LEAN CONSTRUCTION 4.

This book introduces and develops the novel concept of Lean Construction 4.0. The capa-
bility of Lean Construction to efectively adapt the architecture-engineering-construction
(AEC) industry to this new era of digital transformation requires a reconceptualization of
the triad people-processes-technology as a foundation for the theoretical and practical frame-
work of Lean Construction. Therefore, a shift towards Lean Construction 4.0 is required.
Lean Construction 4.0 is a new systems-wide thinking approach where synergies and
overlaps between Lean Construction and digital/smart technologies go far beyond BIM
to reshape the way we design, manage, and operate capital projects in the modern age of
automation. This pioneering new book brings together the views of world experts at the
interface of Lean Construction and digital/smart technologies, in order to channel research
eforts, to introduce and discuss current research and practice, challenges and drivers, and
future perspectives of Lean Construction 4.0.
It is not the aim of the book to keep adding digits to the term ‘Lean Construction’ to
‘catch up’ with the industry revolutions as they go on. Instead, after reading this book, it
will be undeniable for readers that the triad process-people-technology as proposed by Lean
Construction 4.0 is required to achieve an efective, long-lasting digital transformation of
the AEC industry. Thus, the aim of Lean Construction 4.0 is better explained by what it
evokes: a future vision of construction systems comprising people, processes, and technology
using Industry 4.0/5.0 as a basis for technological innovation in the AEC industry coupled
with Lean Construction theory and practice as a jettison for improved processes and systems
integration.
The Lean Construction 4.0 concept coined and developed in this edited book is unique
and the chapters provide practitioners and academics with a provocative refection on the
theoretical and practical aspects that shape the Lean Construction 4.0 concept. More impor-
tantly, Lean Construction 4.0 proposes a rationale for the AEC industry not only to survive,
but to thrive!
 LEAN CONSTRUCTION 4.0

Driving a Digital Revolution of Production

Management in the AEC Industry

Edited by
Vicente A. González,
Farook Hamzeh, and
Luis Fernando Alarcón
 Cover image: © Yagi Studio/Getty Images
First published 2023
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2023 selection and editorial matter Vicente A. González,
Farook Hamzeh, and Luis Fernando Alarcón; individual chapters, the
contributors
The right of Vicente A. González, Farook Hamzeh, and Luis Fernando
Alarcón to be identifed as the authors of the editorial material, and of
the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance
with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other
means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identifcation and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-367-71420-8 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-71449-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-15093-0 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003150930
Typeset in Bembo
by codeMantra
 DEDICATION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

To my wife, Florencia, and my daughters,Valentina, and Annabella. Over the

ups and downs of my academic career, Florencia has been at all times my
greatest supporter. So, thanks for that love…I dedicate this book to you!
Valentina and Annabella, you are and will always be the engine of my life!
This book is also dedicated to the memory of my dad,Vicente, who always
believed in me, even when nobody else did. Dad, you will always be
my guiding light.
Vicente A. González

To my wife, Nadine, and my son Adrian. Nadine, you have supported me

throughout my career.Your patience and love have kept me going.Adrian,
you bring all the joy and excitement to life.You give me inspiration with
your ingenuity, creativity and love.To all those who have inspired me and
continue to give me inspiration.
Farook Hamzeh

To my wife, Luchy, my daughters Isabel, Carolina, Daniela, Gabriela, María Teresa,

Luchita, Constanza, Catalina and my son Luis Felipe. Thank you for joining me
on a fascinating academic and family adventure in the study and learning of
the Lean world. Luchy, nothing would have been possible without your love
and dedication.
Luis Fernando Alarcón

Many thanks to the great editorial and formatting support provided by

Salam Khalife, PhD Candidate at University of Alberta, and Dr Sajjad
Hassanpour, completing his second PhD degree at University of Auckland.
Vicente, Farook and Luis Fernando
 CONTENTS

Foreword x
Preface xii
About the editors xvi
About the authors xvii

PART 1
Introduction 1

1 Lean Construction 4.0: Beyond the New Production

Management Philosophy 3
Vicente A. González, Farook Hamzeh, Luis Fernando Alarcón,
and Salam Khalife

PART 2
Teoretical and Practical Perspectives for Lean Construction 4.0 15

2 Towards Lean Construction Site 4.0: Integrating Lean and

Digital Technologies 17
Kevin McHugh, Bhargav Dave, Algan Tezel, Lauri Koskela,
and Viranj Patel

3 The Implications of the 4.0 Revolution in the AEC Industry on

the Lean Construction Paradigm: Identifying the Status Quo and
Drawing the Path Forward 35
Evangelos Pantazis, Eyuphan Koc, and Lucio Soibelman

4 Proposing a House of Lean Construction 4.0 50

Makram Bou Hatoum and Hala Nassereddine
vii
 Contents

5 A Shared Responsibility: Ethical and Social Dilemmas of Using AI in

the AEC Industry 68
Paz Arroyo, Annett Schöttle, and Randi Christensen

6 The Interplay between Construction Supply Chain and BIM

through Kitting: A Lean-Based View 82
Zakaria Dakhli and Zoubeir Lafhaj

7 Implementing Lean-BIM Duality: Balance between People,

Process, and Technology 98
Daniel Heigermoser and Borja García de Soto

PART 3
Simulation Modeling and Virtual Lean Construction 117

8 Simulation and Modeling Facets in Lean Construction 119

Mani Poshdar, Mohammed Adel Abdelmegid, Vicente A. González,
Michael O’Sullivan, and Luis Fernando Alarcón

9 Modelling Construction Production Environments as

Complex Adaptive Systems 137
Ali Lahouti and Tariq S. Abdelhamid

10 Social Network Analysis to Support Implementation and

Understanding of Lean Construction 157
Rodrigo F. Herrera and Luis Fernando Alarcón

11 Exploring the Socio-Technical Nature of Lean-Based Production

Planning and Control Using Immersive Virtual Reality 172
Canlong Liu, Vicente A. González, Ignacio Pavez, and Roy C. Davies

PART 4
Digital Production Planning, Control and Monitoring in
Lean Construction 193

12 MetViz: LPS Metric Visualization, Monitoring, and Analysis

System for Project Control 195
Lynn Shehab, Ali Ezzeddine, Gunnar Lucko, and Farook Hamzeh

13 Productivity Function: Mathematical Foundation for Production

Management in Construction 209
Ricardo Antunes, Vicente A. González, Michael O’Sullivan,
Omar Rojas, and Kenneth Walsh

viii
 Contents

14 Digital Twins to Enable Flexibility in Of-Site Construction 223

Beda Barkokebas, Fatima Alsakka, Farook Hamzeh,
and Mohamed Al-Hussein

15 Use of the Digital Situation Picture to Decrease Waste in the Design

and Construction Process 240
Olli Seppänen

16 UAS Applications to Support Lean Construction Implementation 254

Dayana Bastos Costa, Masoud Gheisari, and Luis Fernando Alarcón

PART 5
Digital Lean Project Delivery 273

17 Integrating Project Delivery and Information Technology:

Challenges and Opportunities 275
Eder Martínez, Ali Ezzeddine, and Borja García de Soto

18 Blockchain Governance for Integrated Project Delivery 4.0 288

Daniel M. Hall, Jens Hunhevicz, and Marcella M. M. Bonanomi

19 Decision Models to Support the Selection and Implementation of

Lean Construction 306
Luis Fernando Alarcón, Keith R. Molenaar, Alfonso Bastías,
and Harrison A. Mesa

PART 6
Concluding Remarks 323

20 The Future of Lean Construction 4.0 325

Vicente A. González, Farook Hamzeh, and Luis Fernando Alarcón

Index 337

ix
 FOREWORD

The Lean Construction movement emerged in 1993 with the formation of the International
Group for Lean Construction. In the following 29 years, the movement has grown in num-
ber of advocates and organizations dedicated to its advance. To cite one example, currently
24 countries throughout the world have national institutes dedicated to Lean Construction.
Where it has been adopted, Lean Construction has delivered on its promise of better satis-
fed customers, better quality of work life, and better fnancial performance of participating
companies. However, sometimes it feels as if Lean Construction is the beta vs VHS in the
1980s’ videotape competition. Despite being the superior alternative, it struggles to dislodge
traditional construction thinking and practice. Might it be the case that advocates of Lean
Construction have failed to take leadership of industry initiatives such as digitalization?
Might it also be the case that digitalization without the Lean philosophy will fail to achieve
the desired advances in industry performance?
My answer to these questions is an emphatic ‘YES’! This book ofers a strategy that has
Lean Construction embodying and leading the digital transformation of the industry. Lean is
a fundamental philosophy of managing human organizations dedicated to production, from
planning a family reunion to producing skyscrapers. But philosophies, however powerful,
need tools and methods in order to do better planning, designing, and making. Read this
book to educate yourself about the power and possibilities ofered by digitalization. But keep
in mind the Lean principle of continuous improvement. Principles don’t do anything until
they inform action. Improvement happens through inventing, adapting, and applying tools
and methods that are better ft for purpose in delivering value and eliminating waste.
Fundamental change is not simple or easy. This book is an invitation to those individuals
and companies who are willing and able to try something new and to invest the time and
energy needed to be successful. Accepting this invitation will not only beneft yourselves
individually but will contribute to the industry transformation that is so desperately needed.
Glenn Ballard
Research Associate with University of California Berkeley’s
Project Production Systems Laboratory
April 2022

