Ac Record-423

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EXPERIMENT-1: STUDY THE FEATURES

OF NETWORK AND SPECTRUM
ANALYSER
AIM:
To study the features of Network and Spectrum Analyser.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
• MATLAB (2021).
THEORY:
The Spectrum Analyzer System object displays the
frequency spectrum of time-domain signals. This scope supports
variable-size input, which allows the input frame size to change. Frame
size is the first dimension of the input vector. The number of input
channels must remain constant.
To display the spectra of signals in the Spectrum Analyzer:

• Create the dsp.SpectrumAnalyzer object and set its properties.
• Call the object with arguments, as if it were a function.
It functions as a frequency selective, peak-responding voltmeter calibrated to

display the RMS (root-mean-square) value of a sine wave. Not to be confused
with a power meter, a modern spectrum analyser performs digital signal
processing with added capabilities to dive deeper into signals.
Spectrum analysers are key test instruments for use when testing radio
frequency, RF circuits, modules and units. They are used in many areas
including RF design, electronics manufacturing and test, and service and
sometimes field repair. These test instruments display amplitude against
frequency and as a result these test instruments are key in locating spurious
signals, displaying and measuring signal bandwidths. Knowing how to use a
spectrum analyser effectively is the key to being able to investigate the
operation of RF circuits properly. One of the key ways to understand how to
use a spectrum analyser is to take a look at the controls 2
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although this test instrument look complicates, it can be easy it understand

how to use a spectrum analyser once a little time has been spent with one.
Although each analyser will be different, the basic concepts are the same
across every test instrument- the same type of measurement can be made and
the same basic control functions are available. In this way one test instrument
has been used same can be passed on to the use of other spectrum analysers.
There are a number of different controls and interfaces on a spectrum
analyser.
SPECTRUM ANALYSER BASICS:

There are a number of different controls and interfaces on a spectrum
analyser. Although these pieces of test equipment may appear to be
complicated, it is possible to make good use of them after a little practice as it
is necessary to use the controls correctly.
1. THE DISPLAY:
When looking at how to use a spectrum analyser, one of the main elements of
the test equipment is the display. The display has a graticule which typically
has ten major horizontal and ten major vertical divisions. The horizontal axis
of the analyser is linearly calibrated in frequency with the higher frequency
being at the right hand side of the display. The vertical axis is calibrated in
amplitude. This scale is normally logarithmic, although it is often possible to
have other scales including linear ones for specialised measurements.
A logarithmic scale is normally used because it enables signals over a very
wide range to be seen on the spectrum analyser - signals of interest may vary
by 70dB, 80dB or more. Typically a value of 10 dB per division is used. This
scale is normally calibrated in dBm (i.e. decibels relative 1 mill watt) and
therefore it is possible to see absolute power levels as well as comparing the
difference in level between two signals.
2. Setting the frequency
To set the frequency of a spectrum analyser, there are two selections that can
be made. These selections are independent of each other and on different
controls or entered via a keypad separately: 3
• Centre frequency:
The centre frequency selection sets the frequency of the centre of the
scale to the chosen value. It is normally where the signal to be
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monitored would be located. In this way the main signal is in the centre
of the display and the frequencies either side can be monitored.
• Span:
The span selection is the extent of the frequency coverage that is to be
viewed or monitored when using the spectrum analyser. The span may
be given as a bandwidth per division on the graticule, or the total span
that is seen on the calibrated part of the screen, i.e. within the
maximum extents of the calibrations on the graticule. Another option
that is often available is to set the start and stop frequencies of the
scan. This is another way of expressing the span as the difference
between the start and stop frequencies is equal to the span. Reducing
the span will allow better resolution of the signal, allowing close in
components of the signal to be seen.
• Top and bottom frequencies:
As an alternative to setting the span and the centre frequency, many
analysers offer the capability to enter the start and stop or top and
bottom frequencies for the sweep.
3. Gain and attenuation adjustments

There are other controls to use on a spectrum analyser.
Most of these fall into one of two categories. The first is
associated with the gain or attenuation of sections within the
spectrum analyser.
If sections of the test equipment are overloaded, then spurious signals may be
generated within the instrument. This can be prevented by including extra
attenuation using the input attenuator. However if too much attenuation is
inserted, additional gain is required in the later stages (IF gain) and the
background noise level is increased and this can sometimes mask lower level
signals. Thus a careful choice of the relevant gain levels within the spectrum
analyser is needed to obtain the optimum performance.
Modern test equipment often has a single gain control, normally called
the reference level control, that combines the input attenuation and IF gain
controls. It automatically adjusts both to obtain the optimum setting. In this
way both overload at one end the scale and noise floor at the other end are
optimised. Normally the overall gain is adjusted so that the peak of the signal
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of interest is placed towards the top of the display - typically a gap of 10dB
from the top is a sufficient margin. In this way the spurious and other signals
over in amplitude can also be seen very easily
If the reference level is reduced too far, the signals will reduce in value
and get progressively closer to the residual noise level. For reasonable
measurements there should be a 20dB difference between the signal and the
noise.
Scan rate
The spectrum analyser operates by scanning the required

frequency span from the low to the high end of the required range. The
speed at which it does this is important. Obviously the faster it scans
the range the faster the measurement can be made.
However the rate of scan of the test instrument is limited by two

other elements. These are the filter that is used in the IF, and the video
filter that may also be used to average the reading. These filters must
have time to respond otherwise signals will be missed and the
measurements rendered useless.
It is still essential to keep the scan rate as high as is reasonably

feasible to ensure that measurements are made as quickly as possible.
Normally the scan rate, span and the filter bandwidths are linked within
the test equipment to ensure the optimum combination is chosen. Scan
rate is a key setting especially when large numbers of measurements
need to be made, for example in RF design where ICs or RF circuits
need to be characterised, or in electronics manufacturer where test
times must be kept to a minimum.
Filter bandwidths: The other controls concern the filter bandwidths :
• IF filter:
The IF filter basic provides the resolution of the spectrum
analyser in terms of the frequency. Choosing a narrow filter bandwidth
will enable signals to be seen that are close together. However by the
very fact that they are narrow band these filters do not respond to
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changes as quickly as wider band ones. Accordingly a slower scan rate

