Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete Victor E Saouma 2003

Draft DRAFT
Lecture Notes in:
Mechanics and Design of

REINFORCED CONCRETE
CVEN4555
°
c VICTOR E. SAOUMA,
Fall 2002
Dept. of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering

University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0428
January 13, 2003

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Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

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Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 1–1
1.1 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–1
1.1.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–1
1.1.1.1 Mix Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–1
1.1.1.1.1 Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–1
1.1.1.1.2 Preliminary Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–5
1.1.1.1.3 Mix procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–5
1.1.1.1.4 Mix Design Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–8
1.1.1.2 Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–9
1.1.2 Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–13
1.2 Design Philosophy, USD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–14
1.3 Analysis vs Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–15
1.4 Basic Relations and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–16
1.5 ACI Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–16
2 FLEXURE 2–1
2.1 Uncracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–1
E 2-1 Uncracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–2
2.2 Section Cracked, Stresses Elastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–3
2.2.1 Basic Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–3
2.2.2 Working Stress Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–4
E 2-2 Cracked Elastic Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–5
E 2-3 Working Stress Design Method; Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–6
E 2-4 Working Stress Design Method; Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–7
2.3 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–8
2.3.1 Whitney Stress Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–8
2.3.2 Balanced Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–10
2.3.3 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–11
2.3.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–11
2.4 Practical Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–12
2.4.1 Minimum Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–12
2.4.2 Beam Sizes, Bar Spacing, Concrete Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–13
2.4.3 Design Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–13
2.5 USD Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–15
E 2-5 Ultimate Strength; Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–15
E 2-6 Ultimate Strength; Design I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–16
E 2-7 Ultimate Strength; Design II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–17
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E 2-8 Exact Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS
. . . . . . 2–17
2.6 T Beams, (ACI 8.10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–20
2.6.1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–21
2.6.2 Design, (balanced) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–22
E 2-9 T Beam; Moment Capacity I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–22
E 2-10 T Beam; Moment Capacity II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–23
E 2-11 T Beam; Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–24
2.7 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–26
2.7.1 Tests for fs and fs0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–27
2.7.2 Moment Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–29
E 2-12 Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam; Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–30
E 2-13 Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam; Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–32
2.8 Moment-Curvature Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–33
2.9 Bond & Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–35
2.9.1 Moment Capacity Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–39
3 SHEAR 3–1
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–1
3.2 Shear Strength of Uncracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–2
3.3 Shear Strength of Cracked Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–5
3.4 ACI Code Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–6
3.5 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–8
E 3-1 Shear Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–8
3.6 Shear Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–9
E 3-2 Shear Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–11
3.7 Brackets and Corbels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–12
3.8 Deep Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–12
4 CONTINUOUS BEAMS 4–1

4.1 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–1
4.2 Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–2
4.2.1 Detailed Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–2
4.2.2 ACI Approximate Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–2
4.3 Effective Span Design Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–4
4.4 Moment Redistribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–4
4.4.1 Elastic-Perfectly Plastic Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–4
4.4.2 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–6
E 4-1 Moment Redistribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–6
4.5 Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–7
5 ONE WAY SLABS 5–1

5.1 Types of Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–1
5.2 One Way Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–4
5.3 Design of a One Way Continuous Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–5

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6 SERVICEABILITY
0–3
6–1
6.1 Control of Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–1
E 6-1 Crack Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–3
6.2 Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–3
6.2.1 Short Term Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–4
6.2.2 Long Term Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–5
E 6-2 Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–7
7 APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS 7–1

7.1 Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–1
7.2 Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–4
7.2.1 Portal Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–4
E 7-1 Approximate Analysis of a Frame subjected to Vertical and Horizontal
Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–6
8 COLUMNS 8–1
9 COLUMNS 9–1
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–1
9.1.1 Types of Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–1
9.1.2 Possible Arrangement of Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–2
9.2 Short Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–2
9.2.1 Concentric Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–2
9.2.2 Eccentric Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–2
9.2.2.1 Balanced Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–3
9.2.2.2 Tension Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–5
9.2.2.3 Compression Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–6
9.2.3 ACI Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–7
9.2.4 Interaction Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–7
9.2.5 Design Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–7
E 9-1 R/C Column, c known . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–7
E 9-2 R/C Column, e known . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–9
E 9-3 R/C Column, Using Design Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–13
9.2.6 Biaxial Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–14
E 9-4 Biaxially Loaded Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–17
9.3 Long Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–18
9.3.1 Euler Elastic Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–18
9.3.2 Effective Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–19
9.3.3 Moment Magnification Factor; ACI Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–21
E 9-5 Long R/C Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–24
E 9-6 Design of Slender Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–25
10 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 10–1

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–1
10.1.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–1
10.1.2 Prestressing Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–4
10.1.3 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–4
10.1.4 Tendon Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–4

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10.1.5 Equivalent Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS
. . . . . . 10–4
10.1.6 Load Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–4
10.2 Flexural Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–6
E 10-1 Prestressed Concrete I Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–8
10.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–10
10.3.1 Cross-Section Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–12
10.3.2 Prestressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–12
10.3.3 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–13
10.3.4 Flexural Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–13

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List of Figures
1.1 Schematic Representation of Aggregate Gradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–2

1.2 MicroCracks in Concrete under Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–10
1.3 Concrete Stress Strain Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–11
1.4 Modulus of Rupture Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–11
1.5 Split Cylinder (Brazilian) Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–11
1.6 Biaxial Strength of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–12
1.7 Time Dependent Strains in Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–13
2.1 Strain Diagram Uncracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–1

2.2 Transformed Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–2
2.3 Stress Diagram Cracked Elastic Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–3
2.4 Desired Stress Distribution; WSD Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–4
2.5 Cracked Section, Limit State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–8
2.6 Whitney Stress Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–10
2.7 Bar Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–15
2.8 T Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–20
2.9 T Beam as Rectangular Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–20
2.10 T Beam Strain and Stress Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–21
2.11 Decomposition of Steel Reinforcement for T Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–21
2.12 Doubly Reinforced Beams; Strain and Stress Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–26
2.13 Different Possibilities for Doubly Reinforced Concrete Beams . . . . . . . . . . . 2–27
2.14 Strain Diagram, Doubly Reinforced Beam; is As Yielding? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–27
2.15 Strain Diagram, Doubly Reinforced Beam; is A0s Yielding? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–28
2.16 Summary of Conditions for top and Bottom Steel Yielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–29
2.17 Bending of a Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–34
2.18 Moment-Curvature Relation for a Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–35
2.19 Bond and Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–36
2.20 Actual Bond Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–37
2.21 Splitting Along Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–37
2.22 Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–38
2.23 Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–38
2.24 Hooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–40
2.25 Bar cutoff requirements of the ACI code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–41
2.26 Standard cutoff or bend points for bars in approximately equal spans with uni-
formly distributed load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–42
2.27 Moment Capacity Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–43
3.1 Principal Stresses in Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–1

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3.2 Types of Shear Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

LIST OF FIGURES
. . . . . . . . 3–1
3.4 Mohr’s Circle for Shear Strength of Uncracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–3
3.6 Free Body Diagram of a R/C Section with a Flexural Shear Crack . . . . . . . . 3–5
3.7 Equilibrium of Shear Forces in Cracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–6
3.8 Summary of ACI Code Requirements for Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–7
3.9 Corbel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–9
3.10 Shear Friction Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–10
3.11 Shear Friction Across Inclined Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–10
4.1 Continuous R/C Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–1

4.2 Load Positioning on Continuous Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–1
4.3 ACI Approximate Moment Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–3
4.4 Design Negative Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–4
4.5 Moment Diagram of a Rigidly Connected Uniformly Loaded Beam . . . . . . . . 4–5
4.6 Moment Curvature of an Elastic-Plastic Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–5
4.7 Plastic Moments in Uniformly Loaded Rigidly Connected Beam . . . . . . . . . . 4–5
4.8 Plastic Redistribution in Concrete Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–6
4.9 Block Diagram for R/C Building Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–8
5.1 Types of Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–1