x
 Foreword

I want you and everyone else who wants to make our industry the best it can be to read
this book. Not just because the authors are the best people I know who can describe what
Lean Construction 4.0 will look like. But because you decide for yourself that it’s worth
taking the time to make the efort to look beyond the day-to-day problems that consume
every current and future practitioner.
Now you’re thinking, ‘OK, how do I decide?’ Try the approach I learned when faced
with the same challenge. First, make a list of all the chapter titles in the frst column and in
another what you make of what the chapters are about. Hopefully, you can get ahold of a
summary from the publisher’s webpage for the book. But do this however you can. Then add
a column called ‘What we do today’ so you can briefy note what you and/or others do now
to accomplish what the authors are describing. This will require refection for some things
and be very quick for about half of the titles because there is nothing to say about what we
are not doing today. Now add another column for what you think the authors are describing
as best you can based on your quick survey. You’re almost home. Finally, add another col-
umn to describe how you think the new LC4.0 practices could make design, procurement,
pre-fabrication, onsite construction and assembly, and building commissioning better. Pay
special attention to worker safety, quality, and time because that’s money. Now you can
make your decision and will be half-way to really thinking diferently.
If you decide this is too much efort, all I can do is wish you the best of luck in the rest of
your career going from one crisis to the next.
If you decide to dive in, I want you to commit to considering new ideas, no matter how
diferent. And I want you to add another column to the list you made. That’s for describing at
least one thing your organization can do if you can persuade others to read the book. That’s
why I encourage you recruit a group to read the book together with you leading a conver-
sation about how Lean Construction 4.0 can make their lives a lot better. And expand your
list to include everyone in other design and building companies, the asset developer/owner,
and the people who will use and maintain the facility.
Once you’ve gotten just a few people, to see these possibilities, you’re on your way to
changing things by working together to educate decision makers and helping them see how
to start moving towards the future of Construction. Yes, this will require commitment and
efort. No matter! I can tell you from my own experience that this is the best and most in-
teresting work, especially if you want to feel part of something much bigger than yourself
and become a true leader.
Dean Reed,
Board Member at Center for Innovation in the
Design and Construction Industry
May 2022

xi
 PREFACE

Back in 2019, it was very clear for us that Industry 4.0 (I4.0) and its suit of smart and dig-
ital technologies (SDT) were taking several industries, and particularly manufacturing, by
storm. These industries were doing things diferently and their pathway to an I4.0-driven
digitization was apparent and mature in several cases. Due to the advent of I4.0, smart
production systems equipped with sensing and autonomous technologies, self-organizing
systems, or fully implemented cyber-physical systems where the physical and digital merge
were a common place in these industries. So, organizations adopting the ‘I4.0 ideal’, and the
recently coined ‘Industry 5.0 (I5.0) paradigm’, were smarter, more connected, more com-
petitive, and they were making more and more emphasis on a human-centric and sustain-
able vision for their development. But we also realized that this I4.0-led transformation was
taking place within the architecture-engineering-construction (AEC) industry. While we
needed to confront the fact that the digital transformation in the AEC sector was slow and
not without problems, it was gaining momentum, and more importantly, it was relentless.
However, there was a fundamental question that strongly called our attention: Was tech-
nology alone able to make an efective and meaningful shift of the AEC industry towards
a more productive and competitive industry? By the time we decided to write and edit this
book, we did not have yet the right answer for this question, but we knew that the making
of this book will take us through an exploration to fnd out this answer.
Our point of departure was that the AEC industry is diferent from other industries in vari-
ous aspects. For instance, the AEC industry lags, from a technological standpoint, other indus-
tries successfully adopting I4.0-driven SDT such as manufacturing. Another relevant aspect to
consider is that the design and production nature of AEC’s projects is one-of-a-kind (each AEC
product, i.e., projects, is a prototype itself that consists of the design and assembly of fxed ob-
jects on-site, temporary multi-organizations, and production facilities that adapt to varying site
conditions), bringing very production-specifc challenges that are unique to the AEC industry.
The AEC business environment is also very dynamic and complex with a very fragmented sup-
ply chain that presents a low degree of production traceability across. Soon we realized that the
answer to the question posed did involve not only technology but also production management,
and as such, people who deliver the projects. We envisioned the goal of the book was to take the
reader through a journey of discovery from production management theory to I4.0-driven SDT
applications in the AEC industry, having people at the core. This approach was novel as existing

xii
 Preface

books were treating issues in the AEC industry from either a technology-centric perspective
or production-centric perspective, so we were planning to ofer an integrated approach in the
book. To do so, we used Lean Construction as the production theoretical basis, which was es-
tablished back in 1993 and it emerged as a production management theory tailored to the AEC
industry. Its main source of inspiration was the Toyota Production System and the Western
interpretation of it as Lean Manufacturing and Lean Thinking. Lean Construction has evolved
from the mere adoption of Lean Thinking principles in the AEC industry to a production
management theory in its own right, thanks to the research eforts carried out by academics and
practitioners within the International Group from Lean Construction (IGLC) covering diverse
research areas such as production planning and control, human and social aspects of organiza-
tions, health and safety, education and synergies with sustainability and information technology
(IT). The technology perspective encompassed I4.0-driven processes, principles, and SDT. The
people perspective was mainly grounded in some of the people and culture-driven principles
from Lean Thinking, and the human-centered ideals from I5.0, which essentially shift the
focus from a technology-centric view in I4.0 to a human-centric view with SDT still playing
a key role within I5.0. Thus, we coined the term ‘Lean Construction 4.0’ to drive a digital
transformation in the way AEC projects are managed and delivered, which is based on a process
(production philosophy)-people (culture)-technology (SDT) triad.
We hope that Lean Construction 4.0 as a new systems-wide thinking will help to reshape
the way we design, manage, and operate capital projects in the modern age of automation.
In this edited book, we bring together the view of world experts at the interface of Lean
Construction and I4.0-driven SDT. We intend to introduce and discuss current research and
practice, challenges and drivers, and future perspectives of Lean Construction 4.0. However,
this is better explained by what Lean Construction 4.0 evokes: a future vision of construc-
tion systems comprising people, processes, and technology using I4.0 as a basis for technolog-
ical innovation in the AEC industry, and Lean Construction theory and practice as a jettison
for improved processes, systems integration, and respect for the environment.
With this book, we aim to provide a provocative refection on the theoretical and practi-
cal aspects that shape the Lean Construction 4.0 concept guided by the following questions:

• How do Lean Construction principles merge efectively with the functionalities and
features associated with SDT?
• How does the duality of Lean-SDT interact with people and culture in practical terms?
Diferent aspects related to implementation, adoption, culture, management processes,
human-computer interaction, among others, need to be discussed.
• What are the main barriers and challenges to implement Lean Construction 4.0 in in-
dustry? What are the envisioned gains and overall benefts?
• How can we educate AEC stakeholders (e.g., students, practitioners, academics) on the
challenges and benefts of Lean Construction 4.0?
• How can we avoid the temptation of placing technology at the core rather than people
and culture when we think about the Lean Construction 4.0 concept?

We have tried to address these questions organizing the book into six parts containing 20
chapters. The arrangement of parts and chapters is described here:

• Part 1 - Introduction. It contains Chapter 1, where a general notion of Lean Con-

struction 4.0 and the rationale for developing it are provided, along with a discussion on
the value for industry and a vision for development and implementation.

xiii
 Preface

• Part 2 – Theoretical and Practical Perspectives for Lean Construction 4.0.

The following chapters constitute this part: Chapter 2 addresses the synergy between
Lean Construction and Construction Site 4.0. Chapter 3 analyzes in detail the sym-
biotic relationship between production theory (Lean Construction) and technology
(Construction 4.0). Chapter 4 proposes the ‘House of Lean Construction 4.0’, estab-
lishing a complementary theoretical perspective for the Lean Construction 4.0 vision.
Chapter 5 explores the ethical and social dilemmas that are intrinsic in decision-making
and how they will impact the decisions made by AI algorithms, bearing in mind the
Lean principle of ‘respect for people’. Chapter 6 discusses the theoretical and practical
aspects of implementing advanced supply chain practices such as Kitting, enabled with
building information modeling (BIM). Chapter 7 introduces a construction manage-
ment tool based on BIM that merges Last Planner System with 3D visualization and
data analytics, providing the necessary insight for an AEC organization to efectively
adopt Lean-BIM.
• Part 3 – Simulation Modeling and Virtual Lean Construction. The following
chapters constitute this part: Chapter 8 discusses how computer simulation modeling
can support Lean process objectives and impact an AEC organization. Chapter 9 intro-
duces and discusses the SDT’s role in facilitating the understanding of crew planning
and management of project production operations. Chapter 10 reviews the use of social
network analysis (SNA) to assess the social characteristics of the work environment
within AEC organizations implementing Lean Construction such as collaboration,
trust, teamwork, transparent communication, commitment management, decentraliza-
tion. Chapter 11 explores the relationship between immersive virtual reality (IVR) and
Lean Construction involving the process-people-technology triad.
• Part 4 – Digital Production Planning, Control, and Monitoring in Lean Con-
struction. The following chapters constitute this part: Chapter 12 illustrates the devel-
opment of an LPS-based Metric Visualization (MetViz) system that is used to monitor
and control productivity represented by LPS metrics. Chapter 13 proposes a Lean,
mathematically driven production theory for the AEC industry to better understand
the production mechanisms of repetitive processes in project-driven systems. Chapter
14 presents a digital twin system to increase production fexibility in of-site construc-
tion using real-time data, BIM, and manufacturing expertise. Chapter 15 provides an
overview of new digital technologies that enable continuous measuring and decreasing
waste during design and construction. Chapter 16 discusses the linkages between the
features and functionalities of unmanned aerial systems (UAS), and Lean Construction
principles and practices.
• Part 5 – Digital Lean Project Delivery. The following chapters constitute this part:
Chapter 17 provides insights into how IT can support the transition to more integrated
approaches of project delivery within the AEC industry. Chapter 18 discusses how
blockchain technologies can act as the foundation for Integrated Project Delivery 4.0.
Chapter 19 reviews the application of several modeling approaches to frame systematic
decision analysis to implement Lean practices across a range of project delivery methods.
• Part 6 – Concluding Remarks. It contains Chapter 20, which addresses the future
of Lean Construction 4.0 proposing an industry-wide strategy for implementation, a
people-process-technology functional model to balance appropriately the components
of the Lean Construction 4.0’s triad, and how Lean Construction 4.0 can enable a shift
in AEC organizations to a more holistic, human-centric perspective for the adoption
of SDT.