must be chosen when using them.
When having to use narrow bandwidths and slow scan rates, the
time that a measurement can be made by reducing the span that needs
to be scanned. Even though a slow scan rate must be used, the range
over which the scan must be made can be reduced, thereby reducing the
scan time for the analyser.
• Video filter:
The video filter function was used with many analogue spectrum
analysers and is not commonly seen on those using digital signal
processing. It provides a form of averaging to be applied to the signal.
This has the effect of reducing the variations caused by noise and this
can help average the signal and thereby reveal signals that may not
otherwise be seen. Using video filtering also limits the speed at which
the spectrum analyser can scan.
On modern spectrum analysers the filter bandwidth is normally
automatically linked with the span, and scan rate, so that the optimum
setting is chosen for any given situation. The narrower the filter, the
finer the detail that is seen, and the lower the noise floor level. (NB
noise is proportional to bandwidth, so the lower the bandwidth the
lower the noise). As mentioned above a good rule of thumb is to
ensure that there is a 20dB difference between the noise and the signal
level for reasonable measurements. The filter bandwidth may also be
referred to as the resolution in view of the fact that finer detail can be
seen with narrower filter bandwidth levels.
Markers:
These detect the level of particular portions of the waveform and
can be used for measuring the levels of different signals, and
comparing figures like the levels of harmonics or spurious signals
with respect to the carrier. Typically these markers can be set to select
the peak, second peak and so forth, or to measure the level at a given
point
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Applications:
Spectrum analysis applies across many factions of engineering.
For example, engineers must check cellular radio systems for
harmonics of the carrier signal in order to prevent interference between
systems at the same frequencies. Distortion of the message modulated
onto a carrier also requires spectrum analysis.
RESULT:
The features of Network and Spectrum analyser have been
studied carefully.
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EXPERIMENT-2: MEASUREMENT OF
RADIATION PATTERN AND
RADIATION RESISTANCE OF DIPOLE
AIM: ANTENNA
To measure the radiation pattern and radiation resistance of dipole antenna.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
 MATLAB
THEORY:
A short dipole is formed by two conductors with a total length L
substantially less than a half wave length (12⁄𝜆). Short dipoles are sometimes
used in applications where a full half-wave dipole would be too large. They
can be analysed easily using the results obtained below for the Hertzian
dipole, a fictitious entity. Being shorter than a resonant antenna (half
wavelength long) its feed point impedance includes a large capacitive
reactance requiring a loading coil or other matching network in order to be
practical, especially as a transmitting antenna.
In radio and telecommunications a dipole antenna or doublet is

the simplest and most widely used class of antenna. The dipole is a class of
antennas producing a radiation pattern approximating that of an elementary
electric dipole with a radiating structure supporting a line current so
energized that the current has only one node at each end. The radiation
pattern of a dipole antenna is of particular importance for many reasons it
needs to be orientated so that it picks up the maximum level of signal or
radiates the maximum amount of signal in the required direction. The
radiation pattern reflects the amount of power radiated from the dipole in
any given direction. As the performance of the antenna is the same in
transmit and receive, it also reflects the 'sensitivity' of the antenna in
different directions.
HPBW and FNBW:

Half power Beam width (HPBW) = 70λ/D
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FNBW= 2HPBW
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FNBW= 2(70λ/D) = 140λ/D

Where
• • X is wavelength (λ=3/frequency).
• • D is Diameter.
Radiation Resistance of Short Electric Dipole:

To find the radiation resistance, the Poynting vector is integrated
over a large sphere yielding the power radiated, and this power is then
equated to (I0/√2)2Ro. Where Ro is the radiation resistance at a current
maximum point and lo is the peak value in time of the current at this point.
The total power P radiated was given in (6-4-5)' in terms of Hφ for a short
dipole. In (6-4-5), | Hφ | is the absolute value. Hence, the corresponding value
of Hφ, for a linear antenna is obtained from (6-5-2) by putting
| j [I0]|=I0. Substituting this into 6-4-5, we obtain
P= 15𝐼02𝜋∫∫{cos[(𝛽𝐿/2)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃]−cos(𝛽𝐿/2)}2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝜋02𝜋0 (1)
= 30𝐼02∫{cos[(𝛽𝐿/2)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃]−cos(𝛽𝐿/2)}2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝜋0𝑑𝜃 (2)
Equating the radiated power as given by (2) to I02Ro/2 we have
P= I02Ro/2 and (3)

R0= 60∫{cos[(𝛽𝐿/2)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃]−cos(𝛽𝐿/2)}2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝜋0𝑑𝜃 (4)
Where the radiation resistance Ro is referred to the current

maximum. In the case of a λ/2 antenna this is at the centre of the antenna or at
the terminals of the transmission line.
Proceeding with the evaluation of (4) with the aid of the sine
integral, Si(x), and the cosine integral, Cin(x), it may be shown that the
radiation resistance of the λ/2 antenna is
Rr= 30Cin(2π) = 30 x 2.44 =73 Ω