5.2 One vs Two way slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–2
5.3 Load Distribution in Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–2
5.4 Load Transfer in R/C Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–3
6.1 Crack Width Equation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–2

6.2 Uncracked Transformed and Cracked Transformed X Sections . . . . . . . . . . . 6–4
6.3 Time Dependent Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–5
6.4 Time Dependent Strain Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–6
6.5 Short and long Term Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–6
7.1 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Girder Moments . 7–2
7.2 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Axial Forces7–3
7.3 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Moments 7–3
7.4 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Shear . . . 7–5
7.5 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Girder Moment . . 7–5
7.6 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Axial Force7–6
7.7 Example; Approximate Analysis of a Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–7
7.8 Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Vertical Loads . . . . . . . 7–9
7.9 Approximate Analysis of a Building; Shears Due to Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . 7–10
7.10 Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Spread-Sheet Format . . . . . . . . . . 7–12
7.11 Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Equations in Spread-Sheet . . . . . . . 7–13
7.12 Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Lateral Loads . . . . . . . 7–14
7.13 Portal Method; Spread-Sheet Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–16
7.14 Portal Method; Equations in Spread-Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–17
9.1 Types of columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–1

9.2 Tied vs Spiral Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–1

Draft
LIST OF FIGURES
9.3 Possible Bar arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0–3
. 9–2
9.4 Sources of Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–3
9.5 Load Moment Interaction Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–3
9.6 Strain and Stress Diagram of a R/C Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–4
9.7 Column Interaction Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–8
9.8 Failure Surface of a Biaxially Loaded Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–14
9.9 Load Contour at Plane of Constant Pn , and Nondimensionalized Corresponding
plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–15
9.10 Biaxial Bending Interaction Relations in terms of β . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–16
9.11 Bilinear Approximation for Load Contour Design of Biaxially Loaded Columns . 9–16
9.12 Euler Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–18
9.13 Column Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–19
9.14 Critical lengths of columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–20
9.15 Effective length Factors Ψ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–21
9.16 Standard Alignment Chart (ACI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–22
9.17 Minimum Column Eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–22
9.18 P-M Magnification Interaction Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–23
10.1 Pretensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–2

10.2 Posttensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–2
10.3 7 Wire Prestressing Tendon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–3
10.4 Alternative Schemes for Prestressing a Rectangular Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978)10–5
10.5 Determination of Equivalent Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–5
10.6 Load-Deflection Curve and Corresponding Internal Flexural Stresses for a Typi-
cal Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–6
10.7 Flexural Stress Distribution for a Beam with Variable Eccentricity; Maximum
Moment Section and Support Section, (Nilson 1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–7
10.8 Walnut Lane Bridge, Plan View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–11
10.9 Walnut Lane Bridge, Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–12

Draft
0–4 LIST OF FIGURES

Draft
List of Tables
1.1 ASTM Sieve Designation’s Nominal Sizes Used for Concrete Aggregates . . . . . 1–3
1.2 ASTM C33 Grading Limits for Coarse Concrete Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–3
1.3 ASTM C33 Grading Limits for Fine Concrete Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–3
1.4 Example of Fineness Modulus Determination for Fine Aggregate . . . . . . . . . 1–5
1.5 Recommended Slumps (inches) for Various Types of Construction . . . . . . . . 1–6
1.6 Recommended Average Total Air Content as % of Different Nominal Maximum
Sizes of Aggregates and Levels of Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–6
1.7 Approximate Mixing Water Requirements, lb/yd3 of Concrete For Different
Slumps and Nominal Maximum Sizes of Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–7
1.8 Relationship Between Water/Cement Ratio and Compressive Strength . . . . . . 1–7
1.9 Volume of Dry-Rodded Coarse Aggregate per Unit Volume of Concrete for Dif-
ferent Fineness Moduli of Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–8
1.10 Creep Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–13
1.11 Properties of Reinforcing Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–14
1.12 Strength Reduction Factors, Φ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–14
2.1 Total areas for various numbers of reinforcing bars (inch2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–14
2.2 Minimum Width (inches) according to ACI Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–14
4.1 Building Structural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–7
5.1 Recommended Minimum Slab and Beam Depths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–4
7.1 Columns Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . 7–18

7.2 Girders Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . 7–19
Draft
0–2 LIST OF TABLES

Draft
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Material
1.1.1 Concrete
This section is adapted from Concrete by Mindess and Young, Prentice Hall, 1981
1.1.1.1 Mix Design

1.1.1.1.1 Constituents
1 Concrete is a mixture of Portland cement, water, and aggregates (usually sand and crushed
stone).
2 Portland cement is a mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials which are calcined in
a kiln and then pulverized. When mixed with water, cement hardens through a process called
hydration.
3 Ideal mixture is one in which:
1. A minimum amount of cement-water paste is used to fill the interstices between the
particles of aggregates.
2. A minimum amount of water is provided to complete the chemical reaction with cement.
Strictly speaking, a water/cement ratio of about 0.25 is needed to complete this reaction,
but then the concrete will have a very low “workability”.
In such a mixture, about 3/4 of the volume is constituted by the aggregates, and the remaining
1/4 being the cement paste.
4 Smaller particles up to 1/4 in. in size are called fine aggregates, and the larger ones being
coarse aggregates.
5 Portland Cement has the following ASTM designation
I Normal
II Moderate sulfate resistant, moderate heat of hydration
III High early strength (but releases too much heat)

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Figure 1.1: Schematic Representation of Aggregate Gradation
IV Low heat Portland cement, minimizes thermal cracking but must control initial temper-
ature
V Sulfate resistant (marine environment)
6 Aggregate usually occupy 70% to 80% of the volume of concrete. They are granular material
derived, for the most part, from natural rock, crushed stone, natural gravels and sands.
7 ASTM C33 (Standard Specifications for Concrete Aggregates) governs the types of rock which
can produce aggregates.
8 The shape can be rounded, irregular, angular, flaky, or elongated.
9 The surface texture can be glassy, smooth, granular, rough, crystalline or honeycombed.
10 The particle size distribution or grading of aggregates is very important as it determines
the amount of paste for a workable concrete, Fig. 1.1. Since cement is the most expensive
component, proper gradation is of paramount importance.
11The grading of an aggregate supply is determined by a sieve analysis. A representative
sample of the aggregate is passed through a stack of sieves aranged in order of decreasing size
opening of the sieve.
12 We divide aggregates in two categories
Coarse aggregate fraction is that retained on the No. 4 sieve, Table 1.1.
Fine aggregate fraction is that passing the No. 4 sieve.
13 ASTM C33 sets grading limits for coarse and fine aggregates, Table 1.2 and 1.3 respectively.
14If a concrete does not comply with these limits, than there will be a need for more paste,
and there will be the possibility of aggregate segregation.
15 Since aggregates contain some porosity, water can be absorbed. Also water can be retained
on the surface of the particle as a film or moisture. Hence, it is necessary to quantify the
moisture content of the aggregates in order to make adjustments to the water. Because dry
aggregates will remove water from the paste, then the w/c is effectively reduced. On the other
hand moist aggregates may effectively increase the w/c ratio.