xiv
 Preface

We make an open invitation to students, educators, researchers, and practitioners in the AEC
industry to review this book and refect on the diferent ways that Lean Construction can
support and contribute to the adoption of I4.0-driven SDT within AEC organizations (from
a theoretical and practical standpoint), but bearing in mind that people and culture shall ‘al-
ways’ be kept at the core. Although not all answers are found in this book, we are sure that we
are providing a robust complementary perspective for the advancement of the AEC industry.
More importantly, we are proposing the rationale for industry not only to survive, but to
thrive, and a foundation for future discussions and developments as this is just the beginning!
Vicente A. González, University of Alberta, June 2022
Farook Hamzeh, University of Alberta, June 2022
Luis Fernando Alarcón, Pontifcia Universidad Catolica de Chile, June 2022

xv
 ABOUT THE EDITORS

Vicente A. González is a Professor within the Civil and Environmental Engineering De-
partment at the University of Alberta, Canada. He holds a Construction Engineering (Hons)
degree from the University of Valparaiso, Chile, and ME and PhD degrees from the Pontif-
cia Universidad Catolica de Chile. Before joining the University of Alberta, Vicente was a
faculty member at The University of Auckland (New Zealand) for over 12 years, where he
currently holds an Honorary Academic position. His research interests are at the interface
of Construction Engineering and Management and Computer Science, pioneering the Lean
Construction 4.0 concept. He has secured USD 45+ million in research and teaching grants,
and the largest corporate sponsorship in the history of the University of Auckland. Vicente is
a prolifc author, and member of editorial boards and international construction engineering
and management organizations. He has supervised to completion over 100 undergraduate
research projects, and Master and PhD theses over his career.

Farook Hamzeh,  PhD, UC Berkeley, is a Lean Construction expert. His theoretical and
applied research in the US, Canada, and the MENA region aim at improving the design and
construction of projects. Farook is an Associate Professor in the Civil and Environmental
Engineering Department at the University of Alberta. He was full time faculty at Colorado
State University and at the American University of Beirut. He is an active member of the
International Group of Lean Construction (IGLC) and has published heavily on Lean Con-
struction and related topics. Farook has worked for more than seven years in the construction
industry on several mega projects: the $1.7 billion Cathedral Hill Hospital in San Francisco,
the 333 m high Rose Rotana Hotel in Dubai, Losail motor-bike racetrack in Qatar, Olympic
Tower in Qatar, Al-Amal Oncology Hospital in Qatar, Serail 1374 Building in downtown
Beirut, and Sibline Cement factory second production line in Lebanon.

Luis Fernando Alarcón is a Professor of Civil Engineering and Director of the Production
Management Center (GEPUC) at the Catholic University of Chile (PUC). He obtained his
Engineering degree from PUC and a MEng, MS and PhD from UC Berkeley. He has been
actively involved in research on Lean Construction, risk modeling, and IT in construction.
He is a founding member of the International Group for Lean Construction, a member of the
Chilean Institute of Engineers, the Pan American Academy of Engineering, and the National
Academy of Construction in the US.
xvi
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Tariq S. Abdelhamid, PhD, PMP, CM-LEAN, is a Chief Lean Enterprise Ofcer with the
Student Life and Engagement Division at Michigan State University (MSU) since 2013. He
is also an Associate Professor of Lean Construction at MSU since 2000, and Lean production
and projects teams coach since 1995. Trained at Ford Motor Company in Lean Production,
and by Greg Howell & Glenn Ballard (Lean Construction Institute (LCI) co-founders), he is
the co-founder and co-editor of the Lean Construction Journal, a certifed AGC LCEP and
Improved LCI instructor, and a current LCI Research Fellow.

Mohammed Adel Abdelmegid  is a Professional Teaching Fellow at the University of

Auckland, leading the Master of Engineering Project Management. He fnished a PhD in
Construction Management in July 2020 at the University of Auckland. Before the PhD
studies, he worked for seven years as a structural engineer on several major projects in the
Middle East such as the Hilton King’s Ranch Hotel in Egypt and the Holy Mosque of Mecca
in Saudi Arabia. He is an active member of the Project Management Institute (PMI), and a
certifed Project Management and Risk Management Professional.

Mohamed Al-Hussein is a Professor at the University of Alberta and holder of the NSERC
Industrial Research Chair in the Industrialization of Building Construction. Dr Al-Hussein’s
current research initiatives include prototyping of automated and semi-automated machin-
ery for fabrication of steel and wood-framed construction components, application of lean
and ergonomics principles to improve the safety and productivity of industrialization con-
struction operations, and development of plant layout and process improvement measures for
panelized and modular construction. Dr Al-Hussein’s research has been published in over
380 peer-reviewed journal and conference papers.

Fatima Alsakka  is a Graduate Research Assistant and PhD student in Construction En-
gineering and Management at the University of Alberta. She holds a Bachelor’s degree in
Construction Engineering and a Master’s degree in Civil Engineering from the Ameri-
can University of Beirut. Fatima’s research in areas ranging from 3D concrete printing,
to Lean Construction, construction management, and manufacturing has garnered a re-
search grant and several academic awards. Fatima’s current interests include deploying digital

xvii
 About the authors

technologies (e.g., digital twins, artifcial intelligence, computer vision) to solve problems in
of-site construction.

Ricardo Antunes is an Independent Researcher, Senior Project Manager, and Senior Au-
tomation Engineer. His work focuses on mathematically represent, predict, control, and
automate the behavior of project-driven systems.

Paz Arroyo  is a Quality Leader at DPR Construction; she leads the development and
escalation of trainings to promote proactive quality conversations. She holds a PhD in
Civil and Environmental Engineering from the University of California, Berkeley. She
has construction industry experience internationally, with a strong background in lean and
decision-making. She co-founded Collabdecisions.com in 2018 and has published over 30
peer-reviewed papers in lean, sustainability, decision-making, and quality. Dr Arroyo also
worked as a Professor in the School of Engineering at the Catholic University of Chile.

Beda Barkokebas  is currently a PhD candidate in Construction Engineering and Man-

agement at the University of Alberta, and also has extensive experience working with a
number of diferent ofsite construction enterprises. Beda’s research interests encompass the
development of integrated solutions for process improvement in ofsite construction manu-
facturing by applying building information modeling, simulation, and real-time data. His
current research involves the development of digital twins to monitor production and reduce
bottlenecks while collecting valuable insights that can inform future process improvement
initiatives.

Dayana Bastos Costa  is an Associate Professor in the Structural and Construction Engi-
neering Department of the School of Engineering at the Federal University of Bahia, Brazil.
She has a BSc in Civil Engineering (Federal University of Bahia) and MSc and Ph.D. in
Civil Engineering – Construction Management (Federal of Rio Grande do Sul-Brazil). Dr.
Costa’s research includes construction management and technology to improve industry
performance, involving aspects related to production, quality, safety, and sustainability, inte-
grating with digital technologies such as unmanned aerial systems and building information
modeling.

Alfonso Bastías  is a Visiting Professor in the Department of Civil, Environmental, and

Architectural Engineering at the University of Colorado Boulder, and had been involved
in research projects with the National Regulatory Research Institute, National Cooperative
Highway Research Program, U.S. General Services Administration, Federal Highway Ad-
ministration, California and Colorado Department of Transportation, Construction Indus-
try Institute. Before joining CU Boulder, he was the Director of Civil Engineering School at
Universidad del Desarrollo and Universidad Diego Portales in Chile, and Chief Innovation
Ofcer at Ingendesa among other important roles throughout his professional career.