This is the well-known value for the radiation resistance of a thin,
linear, and centre-fed, λ/2 antenna with sinusoidal current distribution. The
terminal impedance also includes some inductive reactance. That is,
Z = 73+j42.5 2
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To make the reactance zero, that is, to make the antenna resonant,
requires that the antenna be shorted a few percent less than λ/2. This
shortening also results in a reduction in the value of the radiation resistance
to about 65Ω.
PROCEDURE:
➢Switch on the system (with Windows OS & MATLAB tool).
➢Launch MATLAB software by clicking on MATLAB icon on desktop.
➢Create new program from NEW option in FILE menu.
➢Write the program in TEXT EDITOR window .
➢Save the program with .m extension.
➢Run the program from EDITOR menu or by pressing F5.
➢Check the COMMAND window for output values / error. If any errors
are there, debug the errors, modify the program and go to above step.
➢Observe the text outputs in command window and graphical outputs in
FIGURES.
PROGRAM-1:
clc;
close
all;
clear;
f=2.4e9;
c=3e8;
lamda=c/f;
L1=lamda/2;
d=dipole('length',L1,'Width',L1/100);
show(d)
figure, pattern(d,f);
figure, patternElevation(d,f);
figure, patternAzimuth(d,f);
figure, pattern(d,2e9,0,1:1:360);
figure, beamwidth(d,f,0,1:1:360);
figure, impedance(d ,500e6:10e6:2.45e9);
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OUTPUT:
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PROGRAM-2:
clc;
close
all;
clear;
f=2.4e9;
c=3e8;
lamda=c/f;
L1=lamda/4;
d=dipole('length',L1,'Width',L1/100);
show(d)
figure, pattern(d,f);
figure, patternElevation(d,f);
figure, patternAzimuth(d,f);
figure, pattern(d,2e9,0,1:1:360);
figure, beamwidth(d,f,0,1:1:360);
figure, impedance(d ,500e6:10e6:2.45e9);
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OUTPUT:
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APPLICATIONS:
 HF wire dipole
 Part of Yagi antenna
 As omnidirectional vertical dipole
 Driven element within a parabolic reflector
RESULT:
Therefore, the radiation pattern is observed and radiation resistance is
calculated
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RADIATION PATTERN AND
RADIATION RESISTANCE OF HORN
ANTENNA
AIM:
To measure the radiation pattern and radiation resistance of dipole antenna.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
 MATLAB
THEORY:
Horn antennas are very popular at UHF (300 MHz-3 GHz) and
higher frequencies (horn antennas operate as high as 140 GHz). Horn
antennas often have a directional radiation pattern with a high antenna gain,
which can range up to 25 dB in some cases, with 10-20 dB being typical.
Horn antennas have a wide impedance bandwidth, implying that the input
impedance is slowly varying over a wide frequency range (which also implies
low values for $11 or VSWR). The bandwidth for practical horn antennas can
be on the order of 20:1 (for instance, operating from 1 GHz-20 GHz), with a
10:1 bandwidth not being uncommon. The gain of horn antennas often
increases (and the beam width decreases) as the frequency of operation is
increased. This is because the size of the horn aperture is always measured in
wavelengths; at higher frequencies the horn antenna is "electrically larger":
this is because a higher frequency has a spiller wavelength. Since the horn
antenna has a fixed physical size (say a square aperture of 20 cm for
instance), the aperture is more wavelengths across at higher frequencies.
And, a recurring theme in antenna theory is that larger antennas (in terms of
wavelengths in size) have higher directivities. Horn antennas have very little
loss, so the directivity of a horn is roughly equal to its gain.
EQUATIONS:
Pyramidal horns are normally constructed to provide optimal
gain. The gain of a pyramid horn antenna over an isotropic source, i.e. one
that radiates equally in all direction can be derived from the formula
Gain= 4𝜋𝐴𝑒𝐴𝜆2
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Then for a conical horn the gain formula can be shown to be:
Gain= [𝜋𝑑⁄𝜆]2𝑒𝐴
Where
A is the physical area of the aperture.
d is the physical diameter of a conical horn aperture A is the
wavelength.
𝑒𝐴 is the aperture efficiency and is a figure between 0 and 1.
𝐸’𝑦(𝑥′,𝑦′)= 𝐸0cos [𝜋𝑎1𝑥′]𝑒−𝑗[𝑘[𝑥′22𝜌2+𝑦′22𝜌1]]

Condition for physical realization:
𝑃𝑒=(𝑏1−𝑏)[[𝜌𝑒𝑏1⁄]2−14⁄]2
𝑃ℎ=(𝑎1−𝑎)[[𝜌ℎ𝑎1⁄]2−14⁄]2
𝑃𝑒=𝑃ℎ
Directivity of pyramidal horn 𝐺0=12{[4𝜋𝜆2]𝑎1𝑏1}
Antenna can be obtained using directivity curves for E- and H-Planes sectoral
horn antenna.
𝑎1=√3𝜆𝜌ℎ
𝑏1=√3𝜆𝜌𝑒
PROCEDURE:
FIGURES.
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PROGRAM-1:
clc;
clear;
close all;
f=3.45e9;
c=3e8;
lambda=c/f;
L1=lambda/2;
h=horn('FlareLength',0.1020,'FlareWidth',0.0571,'FlareHeight',0.0338,'Length',0.0
500,'Width',0.0190,'Height',0.0095);
%figure 1
show(h);
%figure 2
figure, pattern(h,f);
%figure 3
figure, patternElevation(h,f);
%figure 4
figure, patternAzimuth(h,f);
%figure 5
figure, pattern(h,2e9,0,1:1:360);
%figure 6
figure, beamwidth(h,f,0,1:1:360);
%figure 7
figure, impedance(h,500e6:10e6:2.45e9);
OUTPUT:
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APPLICATIONS:
 Horns are used at microwave frequencies where moderate gains
are sufficient.
 They are used as feed elements
RESULT:
Therefore, radiation pattern is observed radiation resistance is
calculated.
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RADIATION PATTERN AND RADIATION
RESISTANCE OF MICROSTRIP
ANTENNA
AIM:
To measure the radiation pattern and radiation resistance of microstrip
antenna.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
 MATLAB
THEORY:
Micro strip antenna consists of a very thin metallic strip placed on a
ground plane with a di-electric material in-between. The radiating element and
feed lines are placed by the process of photo-etching on the di-electric material.
Usually, the patch or micro-strip is chosen to be square, circular or rectangular in
shape for the ease of analysis and fabrication. The following image shows a
microstrip or patch antenna. The length of the metal patch is λ/2. When the
antenna is excited, the waves generated within the di-electric undergo reflections
and the energy is radiated from the edges of the metal patch, which is very low.
Radiation Pattern The radiation pattern of micro strip or patch antenna is broad. It
has low radiation power and narrow frequency bandwidth. The radiation pattern of
a micro strip or patch antenna is shown above. It has lesser directivity. To have a
greater directivity, an array can be formed by using these patch antennas.
The most common type of micro strip antenna is commonly known as