Draft
1.1 Material 1–3
ASTM Size
Design. mm in.
Coarse Aggregate
3 in. 75 3
21/2 in. 63 2.5
2 in. 50 2
11/2 in. 37.5 1.5
1 in. 25 1
3/4 in. 19 0.75
1/2 in. 12.5 0.50
3/8 in. 9.5 0.375
Fine Aggregate
No. 4 4.75 0.187
No. 8 2.36 0.0937
No. 16 1.18 0.0469
No. 30 0.60 (600 µm) 0.0234
No. 50 300 µm 0.0124
No. 100 150 µm 0.0059
Table 1.1: ASTM Sieve Designation’s Nominal Sizes Used for Concrete Aggregates
Sieve Size % Passing Each Sieve

(Nominal Maximum Size)
11/2 in. 1 in. 3/4 in. 1/2 in.
11/2 in. 95-100 100 - -
1 in. - 95-100 100 -
3/4 in. 35-70 - 90-100 100
1/2 in. - 25-60 - 90-100
3/8 in. 10-30 - 20-55 40-70
No. 4 0-5 0-10 0-10 0-15
No. 8 - 0-5 0-5 0-5
Table 1.2: ASTM C33 Grading Limits for Coarse Concrete Aggregates
Sieve Size % Passing

3/4 in. 100
No. 4 95-100
No. 8 80-100
No. 16 50-85
No. 30 25-60
No. 50 10-30
No. 100 2-10
Table 1.3: ASTM C33 Grading Limits for Fine Concrete Aggregates

Draft
1–4
16 Moisture states are defined as

INTRODUCTION
Oven-dry (OD): all moisture is removed from the aggregate.
Air-dry (AD): all moisture is removed from the surface, but internal pores are partially full.
Saturated-surface-dry (SSD): All pores are filled with water, but no film of water on the
surface.
Wet: All pores are completely filled with a film of water on the surface.
17 Based on the above, we can determine
Absorption capacity (AC): is the maximum amount of water the aggregate can absorb
WSSD − WOD
AC = × 100% (1.1)
WOD
most normal -weight aggregates (fine and coarse) have an absorption capacity in the range
of 1% to 2%.
Surface Moisture (SM): is the water in excess of the SSD state
WW et − WSSD
SM = × 100% (1.2)
WSSD
18 The fineness modulus is a parameter which describe the grading curve and it can be used
to check the uniformity of the grading. It is usually computed for fine aggregates on the basis
of P
cumulative percent retained on standard sieves
F.M. = (1.3)
100
where the standard sieves used are No. 100, No. 50, No. 30, No. 16, No. 8, and No. 4, and
3/8 in, 3/4 in, 11/2 in and larger.
19 The fineness modulus for fine aggregate should lie between 2.3 and 3.1 A small number
indicates a fine grading, whereas a large number indicates a coarse material.
20 Table 1.4 illustrates the determination of the fineness modulus.
21 Fineness modulus of fine aggregate is required for mix proportioning since sand gradation
has the largest effect on workability. A fine sand (low fineness modulus) has much higher paste
requirements for good workability.
22 The fineness modulus of coarse aggregate is not used for mix design purposes.
23 no-fines concrete has little cohesiveness in the fresh state and can not be compacted to a
void-free condition. Hence, it will have a low strength, high permeability. Its only advantage is
low density, and high thermal insulation which can be used if structural requirements are not
high.

Draft
1.1 Material
Sieve Weight Amount Cumulative Cumulative

1–5
Size Retained Retained Amount Amount

(g) (wt. %) Retained (%) Passing (%)
No. 4 9 2 2 98
No. 8 46 9 11 89
No. 16 97 19 30 70
No. 30 99 20 50 50
No. 50 120 24 74 26
No. 100 91 18 92 8
P
Sample Weight 500 g. = 259
Fineness modulus=259/100=2.59
Table 1.4: Example of Fineness Modulus Determination for Fine Aggregate
1.1.1.1.2 Preliminary Considerations
24 There are two fundamental aspects to mix design to keep in mind:
1. Water/Cement ratio: where the strength is inversely proportional to the water to cement
ratio, approximately expressed as:
A
fc0 = (1.4)
B 1.5w/c
For fc0 in psi, A is usually taken as 14,000 and B depends on the type of cement, but may
be taken to be about 4. It should be noted that w/c controls not only the strength, but
also the porosity and hence the durability.
2. Aggregate Grading: In order to minimize the amount of cement paste, we must maximize
the volume of aggregates. This can be achieved through proper packing of the granular
material. The “ideal” grading curve (with minimum voids) is closely approximated by
the Fuller curve µ ¶q
d
Pt = (1.5)
D
where Pt is the fraction of total solids finer than size d, and D is the maximum particle
size, q is generally taken as 1/2, hence the parabolic grading.
1.1.1.1.3 Mix procedure
25Before starting the mix design process, the following material properties should be deter-
mined:
1. Sieve analysis of both fine and coarse aggregates
2. Unit weight of the coarse aggregate
3. Bulk specific gravities

Draft
1–6
4. absorption capacities of the aggregates

INTRODUCTION
1. Slump1 must be selected for the particular job to account for the anticipated method
of handling and placing concrete, Table 1.5 As a general rule, adopt the lowest possible
Type of Construction Max Min

Foundation walls and footings 3 1
Plain footings, caissons 3 1
Beams and reinforced walls 4 1
Building columns 4 1
Pavement and slabs 3 1
Mass concrete 3 1
Table 1.5: Recommended Slumps (inches) for Various Types of Construction
slump.
2. Maximum aggregate size: in general the largest possible size should be adopted.
However, it should be noted that:
(a) For reinforced concrete, the maximum size may not exceed one-fifth of the mini-
mum dimensions between the forms, or three-fourths of the minimum clear spacing
between bars, or between steel and forms.
(b) For slabs on grade, the maximum size may not exceed one-third the slab depth.
In general maximum aggregate size is 3/4 in or 1 in.
3. Water and Air content Air content will affect workability (some time it is better to
increase air content rather than increasing w/c which will decrease strength). Air content
can be increased through the addition of admixtures. Table 1.6 tabulates recommended
values of air content (obtained through such admixtures) for different conditions (for
instance under severe freezing/thawing air content should be high).
Recommended water requirements are given by Table 1.7.
Sizes of Aggregates
Exposure 3/8 in. 1/2 in. 3/4 in. 1 in. 11/2 in.
Mild 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.5 3.0
Moderate 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.4
Extreme 7.5 7.0 6.0 6.05 5.5
Table 1.6: Recommended Average Total Air Content as % of Different Nominal Maximum Sizes
of Aggregates and Levels of Exposure
1
The slump test (ASTM C143) is a measure of the shear resistance of concrete to flowing under its own weight.
It is a good indicator of the concrete “workability”. A hollow mold in the form of a frustum of a cone is filled
with concrete in three layers of equal volume. Each layer is rodded 25 times. The mold is then lifted vertically,
and the slump is measured by determining the difference between the height of the mold and the height of the
concrete over the original center of the base of the specimen.

Draft
1.1 Material
Slump Sizes of Aggregates

1–7
in. 3/8 in. 1/2 in. 3/4 in. 1 in. 11/2 in.
Non-Air-Entrained Concrete
1-2 350 335 315 300 275
3-4 385 365 340 325 300
6-7 410 385 360 340 315
Air-Entrained Concrete
1-2 305 295 280 270 250
3-4 340 325 305 295 275
6-7 365 345 325 310 290
Table 1.7: Approximate Mixing Water Requirements, lb/yd3 of Concrete For Different Slumps
and Nominal Maximum Sizes of Aggregates
4. Water/cement ratio: this is governed by both strength and durability. Table 1.8
provides some guidance in terms of strength.
28 days w/c Ratio by Weight

fc0 Non-air-entrained Air-entrained
6,000 0.41 -
5,000 0.48 0.40
4,000 0.57 0.48
3,000 0.68 0.59
2,000 0.82 0.74
Table 1.8: Relationship Between Water/Cement Ratio and Compressive Strength
For durability, if there is a severe exposure (freeze/thaw, exposure to sea-water, sulfates),

then there are severe restrictions on the W/C ratio (usually to be kept just under 0.5)
5. Cement Content: Once the water content and the w/c ratio are determined, the amount
of cement per unit volume of concrete is determined simply by dividing the estimated
water requirement by the w/c ratio.
6. Coarse Aggregate Content: Volume of coarse aggregate required per cubic yard of
concrete depends on its maximum size and the fineness modulus of the fine aggregate,
Table 1.9. The oven dry (OD) volume of coarse aggregate in ft3 required per cubic yard
is simply equal to the value from Table 1.9 multiplied by 27. This volume can then be
converted to an OD weight by multiplying it by the dry-rodded2 weight per cubic foot of
coarse aggregate.
7. The fine aggregate content can be estimated by subtracting the volume of cement,
water, air and coarse aggregate from the total volume. The weight of the fine aggregate
can then be obtained by multiplying this volume by the density of the fine aggregate.
2
Dry Rodded Volume (DRV) is the normal volume of space a material occupies.