Marcella M. M. Bonanomi  is a Research Scholar at PoliS-Lombardia, Lombardy re-

gional government institute for research, and Project Manager of SPOTTED-Satellite Open
Data for Smart City Services Development, a project funded by the European Commission.
Previously, Marcella was a research associate and lecturer at the Chair of Innovative and
Industrial Construction at ETH Zurich. She received her PhD in Architecture, Built Envi-
ronment, and Construction Engineering from Politecnico di Milano. Her work combines

xviii
 About the authors

organization, technology and management to study new governance strategies, management

practices, and organizational models for the built environment innovation.

Makram Bou Hatoum  is a Civil Engineer with a Master’s in Construction Manage-

ment from the American University of Beirut, and a PhD in Construction Engineering and
Project Management from the University of Kentucky (UKY). His research areas include
Construction 4.0, Lean Construction, construction workforce, and safety management. He
was selected as a plenary speaker at the 30th Annual Conference of the International Group
for Lean Construction, where he presented his ‘Construction 4.0 Process Reengineering
(CPR4.0)’ framework. He was also named by UKY as one of ten Southeast Conference
(SEC) Emerging Scholars in 2021.

Randi Christensen  is an internationally acknowledged lean expert and sustainability di-

rector in COWI. Randi was chairman for Lean Construction DK for six years, and later the
Lean and Innovation Manager on a +£5bn infrastructure project in London. She is leading
COWI’s sustainability activities within Renewable Energy and Major Infrastructure Proj-
ects across Scandinavia, UK, and North America. As co-founder of Collabdecisions.com she
believes change starts with collaboration and transparent decision-making. She holds a PhD
(2008) and an MSc in Engineering Management (2003).

Zakaria Dakhli,  PhD, is a Research Associate in digital services and business models for
of-site construction supporting the Institute for Manufacturing and the Centre for Digital
Built Britain. Before joining the University of Cambridge, Zakaria was a research engineer
at the Industrial Research chair ‘Construction 4.0’ in France launched in partnership with
Bouygues Construction. Zakaria also worked as a consultant for several French construction
companies for which he outlined the strategy map for a Construction 4.0 transition. Cur-
rently, Zakaria investigates how the construction industry could transition towards digital
service-based business models.

Bhargav Dave  is a co-founder and CEO of VisiLean Ltd, a Finnish startup specializing
in cloud-based construction management platform. Bhargav has worked between the in-
terface of digital technologies and construction for his entire career. He has a Bachelor’s
degree in Construction Technology and Master’s and PhD in developing Digital Solutions
for Construction Management. His work cuts across the feld of computer integrated con-
struction, knowledge management, supply chain management, and virtual environments.
He has authored over 45 scholarly articles and industry reports. Bhargav has led innova-
tion projects in digitization of construction processes, including BIMforLean, Virtual Big
Room, intelligent products (integrating Internet of Things, Lean and BIM for the con-
struction lifecycle), and Otaniemi3D (digitizing operations monitoring through IoT, BIM,
and Big Data).

Roy C. Davies, PhD, is a pioneer in Mixed and Virtual Reality from the late 1990s, spe-
cifcally in the usability and applications for solving real-world problems. His early career
saw the creation of the Flexible Reality Research Centre at the University of Lund, Sweden,
then the largest VR lab in Scandinavia. Subsequently, Roy has founded several companies
based around emerging technologies, and presently works in an academic and technical ca-
pacity at two tertiary institutions, mentors startup businesses, and is pursuing new business
and academic opportunities of his own.

xix
 About the authors

Ali Ezzeddine holds a Master’s degree in civil engineering from the American University
of Beirut. Ali has worked as a PMO Engineer at MAN Enterprise, where he assisted in the
deployment of a digital construction control room. He also worked as a research assistant at
the University of Alberta on topics related to project control within the Last Planner System.
Recently, he has been working as a research assistant at New York University Abu Dhabi on
topics related to industrialized construction and game engine technology.

Borja García de Soto  is an Assistant Professor of Civil and Urban Engineering at New
York University Abu Dhabi (NYUAD) and the Director of the S.M.A.R.T. Construction
Research Group at NYUAD. He does research in the areas of construction automation,
cybersecurity in the AEC industry, artifcial intelligence, industrialized and Lean Construc-
tion, and BIM. Borja received his PhD from ETH Zurich and MSc in Civil Engineering
from UC Berkeley. He has extensive experience in the construction industry and holds Pro-
fessional Engineer (PE) licenses in California and Florida.

Masoud Gheisari is an Associate Professor in the Rinker School of Construction Manage-

ment at the University of Florida. He is leading the Human-Centered Technology in Con-
struction (HCTC) research group. His research focuses on the theoretical and experimental
investigation of human-computer/robot systems in construction. To date, he has authored
more than 100 peer-reviewed papers in the felds of Virtual and Augmented Reality (VR/
AR) and Human-Drone Interaction in construction and his research has been supported by
several funding agencies, including NIOSH/CPWR, National Science Foundation, U.S.
Department of Labor, and ELECTRI International.

Daniel M. Hall  is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Management in the Built

Environment at TU Delft. The theme of his research is to enhance governance, industrial-
ization, circularity, and innovation in the construction industry through a transformation
from fragmented project delivery methods to new organizational and informational models
that integrate the complex supply chain. Previously, he was Assistant Professor of Innovative
and Industrial Construction at ETH Zurich. He holds a Doctor of Philosophy (2017) in Civil
and Environmental Engineering (CEE) from Stanford University.

Daniel Heigermoser is a technology and strategy professional passionate about transform-

ing the construction industry and digital twin technology for buildings and cities. He is
currently working as Digital Business & Technology Strategist at Siemens, Germany. Prior,
Daniel advised clients in the AEC industry while working for PwC’s Capital Project and
Infrastructure practice and was responsible for managing major building and infrastructure
projects for a leading international contractor. He holds a Master’s degree in Civil Engineer-
ing from ETH Zurich and business management from Imperial College Business School.

Rodrigo F. Herrera  is an Assistant Professor in the School of Civil Engineering at the

Pontifcia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso (Chile). He holds a civil engineering degree
from the Pontifcia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso (Chile), Master’s in Higher Education
Management from the Universidad de Alcalá (Spain), PhD in Engineering Science from the
Pontifcia Universidad Católica de Chile (Chile), and PhD in Transportation Infrastructures
and Territory from the Universitat Politècnica de València (Spain) degrees. His main re-
search interests are related to Lean Project Management, Lean Design, team collaboration,
Virtual Design and Construction, and BIM implementation.

xx
 About the authors

Jens Hunhevicz  is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Civil, Environmental and

Geomatics Engineering at ETH Zurich. His research investigates the applications and imple-
mentation of blockchain in construction for supply chain integration and innovative forms
of governance. Prior to his doctoral studies, he received an MSc in Civil Engineering from
ETH Zurich with areas of specialization in construction management and geotechnical
engineering.

Salam Khalife is a PhD. candidate in Construction Engineering and Management program

at the University of Alberta. Salam works with Dr Farook Hamzeh in the feld of lean design
management. Specifcally, she works on improving value delivery on construction projects
through studying communication patterns and collaborative approaches. Salam is also inter-
ested in the social impacts of construction projects. She strives to bring project stakeholders
to a mutual understanding of project success and bring projects to the required level of efec-
tiveness on social, environmental, and economic levels.

Eyuphan Koc  is an Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering at Bogazici University. His

research focuses on convergent and data-driven approaches for the design, operation, and
maintenance of civil systems with a special focus on sustainability and resilience. Dr Koc
holds MS degrees in Systems Architecting and Engineering, and Spatial Data Science from
USC where he also earned his PhD in 2021. At USC, he was supported by the prestigious
Viterbi and Gammel PhD fellowships. His research has been disseminated internationally in
peer-reviewed journals and conferences, and has been funded by the California Department
of Transportation and U.S. National Science Foundation.

Lauri Koskela joined the University of Huddersfeld in October 2014 when he was nom-
inated Professor of Construction/Project Management. Previously, he worked at the Uni-
versity of Salford as Professor of Lean, Theory Based Project and Production Management.
Prior that he was involved in applied research at VTT Technical Research Centre of Fin-
land. Since 1991, Lauri has been involved in research on Lean Construction, especially
focusing on underlying theories of production management and project management.
He is a founding and continuously active member of the International Group for Lean
Construction.

Zoubeir Laf haj  is a Professor at Centrale Lille, France, Researcher at the Lam3 research
Center in Civil Engineering and holder of the ‘Construction 4.0 chair’, an industrial research
chair that deals with the challenges of modernizing the construction industry in France and
Europe. He is the Founder and President of the French Institute of Lean Construction. He
has written fve books, more than 150 scientifc papers, supervised 32 PhD theses, and 17
postdoctoral researchers. He is a scientifc leader, playing key role with multi-stakeholders
at international levels.

Ali Lahouti,  PhD, PMP®, CM-Lean, is a Lean Manager with Barton Malow Enterprises
where he serves as a member in cross-functional teams – whether on a construction proj-
ect jobsite, or in the corporate administrative ofce – to implement concepts, principles,
and practices of Lean Thinking. As Graduate Research Assistant, Ali worked at Construc-
tion Industry Research & Education Center, School of Planning, Design, & Construction,
Michigan State University. He is also a frequent contributor, and a reviewer for the Lean
Construction Journal.

xxi
 About the authors

Canlong Liu  is a PhD candidate in Construction Management within the Faculty of En-
gineering at the University of Auckland. Before starting his PhD program in 2019, Canlong
obtained an MSc degree from the University of Wolverhampton majoring in Construction
Management. Canlong’s doctoral research focuses on social dynamics of Last Planner System
(LPS) implementation in projects. He is particularly interested in exploring the diference in
people’s communication patterns and emotional states when working in Lean and non-Lean
environments, using virtual simulated environment in which emergent digital techniques
(e.g., Mixed Reality) are adopted as experimental tools.

