing the stream in the area to
assess the likely traffic that will pass over the bridge and the likely benefits like
operation cost saving, time saving, induced development on either side, that will
accrue from the improved mobility; and finally, making an assessment of the
construction problems that will affect its feasibility, cost and duration of
construction, before selecting the feasible sites that promise to satisfy most of the
factors contributing to an ideal bridge site. The comparison is made in a matrix form
and feasible alternatives short listed.

While developing alternative concept plans particularly in the second stage, major
issues involved are in respect of choice of materials, spanning and form of structure.
All the ‘three dimensions’ mentioned in Para 1.4.1 have to be considered in their
choice. Case studies of existing bridges in similar environment/ conditions will be of
great help to the designer/planner. Designer should understand why the particular
form and materials of construction had been chosen and what alternatives had or
could have been con- sidered in each case.

The primary elements of design comprise of the structure form, spans, piers and
abutments and their founding requirements and the physical context in which the
bridge has to be constructed. There are a number of secondary elements like
parapets, wing walls, texture of finish, colour etc., which need to be considered in the
detailed design stage. It is very important to consider what visual impact the finished
structure will have on the environment and on the people who use them and those
who will be seeing them. The ultimate objective is to evolve a bridge such that
‘superstructure and substructure and major details and the immediate surroundings
become a co-ordinate and complete entity’.( Wai-Fah Chen and Lian Duan)

2.3 EMPERICAL STUDY

Thomas Telford - (1787) Telford was employed in improving and building canals to
meet the threat of railway competition; this work included a new canal from
Wolverhampton to Nantwich and a new tunnel at Harecastle, Staffordshire, on the
Trent and Mersey Canal. where Telford used a new method of construction
consisting of troughs made from cast iron plates and fixed in masonry. Extending for

25
over 1,000 feet (300 metres) with an altitude of 126 ft (38 m) above the valley floor,
the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct consists of nineteen arches, each with a 45 ft (14 m) span.
Being a pioneer in the use of cast-iron for large scaled structures, Telford had to
invent new techniques, such as using boiling sugar and lead as a sealant on the iron
connections. Eminent canal engineer William Jessop oversaw the project, but he left
the detailed execution of the project in Telford's hands.

Eugene C. Figg Jr(1960)., known for an impressive body of work with concrete
segmental bridges, died March 20 in Tallahassee, from an infection following
treatment for leukemia. He was 65. Figg was founder and president of the Figg
Engineering Group. The firm is known for designing precast, segmental concrete
structures that are aesthetically pleasing, low-cost and easily maintained. Among the
firm’s award-winning structures were the Sunshine Skyway over Tampa Bay, the
Linn Cove Viaduct on Grandfather Mountain in North Carolina and the 1,650-ft
Natchez Trace Parkway, the longest concrete arch bridge in the U.S. figg bridges
appeared on the cover of Engineering News-Record 11 times.

Othmar Ammann(1924) Ammann wrote two reports about bridge collapses, the
collapse of the Quebec Bridge and the collapse of the original Tacoma Narrows
Bridge (Galloping Gertie). It was the report that he wrote about the failure of the
Quebec Bridge in 1907 that first earned him recognition in the field of bridge design
engineering. Because of this report, he was able to obtain a position working for
Gustav Lindenthal on the Hell Gate Bridge.

He was able to do this by using the deflection theory.He believed that the weight per
foot of the span and the cables would provide enough stiffness so that the bridge
would not need any stiffening trusses. This made him popular during the depression
era when being able to reduce the cost was crucial.

Conde Balcom McCullough(1920) was an American civil engineer, for the design of
Oregon's bridges at a time when the state was completing Highway 101. His first
bridge ODT was the bridge in the town called Rock Point 1919. Concrete pillars are
still visible on both sides of the Rogue River.

McCullough advocated that bridges be built economically, efficiently, and with

beauty.[1] He helped design over 600 bridges, many with architectural details such

26
as Gothic spires, art deco obelisks, and Romanesque arches incorporated into the
bridges.

CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ DESIGN
3.0 Introduction
This study focuses on construction of concrete beam bridge at lower shabelle. This
chapter contains research design, area and research population, conceptual design,
detailed design, schematic design, design requirement, requirements gathering
technique, feasibility study, feasibility project, procurement and tender phase,
administration phase.

27
3.1. Research design
The research design of the study will be suitable to case study design, where the
researcher decides to study a complex phenomenon in depth, and to discover the
various factors that contribute to it as well as to gain a deep understanding of a
particular situation.

3.2. Area and research population

The study will be carried out at lower shabeele, Mogadishu, Somalia, the study will
be emphasized the need of getting enough knowledge about construction
management for Real-Estate.

The research population includes: structural engineer ,bridge engineer, transportation

engineer, Regulators and government agencies, Architects and professional
engineers, Construction industry consultants and advisors, Construction workers,
Building owners, Construction project managers, Suppliers and manufacturers,
Construction industry media and publications.

3.3. Conceptual designs

The main research measurements of construction management based on the research
achievements include: determining the construction scheduling, construction cost
estimation and risk management for lower shabelle Bridge.

3.4 detailed design

The requirement of good construction management entails:
a) Construction Scheduling: Work breakdown structure (WBS), Resource
allocation, Baseline schedule, Schedule compression, Schedule updates,
Schedule optimization, Network diagram,………..
b) Construction cost estimation : Material costs, Labor costs, Equipment costs,
Subcontractor costs, Indirect costs, Cost tracking and control, Inflation, Life
cycle costs such as (maintenance cost, repair cost, and replacement cost),
Geographic location, Communication and meeting cost, Value engineering,
Contingency costs.
c) Risk management: Risk identification, Contingency planning, Risk
mitigation, Risk assessment, Risk Monitoring and evaluation, Risk
Documentation.