Draft
1–8
Agg. Size Sand Fineness Moduli

INTRODUCTION
in 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00

3/8 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44
1/2 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53
3/4 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60
1 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65
11/2 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.70
Table 1.9: Volume of Dry-Rodded Coarse Aggregate per Unit Volume of Concrete for Different
Fineness Moduli of Sand
8. Adjustment for moisture in the aggregates: is necessary. If aggregates are air

dry, they will absorb some water (thus effectively lowering the w/c), or if aggregates are
too wet they will release water (increasing the w/c and the workability but reducing the
strength).
1.1.1.1.4 Mix Design Example
Concrete is required for an exterior column to be located above ground in an area where
substantial freezing and thawing may occur. The concrete is required to have an average 28-
day compressive strength of 5,000 psi. For the conditions of placement, the slump should be
between 1 and 2 in, the maximum aggregate size should not exceed 3/4 in. and the properties
of the materials are as follows:
Cement: Type I specific gravity = 3.15
Coarse Aggregates: Bulk specific gravity (SSD) = 2.70; absorption capacity= 1.0%; Total
moisture content = 2.5%; Dry-rodded unit weight = 100 lb/ft3
Fine Aggregates: Bulk specific gravity (SSD) = 2.65; absorption capacity = 1.3 %; Total
moisture content=5.5%; fineness modulus = 2.70
The sieve analyses of both the coarse and fine aggregates fall within the specified limits. With
this information, the mix design can proceed:
1. Choice of slump is consistent with Table 1.5.
2. Maximum aggregate size (3/4 in) is governed by reinforcing details.
3. Estimation of mixing water: Because water will be exposed to freeze and thaw, it must
be air-entrained. From Table 1.6 the air content recommended for extreme exposure is
6.0%, and from Table 1.7 the water requirement is 280 lb/yd3
4. From Table 1.8, the water to cement ratio estimate is 0.4
5. Cement content, based on steps 4 and 5 is 280/0.4=700 lb/yd3
6. Coarse aggregate content, interpolating from Table 1.9 for the fineness modulus of
the fine aggregate of 2.70, the volume of dry-rodded coarse aggregate per unit volume of
concrete is 0.63. Therefore, the coarse aggregate will occupy 0.63 × 27 = 17.01 ft3 /yd3 .

Draft
1.1 Material 1–9
The OD weight of the coarse aggregate is 17.01 ft3 /yd3 , × 100 lbs/ft3 =1,701 lb. The SSD
weight is 1,701 × 1.01=1,718 lb.
7. Fine aggregate content Knowing the weights and specific gravities of the water, cement,
and coarse aggregate, and knowing the air volume, we can calculate the volume per yd3
occupied by the different ingredients.
Water 280/62.4 = 4.49 ft3
Cement 700/(3.15)(62.4) = 3.56 ft3
Coarse Aggregate (SSD) 1,718/(2.70)(62.4) = 1.62 ft3
Air (0.06)(27) = 1.62 ft3
19.87 ft3
Hence, the fine aggregate must occupy a volume of 27.0 − 19.87 = 7.13 ft3 . The required
SSD weight of the fine aggregate is 7.13 ft3 (2.65)(62.4)lb/ft3 =1,179 lbs lb.
8. Adjustment for moisture in the aggregate. Since the aggregate will be neither SSD or
OD in the field, it is necessary to adjust the aggregate weights for the amount of water
contained in the aggregate. Only surface water need be considered; absorbed water does
not become part of the mix water. For the given moisture contents, the adjusted aggre-
gate weights become:
Coarse aggregate (wet)=1,718(1.025-0.01) = 1,744 lb/yd3 of dry coarse

Fine aggregate (wet)=1,179(1.055-0.013) = 1,229 lb/yd3 of dry fine
Surface moisture contributed by the coarse aggregate is 2.5-1.0 = 1.5%; by the fine ag-
gregate: 5.5-1.3 = 4.2%; Hence we need to decrease water to
280-1,718(0.015)-1,179(0.042) = 205 lb/yd3 .
Thus, the estimated batch weight per yd3 are
Water 205 lb
Cement 700 lb
Wet coarse aggregate 1,744 lb
Wet fine aggregate 1,229 lb
3,878 lb/yd3
3,878
27 143.6 lb/ft3
1.1.1.2 Mechanical Properties
26 Contrarily to steel to modulus of elasticity of concrete depends on the strength and is given
by
p
E = 57, 000 fc0 (1.6)
or
p
E = 33γ 1.5 fc0 (1.7)
where both fc0 and E are in psi and γ is in lbs/ft3 .

Draft
1–10
27
INTRODUCTION
Normal weight and lightweight concrete have γ equal to 150 and 90-120 lb/ft3 respectively.
28 Poisson’s ratio ν = 0.15.
29Typical concrete (compressive) strengths range from 3,000 to 6,000 psi; However high strength
concrete can go up to 14,000 psi.
30 Stress-strain curve depends on
1. Properties of aggregates
2. Properties of cement
3. Water/cement ratio
4. Strength
5. Age of concrete
6. Rate of loading, as rate%, strength %
31 Non-linear part of stress-strain curve is caused by micro-cracking around the aggregates, Fig.
1.2
f’
c
Non-Linear
~ 0.5 cf’
Linear
εu
Figure 1.2: MicroCracks in Concrete under Compression
32 Irrespective of fc0 , maximum strain under compression is ≈ 0.003, Fig. 1.3

33 Full strength of concrete is achieved in about 28 days
0 t
fct = f0 (1.8)
4.0 + .85t c,28
or
t (days) 1 2 4 7 10 15
0
%fc,28 20 35 54 70 80 90
34 Concrete always gain strength in time, but a decreasing rate

Draft
1.1 Material
σ
1–11
f’
c
f’ / 2
c
εu = 0.003 ε
Figure 1.3: Concrete Stress Strain Curve
35 The tensile strength of concrete ft0 is very difficult to measure experimentally. Accepted
values
ft0 ≈ 0.07 − 0.11fc0 (1.9-a)

p
≈ 3 − 5 fc0 (1.9-b)
36 Rather than the tensile strength, it is common to measure the modulus of rupture fr0 , Fig.
1.4
11
00 11
00
00
11
00
11 00
11
Figure 1.4: Modulus of Rupture Test
σ
σ
Figure 1.5: Split Cylinder (Brazilian) Test
p
fr0 ≈ 7.5 fc0 (1.10)

Draft
1–12
f’t
INTRODUCTION
f’c
1
f’t
σ2
σ1 σ1
σ2
f’c
~ 20% increase in strength

2
Figure 1.6: Biaxial Strength of Concrete
p
37 Using split cylinder (or brazilian test), Fig. 1.5 ft0 ≈ 6−8 fc0 . For this test, a nearly uniform
tensile stress
2P
σ= (1.11)
πdt
where P is the applied compressive load at failure, d and t are diameter and thickness of the
specimen respectively.
38 In most cases, concrete is subjected to uniaxial stresses, but it is possible to have biaxial
(shells, shear walls) or triaxial (beam/column connections) states of stress.