Gunnar Lucko,  PhD, is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the Catholic University of

America and Director of its Construction Engineering and Management Program. His
scholarship has been recognized with the 2013 Daniel W. Halpin Award for Scholarship in
Construction of ASCE and several university awards. His research interests are quantifying
performance and reducing delays in infrastructure and building projects and mathematical
modeling, analysis, and optimization of schedules. For this, he uses singularity functions to
express space, cost, and resource constraints in linear and repetitive schedules towards inte-
grated project planning and control.

Kevin McHugh  brings experience from 25 years of construction management with his
academic research. Kevin manages the digital process to integrate the production control
process with the project management KPI’s using visual management and identifying high-
risk activities, of site and on-site production activities to monitor progress. Kevin is involved
in deploying an ‘Integrated project delivery model’ on large-scale projects. Kevin is focused
on providing a lean project delivery system that identifes opportunities for continuous im-
provement. Kevin has collaborated on conference paper and book chapters to support his
research.

Eder Martínez  is a Professor of Virtual Design and Construction at the University of

Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern (FHNW). He has several years of experience
in diferent areas of the construction industry, including the execution of infrastructure,
process improvement, digitalization, and new product development. Eder complemented
these practical experiences with PhD studies at UC Berkeley, aiming to work and research
on contemporary industry topics supporting productivity improvement in the construction
sector.

Harrison A. Mesa  is an Assistant Professor of Project Management within the School of

Civil Construction, Faculty of Engineering, at Pontifcia Universidad Católica de Chile.
Harrison has a PhD (double degree) in Civil Engineering (2016) from the Pontifcia Univer-
sidad Católica de Chile and the University of Colorado Boulder. His research and teaching
expertise includes lean project delivery, integrated project delivery, risk management, and
project management. He is a Principal Researcher at the National Excellence Center for the
Timber Industry (CENAMAD)(Code FB210015) in the area of industrialization and con-
struction management.

Keith R. Molenaar  is the Dean of the College of Engineering and Applied Science and
K. Stanton Lewis Professor of Construction Engineering and Management at the Univer-
sity of Colorado Boulder. He holds a BS degree in Architectural Engineering, and MS and
PhD degrees in Civil Engineering from the University of Colorado Boulder. Molenaar has

xxii
 About the authors

published more than 250 journal articles, technical reports, and conference proceedings.
He has been elected as a Fellow of the Design-Build Institute of America (2019), the Na-
tional Academy of Construction (2017), and the Pan-American Academy of Engineering
(2012).

Hala Nassereddine is an Assistant Professor of Construction Engineering and Project

Management in the Civil Engineering Department at the University of Kentucky. She
also holds an appointment as a Research Engineer for the Construction Engineering
and Project Management Group at the Kentucky Transportation Center. Her research
work includes identifying potential disruptors and roadblocks that must be surmounted
to transform the construction industry, developing frameworks that promote innova-
tion, proposing methodologies for integrating Construction 4.0 technologies into ex-
isting processes, and investigating strategies to leverage Lean Construction in the era of
Construction 4.0.

Michael O’Sullivan is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Engineering Science at the

University of Auckland. He holds a BSc and an MPhil from the University of Auckland and
an MS and a PhD from Stanford University. His research into applying operations research
to complex systems spans over 20 years and over 100 publications. He is President of the
Operations Research Society of New Zealand (ORSNZ), Deputy Director of Te Pūnaha
Matatini (one of ten Centres of Research Excellence in NZ), and member of the Global
Partnership for Artificial Intelligence (GPAI).

Ignacio Pavez, PhD, is currently an Assistant Professor in the School of Business and Eco-
nomics at Universidad del Desarrollo, where he teaches graduate and undergraduate courses
in organization development and change, team development, leadership, appreciative in-
quiry, and corporate sustainability. His research focuses on the foundations and practices of
positive organizational change, the study of teams in organizations, the effect of appreciation
in human organizing and change, and how organizations can integrate sustainability into
their business strategy to become agents of world benefit. He holds a PhD in Organizational
Behavior from Case Western Reserve University.

Evangelos Pantazis  is the computational design lead for IBI Group and co-founder of
Topotheque Design Research Studio. His research work focuses on the integration of gener-
ative design techniques with environmental analysis and digital construction methods using
multi-agent design systems. He holds a PhD in Civil and Environmental Engineering from
the University of Southern California, an MS in the field of Computer Aided Architectural
Design from the ETH in Zurich, and a Diploma in Architectural Engineering from the
Aristotle’s University of Thessaloniki. His work has been published in international peer-­
reviewed journals and conferences and has been exhibited at the Venice Biennale of Archi-
tecture and the Modern Art Museum of Lausanne (ELAC).

Viranj Patel is a Lean and Digitalization enthusiast who has progressed towards excelling
in Lean Project delivery for half a decade. Under the guidance of Prof. Lauri Koskela and
Dr. Bhargav Dave, he started his research journey during his postgraduation in Advanced
Project Management at the University of Huddersfield. Presently at VisiLean, he plays the
role of Product Owner and Manager, steering the research and development toward enabling
digital-Lean practices for construction projects.

xxiii
 About the authors

Mani Poshdar  has experienced a combination of academic and industry roles since his
graduation in 1998. His involvement in the Lean Construction community started in 2012
upon commencing his PhD studies. He has served the International Group of Lean Con-
struction as a researcher, reviewer, member of the editorial team, and track champion. His
current research focuses on simulation for construction operations management in four main
areas: building construction management and project planning; building science and tech-
niques; digital and interaction design; and design innovation.

Omar Rojas  is a Professor of Decision Sciences at Universidad Panamericana, Guadala-

jara, México. He obtained his PhD (Mathematics) from La Trobe University. He’s been an
invited researcher at the Newton Institute in Cambridge, UK, and Airlangaa University in
Indonesia. His areas of interest are related to applied mathematics, in particular simulation
and optimization methods.

Annett Schöttle  is partner at refne Projects AG, a business consultancy for Lean Con-
struction, Integrated Project Delivery, and Building Information Modeling. She is passionate
about to transforming the construction industry and improving teams to deliver successful
building projects. She is an international expert in the feld of Lean Construction and col-
laboration, and in decision-making processes, has published a number of conference and
journal papers. Annett holds a Dr-Ing from the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) and
is co-founder of Collabdecisions.com.

Olli Seppänen  is an Associate Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at the

Aalto University School of Engineering. His feld of expertise as a professor is operations
management in construction. His research interests include Lean Construction, real-time
production control, location-based management systems, Lean design management, con-
struction logistics, and digitalized construction operations.

Lynn Shehab  is a PhD student in Construction Engineering and Management at the

University of Alberta. Her research interests include Lean Construction, production plan-
ning and control, simulation and psychological and physiological factors infuencing labor
productivity.

Lucio Soibelman is the Fred Champion Estate Chair in Engineering Professor at the Uni-
versity of Southern California. He obtained his BS and MS degrees from UFRGS, Brazil,
and worked as a construction manager for ten years before he obtained his PhD in Civil En-
gineering Systems from MIT. During the last 30 years, he focused his research on advanced
data acquisition, management, visualization, and mining for construction and operations of
advanced infrastructure systems. He has published over 200 books, books chapters, journal
papers, and conference articles, and performed research with funding from many diferent
funding agencies.

Algan Tezel  is a Lecturer and Programme Director in Construction Management and

Engineering in the Department of Civil Engineering at Aston University. He holds a PhD
in Construction Management from the School of the Built Environment at the University
of Salford. His research interests include construction production management, Lean Con-
struction, and digital construction. He is a civil engineer with fve years of practical industry
experience.

xxiv
 About the authors

Kenneth Walsh is a Professor of Civil, Environmental, and Infrastructure Engineering and

Vice President for Strategic Initiatives at George Mason University, Virginia’s largest public
research university located in Fairfax. He holds the Bachelor of Science in Engineering,
Master of Science, and Doctor of Philosophy degrees in Civil Engineering from Arizona
State University. Ken has been active in the International Group for Lean Construction for
many years, where he has served as Secretary General and Conference Chair, with research
interests in process modeling and serious games and simulation.

xxv
 PART 1

Introduction
 1
LEAN CONSTRUCTION 4.0
Beyond the New Production
Management Philosophy