patch antenna. Antennas using patches as constitutive elements in an array are also
possible. A patch antenna is a narrowband, wide-beam antenna fabricated by
etching the antenna element pattern in metal trace bonded to an insulating
dielectric substrate, such as a printed circuit board, with a continuous metal layer
bonded to the opposite side of the substrate which forms a ground plane. Common
micro strip antenna shapes are square, rectangular, circular and elliptical, but any
continuous shape is possible. Some patch antennas do not use a dielectric substrate
and instead are made of a metal patch mounted above a ground plane using
dielectric spacers; the resulting structure is less rugged but has a wider bandwidth.
Because such antennas have a very low profile, are mechanically rugged and can
be shaped to conform to the curving skin of a vehicle, they are often mounted on
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the exterior of aircraft and spacecraft, or are incorporated into mobile radio
communications devices.
EQUATIONS:
For designing of a microstrip patch antenna, we have to select the
resonant frequency and a dielectric medium for which antenna is to be designed.
The parameters to be calculated are as under
Width (W):
The width of the patch is calculated using the following equation
[5][3][6]
W = 𝐶02𝑓𝑟√{2Є𝑟+1} (1)
Where
W= Width of the patch
Co= Speed of light
Є𝑟= value of the dielectric substrate
Effective refractive index:

The effective refractive index value of a patch is an important
parameter in the designing procedure of a microstrip patch antenna. The radiations
traveling from the patch towards the ground pass through air and some through
the substrate (called as fringing) Bath the air and the substrates have different
dielectric values, therefore in order to account this we find the value of effective
dielectric constant. The value of the effective dielectric constant (Є𝑒𝑓𝑓) is
calculated using the following equation [5][3][6]:
W = ∈𝑟+12+ ∈𝑟−12[1+ ℎ𝑤]−1/2, 𝑤ℎ>1
Length:
Due to fringing, electrically the size of the antenna is increased by an
amount of (ΔL). Therefore, the actual increase in length (ΔL) of the patch is to be
calculated using the following equation [5][3][5]:
𝛥𝐿ℎ=0.412(∈𝑒𝑓𝑓+0.3)((𝑤ℎ)+0.264)(∈𝑒𝑓𝑓−0.258)((𝑤ℎ)+0.8)
Where
h = height of the substrate
The length (L) of the patch is now to be calculated using the below mentioned
equation
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L=𝐶02𝑓𝑟√∈𝑒𝑓𝑓−2𝛥𝐿
Length (Lg) and width (Wg) of ground plane:
Now the dimensions of a patch are known. The length and width of a
substrate is equal to that of the ground plane. The length of a ground plane (Lg)
and the width of a ground plane (Wg) are calculated using the following
𝐿𝑔=6ℎ+𝐿
𝑊𝑔=6ℎ+𝑊
For feeding the microstrip patch antenna, there are different methods
for example, feed line method, coaxial probe feeding method etc. But mostly
coaxial probe method is used.
PROCEDURE:
FIGURES.
PROGRAM:
clc;
close
all;
clear;
f=2.45e9;
c=3e8;
lambda=c/f;
L1=lambda/2;
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h=patchMicrostrip('Length',75e-3,'Width',30e-3,'GroundPlaneLength',120e-
3,'GroundPlaneWidth',120e-3);
show(h);
figure,pattern(h,f);
figure,patternElevation(h,f);
figure,patternAzimuth(h,f);
figure,pattern(h,2e9,0,1:1:360);
figure,beamwidth(h,f,0,1:1:360);
figure,impedance(h,500e6:30e6:2.45e9);
OUTPUT:
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APPLICATION:
 Mobile satellite communication
 GPS
 Missiles
 Telemetry
RESULT:
Therefore, radiation pattern is observed and radiation resistance is
calculated.
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EXPERIMENT-5: MEASUREMENTOF
EYE DIAGRAM OF BASE BAND
SIGNAL
AIM:
To measure eye diagram for baseband signal.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
 MATLAB
THEORY:
In telecommunication, an eye pattern, also known as an eye

diagram, is an oscilloscope display in which a digital signal from a receiver is
repetitively sampled and applied to the vertical input, while the data rate is
used to trigger the horizontal sweep. It is so called because, for several types
of coding, the pattern looks like a series of eyes between a pair of rails. It is a
tool for the evaluation of the combined effects of channel noise, dispersion
and intersymbol interference on the performance of a baseband
pulsetransmission system.
From a mathematical perspective, an eye pattern is a
visualization of the probability density function (PDF) of the signal, modulo
the unit interval (UI). In other words, it shows the probability of the signal
being at each possible voltage across the duration of the UI. Typically a color
ramp is applied to the PDF in order to make small brightness differences
easier to visualize. Several system performance measures can be derived by
analysing the display. If the signals are too long, too short, poorly
synchronized with the system clock, too high, too low, too noisy, or too slow
to change, or have too much undershoot or overshoot, this can be observed
from the eye diagram. An open eye pattern corresponds to minimal signal
distortion. Distortion of the signal waveform due to intersymbol
interference and noise appears as closure of the eye pattern. An eye
diagram or eye pattern is simply a graphical display of a serial data signal
with respect to time that shows a pattern that resembles an eye. The signal
at the receiving end of the serial link is connected to an oscilloscope and the
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sweep rate is set so that one- or two-bit time periods (unit intervals or UI)
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are displayed. This causes bit periods to overlap and the eye pattern to form
around the upper and lower signal levels and the rise and fall times. The eye
pattern readily shows the rise and fall time lengthening and rounding as well
as the horizontal jitter variation. It is well known that, when a signal passes
via a bandlimited channel it will suffer waveform distortion. As the data rate
increases the waveform distortion increases, until transmission becomes
impossible.
• In practical communication channels distortion causes the dislocation of