39 Biaxial strength curve is shown in Fig. 1.6
40 Concrete has also some time-dependent properties
Shrinkage: when exposed to air (dry), water tends to evaporate from the concrete surface, ⇒
shrinkage. It depends on the w/c and relative humidity. εsh ≈ 0.0002 − 0.0007. Shrinkage
can cause cracking if the structure is restrained, and may cause large secondary stresses.
If a simply supported beam is fully restrained against longitudinal deformation, then
σsh = Eεsh (1.12-a)

p 3, 000
= 57, 000 3, 000(0.0002) = 624 psi > (1.12-b)
| 10
{z }
ft0
if the concrete is restrained, then cracking will occur3 .
Creep: can be viewed as the “squeezing” out of water due to long term stresses (analogous to
consolidation in clay), Fig. 1.7.
3
For this reason a minimum amount of reinforcement is always necessary in concrete, and a 2% reinforcement,
can reduce the shrinkage by 75%.

Draft
1.1 Material
ε
1–13
Elastic recovery
creep
Creep recovery
Residual
no load constant load no load
Figure 1.7: Time Dependent Strains in Concrete
Creep coefficient, Table 1.10

εct
Cu = ≈2−3 (1.13-a)
εci
t0.6
Ct = Cu (1.13-b)
10 + t0.6
fc0 3,000 4,000 6,000 8,000

Cu 3.1 2.9 2.4 2.0
Table 1.10: Creep Coefficients
41 Coefficient of thermal expansion is 0.65 × 10−5 /deg F for normal weight concrete.
1.1.2 Reinforcing Steel
42 Steel is used as reinforcing bars in concrete, Table 1.11.

43 Bars have a deformation on their surface to increase the bond with concrete, and usually
have a yield stress of 60 ksi.

44 Maximum allowable fy is 80 ksi.
45 Stirrups, used as vertical reinforcement to resist shear, usually have a yield stress of only 40
ksi
46 Steel loses its strength rapidly above 700 deg. F (and thus must be properly protected from
fire), and becomes brittle at −30 deg. F
47 Prestressing Steel cables have an ultimate strength up to 270 ksi.

Draft
1–14
Bar Designation Diameter Area Perimeter

INTRODUCTION
Weight
(in.) ( in2 ) in lb/ft
No. 2 2/8=0.250 0.05 0.79 0.167
No. 3 3/8=0.375 0.11 1.18 0.376
No. 4 4/8=0.500 0.20 1.57 0.668
No. 5 5/8=0.625 0.31 1.96 1.043
No. 6 6/8=0.750 0.44 2.36 1.5202
No. 7 7/8=0.875 0.60 2.75 2.044
No. 8 8/8=1.000 0.79 3.14 2.670
No. 9 9/8=1.128 1.00 3.54 3.400
No. 10 10/8=1.270 1.27 3.99 4.303
No. 11 11/8=1.410 1.56 4.43 5.313
No. 14 14/8 =1.693 2.25 5.32 7.650
No. 18 18/8 =2.257 4.00 7.09 13.60
Table 1.11: Properties of Reinforcing Bars
48 Welded wire fabric is often used to reinforce slabs and shells. It has both longitudinal and
transverse cold-drawn steel. They are designated by A×A−W B ×B, such as 6×6−W 1.4×1.4
where spacing of the wire is 6 inch, and a cross section of 0.014 in2 .
1.2 Design Philosophy, USD
49ACI refers to this method as the Strength Design Method, (previously referred to as the
Ultimate Strength Method).
ΦRn ≥ Σαi Qi (1.14)
where
Φ is a strength reduction factor, less than 1, and must account for the type of structural
element, Table 1.12 (ACI 9.3.2)
Type of Member Φ
Axial Tension 0.9
Flexure 0.9
Axial Compression, spiral reinforcement 0.75
Axial Compression, other 0.70
Shear and Torsion 0.85
Bearing on concrete 0.70
Table 1.12: Strength Reduction Factors, Φ
Rn is the nominal resistance (or strength).

Draft
1.3 Analysis vs Design
Ru = Rd = ΦRn is the design strength.

1–15
αi is the load factor corresponding to Qi and is greater than 1.

Σαi Qi is the required strength based on the factored load:
i is the type of load
ΦMn ≥ Mu (1.15-a)
ΦVn ≥ Vu (1.15-b)
ΦPn ≥ Pu (1.15-c)
50 Note that the subscript d and u are equivalent.

51 The various factored load combinations which must be considered (ACI: 9.2) are
1. 1.4D+1.7L
2. 0.75(1.4D+1.7L+1.7W)
3. 0.9D+1.3W
4. 1.05D+1.275W
5. 0.9D+1.7H
6. 1.4D +1.7L+1.7H
7. 0.75(1.4D+1.4T+1.7L)
8. 1.4(D+T)
where D= dead; L= live; Lr= roof live; W= wind; E= earthquake; S= snow; T= temperature;
H= soil. We must select the one with the largest limit state load.
52 Serviceability Limit States must be assessed under service loads (not factored). The
most important ones being

1. Deflections
2. Crack width (for R/C)
3. Stability
1.3 Analysis vs Design
53 In R/C we always consider one of the following problems:

Analysis: Given a certain design, determine what is the maximum moment which can be
applied.
Design: Given an external moment to be resisted, determine cross sectional dimensions (b and
h) as well as reinforcement (As ). Note that in many cases the external dimensions of the
beam (b and h) are fixed by the architect.
54 We often consider the maximum moment along a member, and design accordingly.

Draft
1–16
1.4 Basic Relations and Assumptions

INTRODUCTION
55 In developing a design/analysis method for reinforced concrete, the following basic relations
will be used:
1. Equilibrium: of forces and moment at the cross section. 1) ΣFx = 0 or Tension in the
reinforcement = Compression in concrete; and 2) ΣM = 0 or external moment (that is the
one obtained from the moment envelope) equal and opposite to the internal one (tension
in steel and compression of the concrete).
2. Material Stress Strain: We recall that all normal strength concrete have a failure strain
²u = .003 in compression irrespective of fc0 .
56 Basic assumptions used:

Compatibility of Displacements: Perfect bond between steel and concrete (no slip). Note
that those two materials do also have very close coefficients of thermal expansion under
normal temperature.
Plane section remain plane ⇒ strain is proportional to distance from neutral axis.
Neglect tensile strength in all cases.
1.5 ACI Code

Attached is an unauthorized copy of some of the most relevant ACI-318-89 design code provi-
sions.
8.1.1 - In design of reinforced concrete structures, members shall be proportioned for ad-
equate strength in accordance with provisions of this code, using load factors and strength
reduction factors Φ specified in Chapter 9.
8.3.1 - All members of frames or continuous construction shall be designed for the maximum
effects of factored loads as determined by the theory of elastic analysis, except as modified
according to Section 8.4. Simplifying assumptions of Section 8.6 through p 8.9 may be used.
8.5.1 - Modulus of elasticity Ec for concrete may be taken as Wc1.5 33 fc0 ( psi) for values
of Wc p between 90 and 155 lb per cu ft. For normal weight concrete, Ec may be taken as
57, 000 fc0 .
8.5.2 - Modulus of elasticity Es for non-prestressed reinforcement may be taken as 29,000
psi.
9.1.1 - Structures and structural members shall be designed to have design strengths at all
sections at least equal to the required strengths calculated for the factored loads and forces in
such combinations as are stipulated in this code.
9.2 - Required Strength
9.2.1 - Required strength U to resist dead load D and live load L shall be at least equal to
U = 1.4D + 1.7L (1.16)
9.2.2 - If resistance to structural effects of a specified wind load W are included in design,
the following combinations of D, L, and W shall be investigated to determine the greatest
required strength U
U = 0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W ) (1.17)