Vicente A. González, Farook Hamzeh,

Luis Fernando Alarcón, and Salam Khalife

Introduction
The origins of Lean Construction can be traced back to the production management prin-
ciples established in Toyota by Taichi Ohno (Womack et al., 1990). At the core of ‘Lean’
Thinking, as we know it in the Western world, there is a simple set of fve principles to design
Lean Production systems: Specify value, Identify the value stream, Flow, Pull, and Perfection
(Womack & Jones, 2003). At the beginning of the 1990s, a number of researchers paid atten-
tion to the appreciable infuence that Lean Thinking had in the manufacturing sector. As a
result, a new production philosophy for the architecture-engineering-construction (AEC)
industry was proposed serving as the theoretical basis for Lean Construction (Koskela, 1992)
and enabling the foundation of the International Group for Lean Construction (IGLC) with
its frst conference held back in 1993 (Alarcón, 1997). At the heart of Lean Construction is
also the Transformation, Flow, and Value (TFV) theory (Koskela, 1992) that goes beyond
the traditional transformation view which focuses on the conversion of inputs into outputs
using the work breakdown structure. TFV additionally endorses the fow view, representing
continuous fow, pull, and continuous improvement, and the value view, representing the
voice of the customer, satisfaction of purposes, and value-adding activities. Based on these
views of production, synergies between Lean Construction and SDT technologies are being
explored throughout this book.
On the one hand, Lean Construction has reshaped the landscape of the AEC industry all
over the world, providing the principles, tools, and methods to dramatically improve proj-
ects performance (Cassino, 2013). On the other hand, the development and use of smart and
digital technologies (SDT) have caused a transformation in diferent industry and business
domains over the past decade, particularly in the manufacturing industry (Lasi et al., 2014;
Porter & Heppelmann, 2014; Rüßmann et al., 2015). Some argue that this transformation
represents ‘Industry 4.0’ (I4.0), or the Fourth Industrial Revolution which encompasses a set
of emerging technologies and concepts that allow for connectivity, fexibility, efcient pro-
cesses, and real-time integration among the value chain participants (Pagliosa et al., 2019).
This is bringing benefts to the manufacturing sector in terms of performance, management,
economics, and workforce (Rüßmann et al., 2015).

DOI: 10.1201/9781003150930-2 3
 Vicente A. González et al.

I4.0 is also infuencing the AEC industry, which has started to adopt some of its related
SDTs (Sawhney et al., 2020) such as: machine learning and predictive models for projects’
decision making (Mansouri et al., 2020); mixed-reality (MR) and robotics (Ahmed, 2018;
Zhang et al., 2020); computer simulation and modeling (Abdelmegid et al., 2020; AbouR-
izk, 2010); and digital twinning (Sacks et al., 2020). Even though there are eforts to leverage
some of the I4.0-related SDT within the AEC industry in what is called ‘Construction 4.0’,
it still lags behind manufacturing. Some argue that the ‘Construction 4.0’ concept can bridge
this gap by enabling planning, design, and delivery of buildings, infrastructure, and other
type of projects more efectively via the digital transformation of AEC organizations (Sawh-
ney et al., 2020). However, little attention has been paid on how Lean Thinking can be the
steppingstone for an efective and truly signifcant adoption of I4.0-related SDT.
It is undeniable that the AEC industry is currently facing a growth in terms of the SDT’s
uptake, which is perceived as a more or less fast phenomenon in relation to its historical tech-
nology progress (Mansouri et al., 2020). In this regard, Lean Construction could be in the
driver seat for an I4.0-focused transformation in the AEC industry, but there are theoretical
and practical challenges to be faced. In terms of theory, the ‘Lean Construction 4.0’ concept
that we propose invites to go beyond the current production theory and question whether or
not new or adapted Lean principles can arise, and new research methodological approaches
that see ft are necessary. In terms of practice, we argue that the Lean Construction 4.0 con-
cept will bring challenges related to implementation, empirical validation, human centric
systems, and ethical and moral predicaments associated with the SDT use (Hamzeh et al.,
2021). In this chapter, we introduce our Lean Construction 4.0 notion that underpins this
book. We argue that Lean Construction 4.0 represents a forward vision on how the AEC
should adopt I4.0-related SDT, rather than the current state of afairs in this industry. Thus,
the goal of this chapter is to identify the need for Lean Construction 4.0 and to explore the
role of Lean Construction for an efective digital transformation of the AEC industry.

Lean and Industry 4.0

Industrial revolutions represent technology leaps that reshaped entire industries starting
with the steam age and mechanization (First Industrial Revolution), followed by the elec-
tricity age and associated mass production (Second Industrial Revolution), and the infor-
mation age with the incorporation of information communication technologies (ICT),
automation, and microelectronics (Third Industrial Revolution) (Xu et al., 2018). In 2011,
the I4.0 term was adopted in Germany to represent a strategic efort to revolutionize the
manufacturing sector taking advantage from SDT, which essentially acknowledged the ini-
tiation of the Fourth Industrial Revolution or cyber physical systems (CPS) age. The I4.0
notion is often referred to diferent concepts such as autonomously controlled and digi-
talized Smart Factory, CPS, decentralized self-organization, and individualized product
and service developments, among others (Lasi et al., 2014). With the transition from a
machine-driven manufacturing to a digitally integrated and smart manufacturing (Oz-
temel & Gursev, 2020), I4.0 has enabled improved agility, operations performance, and
proftability within frms (Rosin et al., 2020). In general, SDT that can be considered under
the I4.0 umbrella are as follows: (1) Big data analytics; (2) Autonomous-adaptative robotics;
(3) Computer simulation; (4) Systems integration; (5) Internet of Things (IoT) and sensors;
(6) Cybersecurity; (7) Cloud computing; (8) Mixed-reality; (9) Additive manufacturing;
(10) Artifcial intelligence (AI), and (11) Machine-to-machine (M2M) communication
(Rüßmann et al., 2015; Satoglu et al., 2018).

4
 Lean Construction 4.0

Table 1.1 The 14 Toyota production system principles (adapted from Liker & Meier, 2006)

TPS principle Explanation

1 Philosophy as the foundation Base managerial decisions on a long-term philosophy, even

at the expense of short-term fnancial goals
2 Creation of an ongoing process fow Value-added fow is the main focus, linking processes and
people.
3 Use of pull systems Avoid overproduction.
4 Leveling out workload Create a continuous, uninterrupted fow.
5 Culture of stopping to fx problems Get quality right from the beginning.
6 Standardizing tasks and processes Foundation for ongoing improvement and workers
empowerment.
7 Use of visual control Sign and label everyplace.
8 Use of only reliable technology Test technology that aligns to the purpose of your people
and process.
9 Growing leaders Encourage people to understand the work, live the
philosophy, and teach it to others.
10 Development of outstanding people Encourage people and teams to follow company’s
and teams philosophy.
11 Respecting the extended network Use and abuse your partners is unacceptable. Respect for
of partners/suppliers humanity is fundamental.
12 Going and seeing for yourself Assist to deeply understand the situation.
13 Making decisions gradually By consensus, thoroughly evaluating and considering all
choices; implementing decisions quickly.
14 Becoming a learning organization Through persistent refection and ongoing improvement.

On the other hand, Lean Thinking is a production management philosophy evolved

from the Toyota Production System (TPS). Table 1.1 describes the 14 TPS principles that
underpin Lean Thinking according to Liker and Meier (2006, p.8). Lean Thinking modifed
the classical understanding of organization roles in frms, emphasizing collaborative work,
multiskilling, satisfaction in the workplace, teamwork, ongoing improvement, and waste
elimination (Womack et al., 1990). In turn, the growing attention of the Lean Thinking
impacts in manufacturing and the willingness of other industrial domains to adopt its prin-
ciples infuenced in the late 20th century the emergence of Lean Construction (Forbes≈&
Ahmed, 2010). This fnally resulted in the foundation of the Lean Construction princi-
ples and the inception of the TFV model, which is the cornerstone of Lean Construction
(Koskela, 1992, 2000).
To understand how Lean Construction 4.0 can take place efectively in the AEC industry,
the underlying mechanisms associated with the relationship between Lean and I4.0 should
be understood. In this regard, it is necessary to look into the research undertaken in manu-
facturing to investigate the synergies and integration between Lean Thinking and I4.0. For
instance, Mayr et al. (2018) suggested three views for a Lean and I4.0 integration: (1) Lean as
an I4.0 enabler; (2) I4.0 accelerates Lean uptake; and (3) there is a positive correlation between
them both. Zuehlke (2010) has argued that production systems complexity can be decreased
via Lean practices, and a heavy dependence on technology will not always enhance the
system performance but make it more complex instead. But it is also true that technological
concepts such as automation are not foreign to Lean, e.g., the Lean principle of automation
or ‘automation with a human touch’ acknowledges that repeating and adding value activities

5
 Vicente A. González et al.

are prone to automation, so there might be a natural extension of the Lean principles to In-
dustry 4.0 as such (Satoglu et al., 2018). In this regard, I4.0-related SDT has the potential to
eliminate or reduce any of the seven Lean waste identifed originally by Shingo et al. (2005)
and Taiichi (1988). For instance, augmented-reality, in which 3D virtual objects are overlaid
on the physical world in real time, can enable the visualization of operation-instructions and
items/goods specifcations, helping to eliminate excessive motion, transportation, and de-
fective parts. Digital twinning can support waste elimination by using computer simulation
and cloud computing to model, simulate, and optimize manufacturing processes and assess
alternative system designs, reducing transportation, waiting, overprocessing, and defective
parts (Satoglu et al., 2018). Even more, Satoglu et al. (2018) argued that Lean Thinking ul-
timately engenders a ‘waste hunting’ and ‘adding-value’ ecosystem in manufacturing frms,
helping to articulate a robust and efective I4.0 development and implementation. In this
regard, Hamzeh et al. (2021, p.211) stated that ‘a sense of purpose (production management
theory) and problem-driven view (Lean-based methodologies) can be provided to optimize
the design and use of SDT’. We believe that this view can be brought to the AEC industry
to drive the development of Lean Construction 4.0.