the zero crossings of Nyquist pulses, and results in intersymbol interference
(ISI) I. Eye patterns provide a practical and very convenient method of
assessing the extent of ISI degradation. A major advantage of eye patterns is
that they can be used 'on-line' in real-time. There is no need to interrupt
normal system operation.
• The effect of ISI becomes apparent at the receiver when the incoming
signal has to be 'read' and decoded; i.e.., a detector decides whether the
value at a certain time instant is, say, 'HI' or 'LO' (in a binary decision
situation). A decision error may occur as a result of noise. Even though ISI
may not itself cause an error in the absence of noise, it is nevertheless
undesirable because it decreases the margin relative to the decision
threshold, i.e.., a given level of noise that may be harmless in the absence
if ISI, may lead to a high error rate when ISI is present.
• Another issue of importance in the decision process is timing jitter. Even if

there is no ISI at the nominal decision instant, timing jitter in the
reconstituted bit clock results in decisions being made too early or too late
relative to the ideal point. As you will discover in this experiment. Channels
that are highly bandwidth efficient are more sensitive to timing jitter. An eye
diagram provides a simple and useful tool to visualize intersymbol
interference between data bits. A square bit stream (i.e., series of symbol,
I's and O"s) is sliced into sub-bit stream with predetermined eye intervals
(i.e., several bit periods), and displayed through bit analysing equipment
(e.g., digital channel analyser), overlapping the sliced sub-bit stream in order
to obtain the eye diagram. When a perfect transmitter and receiver (i.e.,
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infinite receiver bandwidth with zero noise characteristics and jitter), and a
perfect transmission media (i.e., no dispersion and nonlinearities) are used,
the received eye diagram is shaped as a perfect rectangular. In reality, the
transmitter and receiver have a limited bandwidth with noise and jitter, and
the transmission media (i.e., optical fibre) has dispersion and nonlinearities.
Therefore, the eye diagram deviates from the perfect rectangular shape.
The shape of the eye is generally broadened and distorted (i.e., eye is
closed) due to limited bandwidth and fiber impairments, and noise and
timing jitter are added onto this broadened and distorted eye shape.
The eye pattern is a composite signal that reflects the channel
bandwidth, attenuation, jitter, and rise/fall time variations. As the signal
frequency increases for a given bandwidth and the signal is attenuated and
interfered with, the eye begins to close. Eye pattern measurements can
show the overall signal integrity of a data path. Eye patterns are used
mainly with high-speed interface testing. Some standards offer eye pattern
masks as guidelines.
PROCEDURE:
FIGURES.
PROGRAM:
clc;
clear;
close all;
N=800;
fs=5;
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randn('state',0);
am=2*(rand(1,N)>0.5)-1;
sincNum=sin(pi*(-fs:1/fs:fs));
sincDen=(pi*(-fs:1/fs:fs));
sincDenZero=find(abs(sincDen)<10^-10);
sinc0p=sincNum/sincDen;
sinc0p(sincDenZero)=1;
alpha=1.0;
cosNum=cos(alpha*pi*(-fs:1/fs:fs));
cosDen=(1-(2*alpha*(-fs:1/fs:fs)).^2);
cosDenZero=find(abs(cosDen)<10^-10);
cos0p=cosNum./cosDen;
cos0p(cosDenZero)=pi/4;
gt_alpha5=sinc0p.'*cos0p;
amUpSampled=[am;zeros(fs-1,length(am))];
amU=amUpSampled(:).';
st_alpha5=conv(amU,gt_alpha5);
st_alpha5=st_alpha5(1:4000);
st_alpha5_reshape=reshape(st_alpha5,fs*2,N*fs/10);
close all;
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(0:1/fs:1.99,real(st_alpha5_reshape).','b');
title('eye diagram with alpha =1.0');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
axis([0 2 -1.5 1.5]);
grid on;
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OUTPUT:
APPLICATIONS:
 It is used in digital signal processing
 The digital communication systems used in telephony for
text messaging etc
 It is used on video compression. It is used in speech processing.
RESULT:
Hence the eye diagram for a baseband signal has been observed
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EXPERIMENT-6: CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM OF QAM

AIM:
To measure constellation diagram for QAM.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
 MATLAB
THEORY:
A constellation diagram is a representation of a signal modulated

by a digital modulation scheme such as quadrature amplitude modulation or
Phase-shift keying It displays the signal as a two-dimensional xy-plane
Scatter diagram in the complex plane at symbol sampling instants. The
angle of a point, measured counter clockwise from the horizontal axis,
represents the phase shift of the carrier wave from a reference phase. The
distance of a point from the origin represents a measure of the amplitude or
power of the signal.
In a digital modulation system, information is transmitted as a
series of each occupying a uniform time slot. During each sample, the carrier
wave has a constant amplitude and phase, which is restricted to one of a finite
number of values. So, each sample encodes one of a finite number of
"symbols, which in turn represent one or more binary digits (hits) of
inflammation. Each symbol is different combination of amplitude and phase
of the carrier, so each symbol is represented by a point on the constellation
diagram, called a constellation point.
The diagram shows all the possible symbols that can be
transmitted the system collection points. In a frequency or phase modulated
signal, the signal amplitude is constant, so the points on a circle around the
origin. The carrier representing each symbol can be created by adding
together different amounts of acne wave presenting the in phase carrier, and
sine wave, shifted by 90 degree from the I carrier called the "Q” or
quadrature carrier. Thus, each symbol can be represented by a complex
number, and the constellation diagram can be regarded as a complex plane,
with the horizontal real axis representing the component and the vertical
imaginary axis representing the Q component. A courant detector is able to
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independently demodulate these carriers. This principle of using two

independently modulated carriers is the foundation of quadrature modulation.
In pure phase modulation, the phase of the modulating symbol is the phase of
the carrier itself and this is the best representation of the modulated signal.
A 'signal space diagram' is an ideal constellation diagram
showing the correct position of the point representing each symbol. After
passing through a communication channel, due to electronic noise or
distortion added to the signal, the amplitude and phase received by the
demodulator may differ from the correct value for the symbol. When plotted
on a constellation diagram the point representing that received sample will
be offset from the correct position for that symbol. An electronic test
instrument called a vector signal analyser can display the constellation
diagram of a digital signal by sampling the signal and plotting each received
symbol as a point. The result is a 'ball' or 'cloud' of points surrounding each
symbol position. Measured constellation diagrams can be used to recognize
the type of interference and distortion in a signal.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) uses many different
phases known as states: 16, 32, 64, and 256. Each state is defined by a
specific amplitude and phase. This means the generation and detection of
symbols is more complex than a simple phase or amplitude device. Each time
the number of states per symbol is increased the total data and bandwidth
increases. The modulation schemes shown occupy the same bandwidth (after
filtering), but have varying efficiencies (in theory at least).
QAM Constellation Diagrams:

Constellation diagrams are used to graphically represent the
quality and distortion of a digital signal. In practice, there is always a
combination of modulation errors that may be difficult to separate and
identify, as such, it is recommended to evaluate the measured constellation
diagrams using mathematical and statistically methods. Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation, QAM utilizes both amplitude and phase components
to provide a form of modulation that is able to provide high levels of
spectrum usage efficiency.
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QAM, quadrature amplitude modulation has been used for some

analogue transmissions including AM stereo transmissions, but it is for data
applications where it has come into its own. It is able to provide a highly
effective form of modulation for data and as such it is used in everything
from cellular phones to Wi-Fi and almost every other form of high speed data
communications system.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation, QAM is a signal in which
two carriers shifted in phase by 90 degrees (i.e., sine and cosine) are
modulated and combined. As a result of their 90° phase difference, they are
in quadrature and this gives rise to the name. Often one signal is called the in
phase or "I" signal, and the other is the quadrature or "Q" signal. The
resultant overall signal consisting of the combination of both I and Q carriers
contains of both amplitude and phase variations. In view of the fact that both
amplitude and phase variations are present it may also be considered as a
mixture of amplitude and phase modulation.
PROCEDURE:
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FIGURES.
PROGRAM:
clc;
close
all; clear
all;
%Define parameters.
M = 16 % Modulation order (alphabet size or number of points in signal
constellation)
k = log2(M); % Number of bits per symbol
n = 3000 % Number of bits to process
sps = 1; % Number of samples per symbol (oversampling factor)
%Set the rng function to its default state, or any static seed value, so that the
example produces repeatable results. Then use the randi function to
generate random binary data. rng default;
dataIn = randi([0 1],n,1); % Generate vector of binary data
%Convert Binary Signal to Integer-Valued Signal
dataInMatrix =
reshape(dataIn,length(dataIn)/k,k); dataSymbolsIn
= bi2de(dataInMatrix);
%Modulate Using 16-QAM
dataMod = qammod(dataSymbolsIn,M,'bin');
% Binary coding with phase offset of zero
dataModG = qammod(dataSymbolsIn,M); % Gray coding with phase offset of zero
%Add White Gaussian Noise
%Calculate the SNR
EbNo =10;
snr= EbNo+10*log10(k)-10*log10(sps);
%Pass the signal through the AWGN channel for the binary and Gray coded
symbol mappings.
receivedSignal = awgn(dataMod, snr,'measured');
receivedSignalG= awgn(dataModG,snr,'measured');
%Create Constellation Diagram
sPlotFig = scatterplot(receivedSignal,1,0,'g.');
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hold on;
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scatterplot(dataMod,1,0, k*primesPlotFig);
OUTPUT:
APPLICATIONS:
 It is used in digital signal processing.
 It is used in space communication where a spacecraft
transmits signals to earth.
 It is used in video compression.
 It is used in speech processing.
 The digital communication systems used in telephony for
text messaging, etc.
RESULT:
Thus, the constellation diagram of QAM is observed.
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EXPERIMENT-7: GENERATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

SIGNALS USING VECTOR SIGNAL GENERATOR
AIM:
To generate different types of signals using vector signal generator.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
 MATLAB
THEORY:
A signal generator is one of a class of electronic devices that generates

Electronic signals with set properties of amplitude, frequency, and wave shape.
These generated signals are used as a stimulus for electronic measurements,
typically used in designing. Testing, troubleshooting, and repairing electronic or
electroacoustic devices, though it often has artistic uses as well. There are many
different types of signal generators with different purposes and applications and at
varying levels of expense. These types include function generators, RF and
microwave signal generators, pitch generators, arbitrary waveform generators,
digital pattern generators, and frequency generators. In general, no device is
suitable for all possible applications.
A signal generator may be as simple as an oscillator with calibrated

frequency and amplitude. More general-purpose signal generators allow control of
all the characteristics of a signal. Modern general purpose signal generators will
have a microprocessor control and may also permit control from a personal
computer. Signal generators may be free-standing self-contained instruments, or
may be incorporated into more complex automatic test systems.
PROCEDURE:
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FIGURES.
PROGRAM:
Random Wave:
% Generate a random signal
amplitude = 1; % Amplitude of the random signal
duration = 2; % Duration of the random signal (in seconds)
samplingRate = 44100; % Sampling rate (number of samples per
second)
% Calculate the number of samples

numSamples = duration *
samplingRate;
% Generate time vector

t = linspace(0, duration, numSamples);
% Generate random signal

randomSignal = amplitude * randn(1, numSamples);
% Plot the random signal
plot(t, randomSignal);
xlabel('Time (s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Random Signal');
grid on;
OUTPUT:
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Square Wave:
% Generate a square wave
amplitude = 1; % Amplitude of the square wave
frequency = 1; % Frequency of the square wave (in Hz)
dutyCycle = 0.5; % Duty cycle of the square wave (between 0 and 1)
duration = 2; % Duration of the square wave (in seconds)
samplingRate = 44100; % Sampling rate (number of samples per second)
% Calculate the number of samples

numSamples = duration *
samplingRate;

t = linspace(0, duration, numSamples);
% Generate the square wave

squareWave = amplitude * square(2 * pi * frequency * t, dutyCycle);
% Plot the square wave

plot(t, squareWave);
xlabel('Time (s)');
title('Square Wave');
grid on;
OUTPUT:
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Sine Wave:
% Parameters
amplitude = 1; % Amplitude of the sine wave
frequency = 1; % Frequency of the sine wave
phase = 0; % Phase offset of the sine wave
duration = 2; % Duration of the sine wave (in seconds)
sampling_rate = 44100; % Sampling rate (number of samples per second)

t = 0:1/sampling_rate:duration;
% Generate sine wave

y = amplitude * sin(2*pi*frequency*t + phase);
% Plot the sine

wave plot(t, y);
xlabel('Time (s)');
title('Sine Wave');
OUTPUT:
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SIMULINK BLOCK DIAGRAM:
APPLICATIONS:
 It is used in digital signal processing.