Draft
1.5 ACI Code 1–17
where load combinations shall include both full value and zero value of L to determine the more
severe condition, and
U = 0.9D + 1.3W (1.18)
but for any combination of D, L, and W, required strength U shall not be less than Eq. (9-1).
9.3.1 - Design strength provided by a member, its connections to other members, and its
cross sections, in terms of flexure, axial load, shear, and torsion, shall be taken as the nominal
strength calculated in accordance with requirements and assumptions of this code, multiplied
by a strength reduction factor Φ.
9.3.2 - Strength reduction factor Φ shall be as follows:
9.3.2.1 - Flexure, without axial load 0.90
9.4 - Design strength for reinforcement Designs shall not be based on a yield strength of
reinforcement fy in excess of 80,000 psi, except for prestressing tendons.
10.2.2 - Strain in reinforcement and concrete shall be assumed directly proportional to
the distance from the neutral axis, except, for deep flexural members with overall depth to
clear span ratios greater than 2/5 for continuous spans and 4/5 for simple spans, a non-linear
distribution of strain shall be considered. See Section 10.7.
10.2.3 - Maximum usable strain at extreme concrete compression fiber shall be assumed
equal to 0.003.
10.2.4 - Stress in reinforcement below specified yield strength fy for grade of reinforcement
used shall be taken as Es times steel strain. For strains greater than that corresponding to fy ,
stress in reinforcement shall be considered independent of strain and equal to fy .
10.2.5 - Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in flexural calculations of reinforced
concrete, except when meeting requirements of Section 18.4.
10.2.6 - Relationship between concrete compressive stress distribution and concrete strain
may be assumed to be rectangular, trapezoidal, parabolic, or any other shape that results in
prediction of strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests.
10.2.7 - Requirements of Section 10.2.5 may be considered satisfied by an equivalent rect-
angular concrete stress distribution defined by the following:
10.2.7.1 - Concrete stress of 0.85fc0 shall be assumed uniformly distributed over an equiva-
lent compression zone bounded by edges of the cross section and a straight line located parallel
to the neutral axis at a distance (a = β1 c) from the fiber of maximum compressive strain.
10.2.7.2 - Distance c from fiber of maximum strain to the neutral axis shall be measured
in a direction perpendicular to that axis.
10.2.7.3 - Factor β1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete strengths fc0 up to and including
4,000 psi. For strengths above 4,000 psi, β1 shall be reduced continuously at a rate of 0.05 for
each 1000 psi of strength in excess of 4,000 psi, but β1 shall not be taken less than 0.65.
10.3.2 - Balanced strain conditions exist at a cross section when tension reinforcement
reaches the strain corresponding to its specified yield strength fy just as concrete in compression
reaches its assumed ultimate strain of 0.003.
10.3.3 - For flexural members, and for members subject to combined flexure and compres-
sive axial load when the design axial load strength (ΦPn ) is less than the smaller of (0.10fc0 Ag )
or (ΦPb ), the ratio of reinforcement p provided shall not exceed 0.75 of the ratio ρb that would
produce balanced strain conditions for the section under flexure without axial load. For mem-
bers with compression reinforcement, the portion of ρb equalized by compression reinforcement
need not be reduced by the 0.75 factor.
10.3.4 - Compression reinforcement in conjunction with additional tension reinforcement
may be used to increase the strength of flexural members.

Draft
1–18 INTRODUCTION
10.5.1 - At any section of a flexural member, except as provided in Sections 10.5.2 and
10.5.3, where positive reinforcement is required by analysis, the ratio ρ provided shall not be
less than that given by
200
ρmin = (1.19)
fy

Draft
Chapter 2
FLEXURE
1 This is probably the longest chapter in the notes, we shall cover in great details flexural
design/analysis of R/C beams starting with uncracked section to failure conditions.
1. Uncracked elastic (uneconomical)
2. cracked elastic (service stage)
3. Ultimate (failure)
2.1 Uncracked Section

εc
h d
As
εs
Figure 2.1: Strain Diagram Uncracked Section
2 Assuming perfect bond between steel and concrete, we have εs = εc , Fig. 2.1
fs fc Es
εs = εc ⇒ = ⇒ fs = fc ⇒ fs = nfc (2.1)
Es Ec Ec
Es
where n is the modular ratio n = Ec
3 Tensile force in steel Ts = As fs = As nfc

4 Replace steel by an equivalent area of concrete, Fig. 2.2.
Draft
2–2
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
FLEXURE
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
(n-1)A S 11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 (n-1)A S
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
2 00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 2
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
Figure 2.2: Transformed Section
5 Homogeneous section & under bending

Mc
fc = ⇒ fs = nfc (2.2)
I
6
+
Make sure that σmax < ft0
Example 2-1: Uncracked Section
Given fc0 = 4,000 psi; ft0 = 475 psi; fy = 60,000 psi; M = 45 ft-k = 540,000 in-lb; As = 2.35
in2
+ , f − , and f
Determine fmax max s
yt
25" 23"
2 yb
As = 2.35 in
10"
Solution:
29, 000
n = √ = 8 ⇒ (n − 1)As = (8 − 1)(2.35) = 16.45 in2 (2.3-a)
57 4, 000
(10)(25)( 25
2 ) + (16.45)(2)
yb = (2.3-b)
(25)(10) + 16.45
yb = 11.8 in (2.3-c)
y t = 25 − 11.8 = 13.2 in (2.3-d)
(10)(25)3
I = + (25)(10)(13.2 − 12.5)2 + (16.45)(23 − 13.2)2 (2.3-e)
12
= 14, 722 in2 (2.3-f)
Mc (540, 000) lb.in(13.2)in
fcc = = = 484 psi (2.3-g)
I (14, 722) in4

Draft
2.2 Section Cracked, Stresses Elastic
Mc (540, 000) lb.in(25 − 13.2) in √

2–3
fct = = 4
= 433 psi < 475 psi (2.3-h)
I (14, 722) in
Mc (540, 000)(23 − 13.2) in
fs = n = (8) = 2, 876 psi (2.3-i)
I (14, 722)
7 This is important not only as an acceptable alternative ACI design method, but also for the
later evaluation of crack width under service loads.
2.2.1 Basic Relations
8If fct > fr , fcc <≈ .5fc0 and fs < fy we will assume that the crack goes all the way to the
N.A and we will use the transformed section, Fig. 2.3
fc
11111111111111111
00000000000000000 111111111
000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 000000000
111111111 kd/3
000000000
111111111 C
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111 kd
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 000000000
111111111 d
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 000000000
111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 111111111
000000000 (1-k/3)d=jd
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
(n-1)A S 11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 (n-1)A S T
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 11111111111111111
00000000000000000
2 00000000000000000
11111111111111111 2
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
b
Figure 2.3: Stress Diagram Cracked Elastic Section
9 To locate N.A, tension force = compressive force (by def. NA) (Note, for linear stress distri-
R R R
bution and with ΣFx = 0; σ = by ⇒ bydA = 0, thus b ydA = 0 and ydA = yA = 0, by
definition, gives the location of the neutral axis)
³ ´
Es
10 Note, N.A. location depends only on geometry & n
Ec
11 Tensile and compressive forces are equal to C = bkd 2 fc & T = As fs and neutral axis is
determined by equating the moment of the tension area to the moment of the compression
area
µ ¶
kd
b(kd) = nAs (d − kd) 2nd degree equation (2.4-a)
2
M
M = T jd = As fs jd ⇒ fs = (2.4-b)
As jd
bkd bd2
M = Cjd = fc jd = kjfc ⇒ fc = 1 bdM2 kj (2.4-c)
2 2 2
where j = (1 − k/3).

Draft
2–4
2.2.2 Working Stress Method

FLEXURE
12 Referred to as Alternate Design Method (ACI Code Appendix A); Based on Working
Stress Design method.

13 Places a limit on stresses and uses service loads (ACI A.3).
fcc ≤ .45fc0
fst ≤ 20 ksi for grade 40 or 50 steel (2.5)
fst ≤ 24 ksi for grade 60 steel
14 Location of neutral axis depends on whether we are analysing or designing a section.