Why Lean Construction 4.0?

SDT are revolutionizing entire industries, modifying the nature of their business structures
and competition. The advent of information technology (IT) over the past 50 years has
pushed changes in competition and strategy two times: Automation in the 1970s, and In-
ternet in the 1980s. At present, a third IT wave is taking place that includes smart connect
products with IT ubiquitous presence being a key facet of this change (Porter & Heppel-
mann, 2014). A reasonable expectation is being created to unleash large productivity boosts
and economic rise as a result of the efciencies, and enhanced competition and innovation
that the digital transformation driven by SDT uptake is generating in frms. As a matter of
fact, this is coincidental with Porter and Heppelmann’s (2014) views about the SDT impacts
on business and the I4.0 benefts for manufacturing (Xu et al., 2018). In addition, Porter
and Heppelmann (2017) identifed a gap between the physical world and the digital world
enabled by SDT due to the inability of existing business systems and processes to represent
real-world information to users, e.g., when 2D drawings are used to illustrate engineering
systems details; however, these systems are in reality fully 3D entities. Therefore, the quality
of decision-making is jeopardized. From their perspective, the relevance of human’s role in
technology utilization has been traditionally neglected as it cannot keep up with the unique
motor and cognitive skills of people. As such, they acknowledge that more robust human
interfaces are needed to link the physical and the digital worlds, and in turn, interact seam-
lessly with the human world. This refection matches well with the layers carried within the
Lean triad, to say, process (physical world), people (human world), and technology (digital
world), making it fundamental for the I4.0-related SDT implementation in organizations.
Figure 1.1 shows a comparison between the manufacturing and AEC industries using
the metaphor of industrial revolutions in manufacturing, which is based on Xu et al. (2018),
Sawhney et al. (2020), and Swenson and Chang (2020). Today, manufacturing is facing the
I4.0 transformation, which is still underway! However, the AEC industry’s reluctance for a
widespread adoption of SDT has kept away the opportunity to accomplish an ‘I3.0 transfor-
mation’, which is a vital prerequisite for an ‘I4.0’ transformation (Farmer, 2016). Problems
that negatively afect the performance of the AEC industry, such as low innovation levels, lit-
tle information integration, poor production traceability, fragmentation of the supply chain,

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 Lean Construction 4.0

Figure 1.1 Comparison of industry revolutions and technological progress between the manufactur-
ing and AEC industries

and myopic and obsolete construction management (Koskela, 2000; Sawhney et al., 2020;
Zhou et al., 2016), are likely having a detrimental efect on the AEC industry transition
through the I3.0 transformation.
The ‘Construction 4.0’ concept proposed by Sawhney et al. (2020) has enabled exciting
technical and practical possibilities to assist the AEC industry transition from the I3.0 to the
I4.0 states. However, there are three reasons preventing this to occur: (1) Construction 4.0
as it stands has not still provided a solid, well-reasoned, applicable framework that recog-
nizes system’s relationships and autonomy to take decentralized and entirely synchronized
decisions in automated environments for supply chain and production management (Sacks
et  al., 2020); (2) Construction 4.0 ignores the intricacies and linkages necessary between
production management theory and SDT to make I4.0 a feasible scenario in the AEC indus-
try horizon (Hamzeh et al., 2021); and (3) Construction 4.0 seems to focus on technological
aspects of adoption rather than on a more comprehensive framework that pay attention to
people and processes in tandem.
Lean Construction provides much more than a set of production theory and methodolog-
ical principles for AEC practices to be validated and enhanced in an ongoing basis (Koskela,
2000). Lean Construction, in fact, provides a three-layered structure of ‘principles/culture’,
‘practices’, and ‘tools/methods’ as stated by Pekuri et al. (2012). Essentially, Lean Construc-
tion represents the foundation to approach the processes-people-technology challenges as-
sociated with a I3.0 full transformation (and further I4.0) in the AEC industry. Researchers
have not yet reached a consensus in terms of whether Lean as an enabler of I4.0 is more
efective than the reverse in the manufacturing industry, as a full understanding of the syn-
ergistic forces involving the integration of Lean Thinking and I4.0 is still being investigated.
Nevertheless, there is enough evidence supporting the notion that merging Lean Thinking
and I4.0 is achievable and signifcantly benefcial for those frms willing to take the risk of a
combined implementation strategy (Mayr et al., 2018; Satoglu et al., 2018; Xu et al., 2018).

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 Vicente A. González et al.

In that respect, we believe that the same can apply within the AEC industry and the making
of this book is a testament of the possibilities and opportunities that Lean Construction 4.0
as an integrated Lean Construction-I4.0 framework brings for the industry.
In order to answer the question about ‘Why Lean Construction 4.0?’, we see necessary
to understand the linkages and synergies between Lean Construction, and the I4.0-related
SDT and principles. We cannot ignore, however, that an emerging body of Lean Construc-
tion knowledge developed over the past 30 years has Unraveled certain connections with IT,
digital technologies, and I4.0-related technologies. By developing a scoping review of the
IGLC conference proceedings from 1996 to 2020, we have found that 236 papers explored
jointly with Lean Construction themes the following major areas: (1) Building Information
Modeling (BIM), visualization, and virtual construction; (2) computing applications and
information systems, and (3) industrialization and prefabrication. Research on I4.0 advanced
technologies is still lacking within the Lean Construction community. However, this is
laying the foundations for the establishment of Lean Construction 4.0. In short, Lean Con-
struction 4.0 provides the ingredients to not only allow an efective digital transformation to
take place in the AEC industry, but also pay attention to those aspects that are fundamental
to it, i.e., process (production philosophy)-people (culture)-technology.
We also acknowledge that the Lean Construction 4.0 is aspirational in nature, but it
makes a strong case for Lean Construction to keep evolving and serving the AEC industry.

Value of Lean Construction 4.0 for Both Academia and Industry

With every developing paradigm shift that reshapes an industry, the eforts in related ac-
ademia and in corresponding practices would go into overdrive to address the subsequent
fundamental changes. In the current shift of the AEC sector towards an I4.0-driven in-
dustry, there is a call for industry and academia to prioritize Lean principles within this
transformation.
Amid the Third Industrial Revolution, one of the leading voices in management, Peter
Drucker, announced to The Economist (2001, p.12):

What has changed manufacturing, and dramatically increased productivity, are the new
concepts. Information, Control, Automation and Robotics Technologies are less im-
portant than new ideas about manufacturing, which in advance are comparable to the
arrival of mass production 80 years ago.

By these new ideas, Drucker was referring to Lean Thinking, where the critical role is
not for techniques and processes, but rather for the strive to make ‘knowledge productive’
through motivating people to work in a Lean manner. Following suit, we advocate for Lean
Construction 4.0 to be concerned with expanding the view from merely the technological
advancement embedded in I4.0, to permanently balancing the three core Lean elements or
triad, namely process or (management) philosophy, people or culture, and technology. The
management philosophy is based on Lean principles (e.g., delivering value, reducing waste,
continuous improvement). The culture is based on people motivated by the Lean transfor-
mation. All this is supported by the methods and technologies ofered by I4.0.
As depicted in Figure 1.2, the current situation of the AEC industry is positioned
halfway between the full integration of I4.0-related SDT, which is paving the way for
the technological advancement in the AEC sector, and Lean foundations. The balance
within the process (philosophy)-people (culture)-technology triad promoted by Lean is

8
 Lean Construction 4.0

Figure 1.2 The integration of I4.0 with Lean towards lean construction 4.0

often overlooked or underachieved, leaving organizations with mediocre results. After all,
the management philosophy is needed to provide the ‘productive knowledge’, the knowl-
edge to know what to do and how to do it, thus achieving Lean processes and operations.
The people/culture pillar is also critical to sustain people and teams that are the engine
and backbone of any organizational transformation. Accordingly, organizations need to
engage their people, train, and develop them individually while promoting teamwork.
However, some researchers expressed their concerns about a possible discrepancy where
I4.0 support high level of automation and digitization, while Lean Thinking promotes
intense human integration and efciency (Pagliosa et al., 2019). Nonetheless, Kolberg and
Zühlke (2015) proved that I4.0 ofers innovative technologies, yet favors cost-efcient and
lower levels of complexity solutions similar to what Lean Thinking advocates; addition-
ally, those innovative solutions are to support humans that would take the same leading
role. Another aspect that needs to embrace these concepts and act as the practical under-
pinning for Lean Construction 4.0 is the environmental aspect. Protecting the environ-
ment and diminishing the environmental efects should be part of the key concerns in the
shift to Lean Construction 4.0.
In order to ensure the Lean triad balance, and expand on the current progress, academia
is expected to play a vital role in supporting the merge between Lean Construction and
I4.0-related SDT to meet the vision of Lean Construction 4.0. Such integration would lever-
age these technologies to ensure better outcomes on all levels in the AEC industry.
While the manufacturing sector has been proposing frameworks to merge I4.0 with Lean
Thinking approaches to respond to the competitive growing market, examples: (Buer et al.,
2018; Kolberg & Zühlke, 2015), a better and mature understanding of I4.0 and its associated
SDT is still needed (Tortorella et al., 2021). Likewise, the AEC industry is in need for more
systematic implementation approaches that actually endow the industry professionals with
means, guidelines, appropriate technologies, and roadmaps for implementation. Academia
can ofer this help and contribute in a cost-efective manner to avoid the investment of
‘randomly trying’ I4.0-related SDT, and alternatively, perform in rational manner experi-
mentation, analysis, and evaluation, then reveal lessons learned. By conducting pilots testing,
problems of rushing to SDT without proper planning are avoided.