 It is used in space communication where a spacecraft transmits
signals to earth.
 The digital communication systems used in telephony for
text messaging, etc.
RESULT:
Thus, different types of signals are generated using vector signal generator
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EXPERIMENT-8: ASK MODULATION

AND DEMODULATION
AIM:
To perform ASK (Amplitude shift keying) modulation and
demodulation using Simulink.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
 MATLAB
THEORY:
Amplitude-shift keying:
The simplest digital modulation technique is amplitude-shift

keying (ASK), where a binary information signal directly modulates the
amplitude of an analog carrier. ASK is similar to standard amplitude
modulation except there are only two output amplitudes possible. Amplitude-
shift keying is sometimes called digital amplitude modulation (DAM).
Mathematically, amplitude-shift keying.
Va(t)= Acos(wt), for symbol 1

0 , for symbol 0.
Thus, the modulated wave Va(t), is either the carrier Acos(w0) or

0. Hence, the carrier is either "on" or "off" which is why amplitude-shift
keying is sometimes referred to as on-off keying (OOK). It can be seen that
for every change in the input binary data stream, there is one change in the
ASK waveform, and the time of one bit (1) equals the time of one analog
signalling element .It is also important to note that for the entire time the
binary input is high, the output is a constant-amplitude, constantfrequency
signal, and for the entire time the bi nary input is low, the carrier is off. The
bit time is the reciprocal of the bit rate and the time of one signalling
element is the reciprocal of the baud. Therefore, the rate of change of the
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ASK waveform (baud) is the same as the rate of change of the

binary input (bps); thus, the bit rate equals the baud. With ASK, the bit rate is
also equal to the minimum Nyquist band width.
PROCEDURE:
FIGURES.
PROGRAM:
clc;
clear;
close all;
f1=25;
f2=5;
a=3;
t=0:0.0001:1;
x=a/2.*square(2*pi*f2*t)+a/2;
u=a.*sin(2*pi*f1*t)+a/2;
y=x.*u;
d=y./u;
subplot(4,1,1);
plot(t,x);
title('msg signal');
xlabel('time');
grid on;
subplot(4,1,2);
plot(t,x);
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title('carrier signal');
xlabel('time');
grid on;
subplot(4,1,3);
plot(t,x);
title('modulated signal');
xlabel('time');
grid on;
subplot(4,1,4);
plot(t,x);
title('demodulated signal');
xlabel('time');
grid on;
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OUTPUT:
APPLICATIONS:
 Low—frequency RF applications
 Home automation devices
 Industrial networks devices
 Wireless base stations
 Tire pressuring monitoring systems
RESULT:
 Thus, ASK (Amplitude shift keying) modulation and demodulation are
performed.
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EXPERIMENT-9: FSK MODULATION

AND DEMODULATION
AIM:
To perform FSK (Frequency shift keying) modulation and
SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
 MATLAB
THEORY:
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is another relatively simple,
low-performance type of digital modulation. FSK is a form of constant-
amplitude angle modulation similar to standard frequency modulation
(FM) except the modulating signal is a binary signal that varies between
two discrete voltage levels rather than a continuously changing analog
waveform. Consequently, FSK is sometimes called binary FSK (BFSK).
The general expression for FSK is
𝑠1(𝑡)=𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑤1𝑡+𝜃𝑐), for symbol 1
𝑠2(𝑡)=𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑤2+𝜃𝑐), for symbol 0
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With binary FSK, the carrier centre frequency (f) is shifted

(deviated) up and down in the frequency domain by the binary input
signal. As the binary in put signal changes from a logic 0 to a logic 1 and
vice versa, the output frequency shifts between two frequencies: a
mark, or logic 1 frequency (f), and a space, or logic 0 frequency (f). The
mark and space frequencies are separated from the carrier frequency
by the peak frequency deviation (A) and from each other by 2Δf
With FSK, frequency deviation is defined as the difference

between either the mark or space frequency and the centre frequency, or
half the difference between the mark and space frequencies. Frequency
deviation is illustrated in Figure 3 and expressed mathematically as
Af frequency deviation (hertz) equal to absolute difference
between the mark and space frequencies (hertz)
PROCEDURE:
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FIGURES.
PROGRAM:
clc
clear all
close all;
f1=100;
f2=60;
f3=10;
t=0:0.001:1;
m=(square(2*pi*f3*t)+1)/2;
c1=sin(2*pi*f1*t);
c2=sin(2*pi*f2*t);
for i=0:1000
if(m(i+1)==1)
s(i+1)=c1(i+1)
else
s(i+1)=c2(i+1)
end
end
for i=0:1000
if(s(i+1)==c1(i+1))
d(i+1)=1;
else
d(i+1)=0;
end
end
subplot(5,1,1)
plot(t,m);
title('message signal'); xlabel('time'); ylabel('amplitude');
subplot(5,1,2)
plot(t,c1);
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subplot(5,1,3)
plot(t,c2);
subplot(5,1,4)
plot(t,s);
subplot(5,1,5)
plot(t,d);
OUTPUT:
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EXPERIMENT-10: BPSK MODULATION AND