Review: We seek to locate the N.A by taking the first moments:

ρ = Abds  p
⇒ k = 2ρn + (ρn)2 − ρn (2.6)

b(kd) (kd)
2 = nAs (d − kd)
Design: Objective is to have fc & fs preset & determine As , Fig. 2.4, and we thus seek the
optimal value of k in such a way that concrete and steel reach their respective limits
simultaneously.
εc fc
C kd/3
kd
d
(1-k/3)d=jd
T
εs fs
Figure 2.4: Desired Stress Distribution; WSD Method

 
εc
= kd  

εs d−kd  f c Es
= k 
fc Ec f s 1−k n
εc = Es k= (2.7)
Ec 
 n = 

n+r
εs = fs
Es
Ec
fs 

r = fc
15 Balanced design in terms of ρ: What is the value of ρ such that steel and concrete will both
reach their maximum allowable stress values simultaneously

C = bkd 2 fc 
 ¾
 fc
T = As fs 2 bkd = ρb fs bd n
ρb = 2r(n+r) (2.8)
C = T 
 k = n
 n+r
ρ = Abds
16 Governing equations

Draft
Review Start by determining ρ,

2–5
• If ρ < ρb steel reaches max. allowable value before concrete, and
M = As fs jd (2.9)
• If ρ > ρb concrete reaches max. allowable value before steel and

bkd
M = fc jd (2.10)
2
or
1
M = fc jkbd2 = Rbd2 (2.11)
2
where
p
k = 2ρn + (ρn)2 − ρn
Design We define
def 1
R = fc kj (2.12)
2
n
where k = n+r , solve for bd2 from
M
bd2 = (2.13)
R
assume b and solve for d. Finally we can determine As from
As = ρb bd (2.14)
17 Summary
Review Design
√ √
b, d, As M
M? b, d, As ?
ρ = Abds k = n+r n
p j = 1 − k3
k = 2ρn + (ρn)2 − ρn r = ffsc
r = ffsc R = 12 fc kj
n n
ρb = 2r(n+r) ρb = 2r(n+r)
ρ < ρb M = As fs jd bd2 = M R
ρ > ρb M = 12 fc bkd2 j As = ρb bd or As = M
fs jd
Example 2-2: Cracked Elastic Section

Draft
2–6
Same problem as example 2.1 fc0 = 4,000 psi; ft0 = 475 psi; fy = 60,000 psi; As = 2.35 in2
FLEXURE
however, M is doubled to M = 90 k.ft (instead of 45). Determine concrete and steel stresses
Solution:
Based on previous example, fct would be 866 psi À fr and the solution is thus no longer
valid.
The neutral axis is obtained from
As 2.35
ρ = = = 0.0102 (2.15-a)
bd (10)(23)
ρn = (0.010)(8) = 0.08174 (2.15-b)
p
k = 2ρn + (ρn)2 − ρn (2.15-c)
p
= 2(0.08174) + (0.08174)2 − (0.08174) = 0.33 (2.15-d)
kd = (.33)(23) = 7.6 in (2.15-e)
µ ¶
0.33
jd = 1− (23) = 20.47 in (2.15-f)
3
M
fs = (2.15-g)
As jd
(90)(1, 000)(12)
= = 22, 400 psi (2.15-h)
(2.35)(20.47)
2M
fc = (2.15-i)
bjkd2
(2)(90)(12, 000)
= = 1, 390 psi (2.15-j)
(10) (20.47) (7.6)
| {z } | {z }
jd kd
µ ¶2
(10)(7.6)3 7.6
I = + (10)(7.6) + 8(2.35)(23 − 7.6)2 = 5, 922 in4 (2.15-k)
12 2
Uncracked Cracked Cracked/uncracked

M k.ft 45 90 2
N.A in 13.2 7.6
fcc psi 485 1,390 (< .5fc0 ) 2.9
I in4 14,710 5,910 .4 (δα I1 )
fs psi 2,880 22,400 (≈ 7 )
δ in 1 ≈4 4
Example 2-3: Working Stress Design Method; Analysis
Same problem as example 2.1 fc0 = 4,000 psi; ft0 = 475 psi; fy = 60,000 psi; As = 2.35 in2 .
Determine Moment capacity.
Solution:

Draft
2.2 Section Cracked, Stresses Elastic 2–7
As 2.35
ρ = = = .0102 (2.16-a)
bd (10)(23)
fs = 24 ksi (2.16-b)
fc = (.45)(4, 000) = 1, 800 psi (2.16-c)
p p
k = 2ρn + (ρn)2 − ρn = 2(.0102)8 + (.0102)2 − (8)(.0102) = .331 (2.16-d)
k
j = 1 − = .889 (2.16-e)
3
N.A. @ (.331)(23) = 7.61 in (2.16-f)
n 8
ρb = = = .014 > ρ ⇒ Steel reaches elastic (2.16-g)
limit
2r(n + r) (2)(13.33)(8 + 13.33)
M = As fs jd = (2.35)(24)(.889)(23) = 1, 154 k.in = 96 k.ft (2.16-h)
Note, had we used the alternate equation for moment (wrong) we would have overestimated
the design moment:
1
M = = fc bkd2 j (2.17-a)
2
1
= (1.8)(10)(0.33)(0.89)(23)2 = 1, 397 k.in > 1, 154 k.in (2.17-b)
2
If we define αc = fc /1, 800 and αs = fs /24, 000, then as the load increases both αc and αs
increase, but at different rates, one of them αs reaches 1 before the other.
αs αc
1
Load
Example 2-4: Working Stress Design Method; Design
Design a beam to carry LL = 1.9 k/ft, DL = 1.0 k/ft with fc0 = 4, 000 psi, fy = 60, 000 psi,
L = 32 ft.
Solution:
fc = (.45)(4, 000) = 1, 800 psi (2.18-a)

Draft
2–8
fs = 24, 000 psi

FLEXURE
(2.18-b)
Es 29, 000
n = = √ =8 (2.18-c)
Ec 57 4, 000
fs 24
r = = = 13.33 (2.18-d)
fc 1.8
n 8
k = = = .375 (2.18-e)
n+r 8 + 13.33
d .375
j = 1− =1− = .875 (2.18-f)
3 3
n 8
ρb = = = .01405 (2.18-g)
2r(n + r) 2(13.33)(8 + 13.33)
1 1
R = fc kj = (1, 800)(.375)(.875) = 295 psi (2.18-h)
2 2
Estimate beam weight at .5 k/ft, thus
(32)2
M = [(1.9) + (1.0 + .5)] = 435 k.ft (2.19-a)
8
M 435 k.ft in2 (12, 000) lb.in
bd2 = = = 17, 700 in3 (2.19-b)
R (295) lbs ft k
Take b = 18 in & d = 31.4 in ⇒ h = 36 in
(18)(36)
Check beam weight 145 (.15) in2
ft2
k = .675 k/ft√
2 3
in ft
As = (.01405)(18)(31.4) = 7.94 in2 ⇒ use 8# 9 bars in 2 layers ⇒ As = 8.00 in2
2.3 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method

2.3.1 Whitney Stress Block
ε
γ f’c
βc a/2 = β c
a= β1c
c c
C=α f’cb
c C=γ f’ab
c
h d
As
fs fs
ε Actual
b
Figure 2.5: Cracked Section, Limit State
Figure

Draft
2.3 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method 2–9
18 At failure we have, linear cross strain distribution (ACI 10.2.2) (except for deep beams),
non-linear stress strain curve for the concrete, thus a non-linear stress distribution.
19 Two options:
1. Analytical expression of σ ⇒ exact integration
2. Replace exact stress diagram with a simpler and equivalent one, (ACI 10.2.6)
Second approach adopted by most codes.