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3.5 Schematic design

3.6.0. Calculation requirement:-

The study will utilize some proper calculations regarding to construction

management, especially formula for scheduling such as “Critical Path Method”,
although “Bottom up” estimation it should be applicable for cost estimation while
“Risk Probability formula and Risk Impact Formula” are useable for risk
management.

3.7. Data collection (requirement gathering techniques)

29
Observation is a valuable data collection method that can provide insights into
behavior that may not be captured through other methods. By observing behavior in
real-time, researchers can notice patterns or behaviors that may have been missed
through other methods.
Observing people in their natural environment provides a more accurate picture of
their behavior than relying on self-reported data. By using observation in conjunction
with other data collection methods, researchers can gain a more complete
understanding of behavior and make more informed decisions.

3.8. Feasibility study: -

After studying the research possibility and gathering all essential possible data then
we have to consider these four following factors below: -

 Technical feasibility
 Operational feasibility
 Economic feasibility
 Schedule feasibility

3.8.1. Technical feasibility

No Items Quantity Cost

1 Bridge materials 1257 3000000

2 Equipment and machinery 380 500000

3 Technology 120 300000

4 Building codes and 1 120000

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 designs

5 Others 12 80000

Total 1770 4000000

3.8.2. Operational feasibility

No Items Tick Cost

1 Safety and security yes 2000

2 Maintenance and repair Yes 1200

3 Adaptability Yes 800

4 Durability Yes 200

5 Health and wellness Yes 300

Total 4500

3.8.3. Economic feasibility:-

No Items Quantity Cost

1 cost of materials 2000
2 Cost of equipment 1200

3 Cost of labor 800

4 Cost of regulation 200

5 Costs of operational 300

Other costs 500

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 Total 5000

3.8.4 Schedule feasibility:-

No type start-time Finish duration

time
1 project 09/7/2023 10/11/2025 2 years
initiation
2 project 15/1/2023 10/02/2023 45 days
planning
3 project 15/1/2023 10/02/2023 45
analyzing days
4 Project 15/1/2023 10/02/2023 45 days
Regulation
5 Resource 15/1/2023 10/02/2023 45 days
Allocation
6 Employee 15/1/2023 10/02/2023 45
training days
7 Project 15/1/2023 10/02/2023 45 days
Execution
8 Project 15/1/2023 10/02/2023 45 days
Documentations

3.9. Feasibility report

The acceptability of the project is measured through viability of the construction
technically, operationally, economically and Time availability. So, with assess of the
mentioned factors, it gives clear image to the stakeholders either to precede the
project or not.

3.10. Solution strategy

Solution strategy is done through the applicability of the project in terms of utilizing
in better Design, hiring most relevant population, identifying project resources,

32
applying best formulas relating to the basic measurements, collecting data through
Observations, studying feasibility from different viewpoints such as technical,
operational, economic and schedule; Then, analyzing the challenges and
opportunities, while later evaluating the result which based on same as planned.

3.11. Procurement and tender phase

This is the process of making sure of allocating resources (materials, equipment’s,

Professional workers..) after contract and Bid evaluations by time at the right place
from the best suppliers in terms of quality, quantity and price standardization.

3.12. Construction administration phase

With collaboration of project stakeholders including: contractors, regulators, staff

members, consultation team, owners, Engineers, high advisers, observation team,
daily employees, technical and irregular employers, etc. the project should be
administered by all means when it comes to construction process, budgeting, quality
control, timeline, change order, safety and warrant management, stakeholder
communication, and payment method with transparent.

CHAPTER FOUR
SOFTWARE DESIGN
4.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter introduces you the study about software design and itconsist of Bridge
design, Owner interface design, Design normalization and Physical design.

4.1 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

33
This project was designed using software known as ARCHICAD version 19 because
of the common, easy and decorative software which has tools necessary for
designing the project.

4.2 OWNER INTERFACE DESIGN

We will display the design requirements for the owner which is attractive and satisfy
the needs for the owner including the quality of materials used in the construction,
the economics of the construction.

4.2.1 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

4.2.1-2 DESIGN OF SLAB

 Design Lanes
Roadway clear width............ = 42×ft

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 Dead Load Analysis

 Live Load Analysis

35
  Moment Design

36
37
4.2.1-2 DESIGN OF BEAM

38
 Moment Design

39
40
4.2.1-3 DESIGN OF COLUMN

41
42
4.3 DESIGN NORMALIZATION
“The design normalization is tabulated below:
Materials DIMENSION Colour
Wall 0.20m Grey
Slab 0.15m White
Beam 0.65m White
Column 0.20mX0.40m White
Foundation -----------
Roof ---------------------------------------------- Red
------
Doors & Windows .90 Blue

4.4 PHYSICAL DESIGN

43
 CHAPTER FIVE
IMPLEMENTATION
5.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter introduced you to the study by presenting research design
implementation. It contained the design development, and design implementation.

5.1 DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

The physical design can be altered or converted anywhere in order to satisfy the
owner’s need. Remember your comments are important for physical design
development and it brings us to correct our errors while we are doing our project, and
we require from your precious comments to write in the following lines.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________

5.2 DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION

The materials used interior and surface bridge are different for the following points
Interior Bridge Materials Exterior Bridge Materials
Concrete made up cement,sand , aggregate and Steel trusses for beauty purpose
water
Slabs precasted for each span beams Exterior windows are covered with metals
Flexile pavement Exterior appears garden
Interior beams are 20 Exterior beams are 20
Sand for load decreasing purpose Exterior colure is white with gray
Steel barriers for traffic purpose Concrete archs for beauty purpos

44
Appendix A: Architectural Plans

45
References

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