DEMODULATION
AIM:
To perform BPSK (Binary phase shift keying) modulation and
SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
 MATLAB
THEORY:
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Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is the digital modulation technique in

which the phase of the carrier signal is changed by varying the sine and
cosine inputs at a particular time. PSK technique is widely used for wireless
LANs, bio-metric, contactless operations, along with RFID and Bluetooth
communications.
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)This is also called as 2-phase
PSK or Phase Reversal Keying. In this technique, the sine wave carrier takes
two phase reversals such as 0° and 180°.BPSK is basically a Double Side
Band Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) modulation scheme, for message being
the digital information.
The modulation of BPSK is done using a balance modulator,
which multiplies the two signals applied at the input. For a zero binary input,
the phase will be 0° and for a high input, the phase reversal is of 180°. A
BPSK demodulator consists primarily of two functional blocks: a multiplier
and an integrator. These two components will produce a signal that
corresponds to the original binary data. However, synchronization circuitry is
also needed, because the receiver must be able to identify the boundary
between bit periods.
The BPSK modulation is a very basic technique used in various

wireless standards such as CDMA, WiMAX (16d, 16e), WLAN 11a, 11b, 11g,
11n, Satellite, DVB, Cable modem etc. It is considered to be more robust among
all the modulation types due to difference of 180 degree between two
constellation points. BPSK modulation is used by most of the cellular towers for
long distance communication or transmission of the data. BPSK modulation is
extremely power efficient and, due to the 180-degree carrier phase shift between
binary 1 and 0, BPSK modulated data can travel long distances between base
station and subscriber stations.
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Also, since a BPSK demodulator requires to make only two decisions

in order to recover original binary information, receiver design is simplified in
comparison with other modulation types.
PROCEDURE:
FIGURES.
PROGRAM:
clc
clear all
close all;
f1=100;
f2=50;
t=0:0.001:1;
m=(square(2*pi*f2*t)+1)/2;
c1=sin(2*pi*f1*t);
for i=0:1000
if(m(i+1)==1)
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s(i+1)=c1(i+1)
else
s(i+1)=-c1(i+1)
end
end
for i=0:1000
if(s(i+1)==c1(i+1))
d(i+1)=1;
else
d(i+1)=0;
end
end
subplot(4,1,1)
plot(t,m);
subplot(4,1,2)
plot(t,c1);
subplot(4,1,3)
plot(t,s);
subplot(4,1,4)
plot(t,d);
OUTPUT:
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APPLICATIONS:
 The BPSK modulation is a very basic technique used in various
wireless standards such as CDMA, WiMAX (16d, 16e), WLAN
11a, 11b, 11g, 11n, Satellite, DVB, Cable modem etc.
 Hence it can withstand severe amount of channel conditions or
channel fading. It is used in OFDM and OFDMA to modulate the pilot
subcarriers used for channel estimation and equalization.
 The channels used to transmit system related information which
are very essential are modulated using BPSK modulation.

RESULT:
Thus, BPSK (Binary phase shift keying) modulation and
demodulation are performed.
54

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21015A0423

EXPERIMENT-1: STUDY THE FEATURES

To display the spectra of signals in the Spectrum Analyzer:

It functions as a frequency selective, peak-responding voltmeter calibrated to

although this test instrument look complicates, it can be easy it understand

SPECTRUM ANALYSER BASICS:

3. Gain and attenuation adjustments

The spectrum analyser operates by scanning the required

However the rate of scan of the test instrument is limited by two

It is still essential to keep the scan rate as high as is reasonably

Filter bandwidths: The other controls concern the filter bandwidths :

changes as quickly as wider band ones. Accordingly a slower scan rate

In radio and telecommunications a dipole antenna or doublet is

HPBW and FNBW:

FNBW= 2(70λ/D) = 140λ/D

Radiation Resistance of Short Electric Dipole:

| j [I0]|=I0. Substituting this into 6-4-5, we obtain

Equating the radiated power as given by (2) to I02Ro/2 we have

P= I02Ro/2 and (3)

Where the radiation resistance Ro is referred to the current

Rr= 30Cin(2π) = 30 x 2.44 =73 Ω

𝐸’𝑦(𝑥′,𝑦′)= 𝐸0cos [𝜋𝑎1𝑥′]𝑒−𝑗[𝑘[𝑥′22𝜌2+𝑦′22𝜌1]]

Directivity of pyramidal horn 𝐺0=12{[4𝜋𝜆2]𝑎1𝑏1}

The most common type of micro strip antenna is commonly known as

Effective refractive index:

W = ∈𝑟+12+ ∈𝑟−12[1+ ℎ𝑤]−1/2, 𝑤ℎ>1

Length (Lg) and width (Wg) of ground plane:

In telecommunication, an eye pattern, also known as an eye

• In practical communication channels distortion causes the dislocation of

• Another issue of importance in the decision process is timing jitter. Even if

EXPERIMENT-6: CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM OF QAM

A constellation diagram is a representation of a signal modulated

independently demodulate these carriers. This principle of using two

QAM Constellation Diagrams:

QAM, quadrature amplitude modulation has been used for some

➢Run the program from EDITOR menu or by pressing F5.

EXPERIMENT-7: GENERATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

A signal generator is one of a class of electronic devices that generates

A signal generator may be as simple as an oscillator with calibrated

➢Create new program from NEW option in FILE menu.

% Calculate the number of samples

% Generate time vector

% Generate random signal

% Calculate the number of samples

% Generate time vector

% Generate the square wave

% Plot the square wave

% Generate time vector

% Generate sine wave

% Plot the sine

SIMULINK BLOCK DIAGRAM:

 It is used in digital signal processing.

EXPERIMENT-8: ASK MODULATION

The simplest digital modulation technique is amplitude-shift

Va(t)= Acos(wt), for symbol 1

Thus, the modulated wave Va(t), is either the carrier Acos(w0) or

ASK waveform (baud) is the same as the rate of change of the

SIMULINK BLOCK DIAGRAM:

EXPERIMENT-9: FSK MODULATION

𝑠1(𝑡)=𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑤1𝑡+𝜃𝑐), for symbol 1

𝑠2(𝑡)=𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑤2+𝜃𝑐), for symbol 0

With binary FSK, the carrier centre frequency (f) is shifted

With FSK, frequency deviation is defined as the difference