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 Vicente A. González et al.

An ample opportunity for research is anticipated in developing frameworks for inte-

gration based on empirical evidence, analyzing synergies, and comprehensive conceptual
models that link construction operations to relevant I4.0 SDT. These eforts would be in line
with governmental plans around the world to expand the proper implementation of I4.0-
related SDT in the AEC sector (Tortorella & Fettermann, 2018). In addition, research eforts
could beneft from the funding that governments and industry are allocating into these areas.
Research endeavors shall target the diferent stakeholders in the AEC supply chain and ex-
pand on collaborative and experimental works. Collective resources from colleges, univer-
sities, and industry frms are expected to fulfll a better transition to Lean Construction 4.0.
These collaboration and networking eforts would help academia in gaining further trust
from the industry by preparing better future skilled workforce equipped with the needed
knowledge and mindset on technologies, culture, and management philosophy based on
Lean Construction. In return, the industry would have a direct beneft from the proposed
road maps and frameworks for a digital construction environment that would consequently
lead to higher productivity and performance in the AEC industry.

A Vision for Development and Implementation

While some SDT solutions have been incorporated into the AEC industry for a decade
now, investments in technology have intensifed recently. In fact, the urge for change using
further technological advancement over the coming years has never been stronger (Bartlett
et al., 2020). Several broad attempts to establish the foundation for adoption and execution
of I4.0 technologies in AEC projects have been observed. In what follows, we provide our
own view on the general strategies that need to be considered when implementing Lean
Construction 4.0. This set of guidelines acts as basis for the development of any future frame-
works and implementation plans to support the future vision for the digital transformation in
the AEC industry, thereby achieving Lean Construction 4.0.
According to Kotter (1995), any transformation in an organization should go through
several initial steps, starting from establishing the sense of urgency for this transformation,
followed by composing the lead team to do the change efort, and then creating and commu-
nicating the vision with its corresponding strategies. To this end, having a complete vision
to direct the changes is very critical, where Kotter stressed that ‘without a sensible vision,
a transformation efort can easily dissolve into a list of confusing and incompatible projects
that can take the organization in the wrong direction or nowhere at all’ (Kotter, 1995, p.5).
Consequently, the proposed guidelines and criteria represent the point of departure, and
provide a general vision for every organization when implementing I4.0 SDT within a Lean
framework:

1 Consciousness about human-centered systems: Any future implementation plan

shall consider the existing workforce and teams to establish a clear vision on their de-
gree of involvement and empowerment. The basis for projects upgrades to SDT and the
transformation toward I4.0 is people’s collaboration and management. With collabo-
ration, this shift is believed to be better applied by discussing and engaging people on
all levels, not only during the execution phase but also early on during the planning
phase. This step is similar to the concept of involving the Last Planner in the planning
process. The Last Planner system (LPS) is a production planning philosophy and set of
procedures that facilitate work fow through coordination and commitments among all
team members (the last planners) (Ballard, 2000). Similarly, I4.0-SDT implementation

10
 Lean Construction 4.0

requires intensive collaboration mimicking the social dynamics engendered by LPS.

Additionally, this technological shift should be initiated by capturing the organizational
culture and stakeholders’ values through involving teams and discussing change to have
this gradual cultural and technological shift. The need for new workforce that have the
knowledge in advanced SDT is obviously inevitable; thus, managers and any lead group
should be the connecting bridge between the new workforce and the existing teams
that have the know-how of the work processes. Brainstorming the existing and probable
new obstacles need to be coordinated among teams. This would help in removing any
concerns about new SDT implementations, training, time investments, and integration
among other processes. Digital collaboration is the new trend, yet it should not abort
human interaction and coordination.
2 Evaluation of long-term benefts: Another important consideration is the long-term
benefts over short-term gains, as per the Lean philosophy. Designing the digital transfor-
mation of the processes and moving to smart operators, machines, and automated work,
whether in design or construction, requires a known budget target. Similar to target
value design (TVD), which is a management technique that uses collaboration to achieve
a target construction cost while maintaining value (Zimina et al., 2012), the transforma-
tion and the implementation plan of construction companies should start with the end
in mind. This means that a wide view on the expected results should be assessed earlier,
specifcally assessing the value of such transformation. Here, we need to go beyond the
monetary value, to include the achievement of value that is of beneft for the diferent
parties such as owners, design team, and construction team (Giménez et al., 2020).
3 Development of human trust in the decision-making process: While currently,
the digital world is providing means to aid in the decision-making process, such as the
use of AI, ethical dilemmas are arising on this matter, specifcally when decisions are
made by algorithms instead of humans (Arroyo et al., 2021). Sound decisions shall be
made by people in charge with the help of AI and algorithms shall be transparent to
decision makers. The concern here is that at the beginning, algorithms are reliant on
human-input, yet after enough historical data is collected, algorithms can be indepen-
dent of human input based on the machine learning concept. Therefore, between har-
vesting the benefts of AI in the AEC industry, where algorithms propose solutions that
human could never develop on their own, and between keeping power over the decision
processes, human-AI trust is needed to improve Lean workfow (Schia et al., 2019).
4 Acknowledgment of technology as means to the ends: Technology is in service of
the work (fnal product), teams (internal stakeholders), end-users (external stakeholders),
and the industry as a whole. The idea here is to treat SDT as the means not the goal or
the end target. Organizations in the AEC industry shall be aware not to follow the trend
of I4.0 technologies without sufcient knowledge and evaluation plan to what is appli-
cable within the constraints of the project and the company. When robots were intro-
duced for the frst time, people feared they would take over, as they were envisioned as
a desired result. In that respect, Isaac Asimov introduced the famous three rules: robots
may not harm humans, must obey rules and orders by humans, and must protect their
existence without conficting the frst two rules (Asimov, 1950). Since then, researchers
and inventors emphasized the idea of having robots and smart machines to primarily
serve the human race (means not ends). Following suit, SDT shall assist humans in mul-
tiple construction tasks and operations, specifcally those that go beyond their capability,
as part of serving the end goal which is successful projects with lower waste, higher
value, and higher customers’ satisfaction.

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 Vicente A. González et al.

5 Integration of the whole rather than fragmented and partial solutions: The
problem of fragmentation and partial development of processes on a project or within a
construction factory is a prevalent and pressing problem within the AEC industry (Blanco
et al., 2018). When it comes about partial solutions, such as improving the efciency of
one construction operation, for immediate benefts, this is done at the expense of other
processes and results in a big disconnect across the overall project. Lean, otherwise, fo-
cuses on what is called global optimization rather than local optimization. Accordingly,
with the implementation of I4.0-related SDT, companies need to understand their cur-
rent practices, their capabilities, and how to adopt these SDT within their culture, vision,
and collective processes to achieve an integrative, not siloed implementation of SDT.
6 Respect to sustainability pillars: when we talk about smart cities, this should take
place on the basis of social and environmental respect. Any implementation and frame-
work should be human-centered and have an environmentally friendly design. Sustain-
ability goes hand in hand with Lean concepts and approaches, and this shall be the same
for Lean Construction 4.0.

The AEC industry has to face the fact that sooner or later a digital transformation is coming,
whether in a slow or a fast rhythm. The principles identifed above as part of the overall
vision of Lean Construction 4.0 are recommended as a checklist when proposing implemen-
tation strategies. Finally, with Lean Construction 4.0 opportunities come some risks and
challenges that will be discussed in detail in Chapter 20 of this book.

Conclusion
The digital transformation is ongoing and taking over many industries, and the AEC is
part of this shift. We believe the adaptation to meet the current changes is not a straightfor-
ward approach and needs a transition phase where diferent stakeholders need to collaborate
and share concerns. Focusing only on cutting-edge applications and SDT without actually
considering the challenges and the realistic impacts is detrimental. Improving productivity,
connectivity, and collaboration on projects should be drivers to implementing Lean Con-
struction 4.0. Current practices should be evaluated, and improvements should be imple-
mented where applicable with the needed resources. A set of guidelines were highlighted
as part of the vision for implementing Lean Construction 4.0. Lean Construction 4.0 shall
focus on providing integrated approaches for AEC organizations by ofering solutions that
consider diferent aspects of the processes involved, the existing labor and teams, and their
potential in adopting SDT and implementing them in a gradual and consistent manner to
sustain the digital transformation of these organizations.
We envision that Lean Construction 4.0 would open avenues for research to generate
more challenging ideas that tackle the 14 Lean principles and what expansions might be
needed in connection with SDT. The vision of Lean Construction 4.0 for the upcoming
years is based on a dynamic process that integrates technologies and processes with people
within a Lean culture.

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