20 For the equivalent stress distribution, all we need to know is C & its location, thus α and β.
We adopt a rectangular stress, with depth a = β1 c, and stress equal to γfc0 (ACI 10.2.7.1)
C = αfc0 bc = γfc0 ab (2.20-a)

fav
α = (2.20-b)
fc0
a = β1 c (2.20-c)
Thus
α
γ= (2.21)
β1
But the location of the resultant forces must be the same, hence
β1 = 2β (2.22)
21 From Experiments
fc0 ( psi) <4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000

α .72 .68 .64 .60 .56
β .425 .400 .375 .350 .325
β1 = 2β .85 .80 .75 .70 .65
γ = α/β1 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.86 0.86
22 Thus we have, (ACI-318 10.2.7.3):
β1 = .85 if fc0 ≤ 4, 000

(2.23)
= .85 − (.05)(fc0 − 4, 000) 1,000
1
if 4, 000 < fc0 < 8, 000
23 Failure can occur by either
yielding of steel: εs = εy ; Progressive
crushing of concrete: εc = .003; Sudden; (ACI 10.3.2).

Draft
2–10
ε u=0.003 0.85 f’c

FLEXURE
a= β1c
C=0.85f’c ab
c
h d
d
As
εs T
Figure 2.6: Whitney Stress Block
2.3.2 Balanced Design

Tension Failure: 
fs = fy 
As fs = .85fc0 ab = .85fc0 bβ1 c c=
ρfy
.85fc0 β1 d (2.24)
As 
ρ = bd
Compression Failure:
εc = .003 (2.25-a)
fs
εs = (2.25-b)
Es
c .003
= ⇒ c= fs
.003
d (2.25-c)
d .003 + εs Es
+.003
Balanced Design:
24Balanced design occurs if we have simultaneous yielding of the steel and crushing of the
concrete. Hence, we simply equate the previous two equations
ρfy .003
) ρbf 2d .003
) 0
.85fc0 β1 d = fs
+.003
d .85fc0 β1 = fs
+.003
d ρb = .85β1 ffyc 87,000+f
87,000
Es E−s y (2.26)
ρ = ρb Es = 29, 000 ksi (ACI 8.4.3)
25 To ensure failure by yielding,
ρ < .75ρb (2.27)
26 ACI strength requirements
U = 1.4D + 1.7L (ACI 9.2.1)

U = 0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W ) (ACI 9.2.2)
(2.28)
M d = Mu = φMn (ACI 9.1.1)
φ = .90 (ACI 9.3.2.2)

Draft
2.3 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method
27 Also we need to specify a minimum reinforcement ratio

2–11
200
ρmin ≥ (ACI 10.5.1) (2.29)
fy
to account for temperature & shrinkage

28Note, that ρ need not be as high as 0.75ρb . If steel is relatively expensive, or deflection is of
concern, can use lower ρ.
29 As a rule of thumb, if ρ < 0.5ρb , there is no need to check for deflection.
2.3.3 Review
30 Given, b, d, As , fc0 , fy , determine the moment capacity M .
ρact = Abds
0 (2.30)
ρb = (.85)β1 ffyc 87+f
87
y
• ρact < ρb : Failure by yielding and
s y A f
a = .85f 0 ΣFx = 0
cb (2.31)
Md = φAs fy (d − 2 ) ΣM = 0
a
• ρact > ρb is not allowed by code, in this case we have an extra unknown fs .
31 We now have one more unknown fs , and we will need an additional equation (from strain
diagram).
As f s
c = .85f 0 ΣFx = 0
c bβ1
c .003 (2.32)
d = .003+εs From strain diagram
β1 c
Md = φAs fs (d − 2 ) ΣM = 0
We can solve by iteration, or substitution and solution of a quadratic equation.
2.3.4 Design
32 We consider two cases:

I b d and As , unknown; Md known; Since design failure is triggered by fs = fy
) ) µ ¶
As f y ρfy
ΣFx = 0 a = 0.85f 0b a = 0.85f 0 fy
c c¡ ¢ Md = Φ ρfy 1 − .59ρ 0 bd 2
(2.33-a)
ρ = Abds Md = As fy d − a2 fc
| {z }
R
where ρ is specified by the designer; or

µ ¶
fy
R = ρfy 1 − .59ρ 0 (2.34)
fc
Draft
2–12
which does not depend on unknown quantities. Then solve for bd2 :
FLEXURE
Md
bd2 = (2.35)
ΦR
Solve for b and d (this will require either an assumption on one of the two, or on their
ratio).
As = ρbd
II b & d known & Md known ⇒ there is no assurance that we can have a design with ρb
If the section is too small, then it will require too much steel resulting in an over-reinforced
section.
Iterative approach
(a) Since we do not know if the steel will be yielding or not, use fs .
(b) Assume an initial value for a (a good start is a = d5 )
(c) Assume initially that fs = fy
(d) Check equilibrium of moments (ΣM = 0)
M
As = ¡ d ¢ (2.36)
Φfs d − a2
(e) Check equilibrium of forces in the x direction (ΣFx = 0)

As fs
a= (2.37)
.85fc0 b
(f) Check assumption of fs by either comparing ρ with ρb , or from the strain diagram
εs .003 d−c
= ⇒ fs = Es .003 < fy (2.38)
d−c c c
a
where c = β1 .
(g) Iterate until convergence is reached.
2.4 Practical Design Considerations

2.4.1 Minimum Depth
33 ACI 9.5.2.1 stipulates that the minimum thickness of beams should be

Simply One end Both ends Cantilever
supported continuous continuous
Solid One
way slab L/20 L/24 L/28 L/10
Beams or
ribbed One way slab L/16 L/18.5 L/21 L/8
where L is in inches, and members are not supporting partitions.
34 Smaller values can be taken if deflections are computed.

Draft
2.4 Practical Design Considerations
2.4.2 Beam Sizes, Bar Spacing, Concrete Cover

2–13
35 Beam sizes should be dimensioned as

1
1. Use whole inches for overall dimensions, except for slabs use 2 inch increment.
2. Ideally, the overall depth to width ratio should be between 1.5 to 2.0 (most economical).
3. For T beams, flange thickness should be about 20% of overall depth.
36 Reinforcing bars
1. Minimum spacing between bars, and minimum covers are needed to
(a) Prevent Honeycombing of concrete (air pockets)
(b) Concrete (usually up to 3/4 in MSA) must pass through the reinforcement
(c) Protect reinforcement against corrosion and fire
2. Use at least 2 bars for flexural reinforcement
3. Use bars #11 or smaller for beams.
4. Use no more than two bar sizes and no more than 2 standard sizes apart (i.e #7 and #9
acceptable; #7 and #8 or #7 and #10 not).
5. Use no more than 5 or 6 bars in one layer.
6. Place longest bars in the layer nearest to face of beam.
7. Clear distance between parallel bars not less that db (to avoid splitting cracks) nor 1 in.
(to allow concrete to pass through).
8. Clear distance between longitudinal bars in columns not less that 1.5db or 1.5 in.
9. Minimum cover of 1.5 in.
10. Summaries in Fig. 2.7 and Table 2.1, 2.2.
2.4.3 Design Aids
37 Basic equations developed in this section can be easily graphed.

Review Given b d and known steel ratio ρ and material strength, φMn can be readily obtained
from φMn = φRbd2
Design in this case
1. Set Md = φRbd2
2. From tabulated values, select ρmax and ρmin often 0.5ρb is a good economical choice.
3. Select R from tabulated values of R in terms of fy , fc0 and ρ. Solve for bd2 .
4. Select b and d to meet requirements. Usually depth is about 2 to 3 times the width.
5. Using tabulated values select the size and number of bars giving preference to larger
bar sizes to reduce placement cost (careful about crack width!).
6. Check from tables that the selected beam width will provide room for the bars chosen
with adequate cover and spacing.

Draft
2–14 FLEXURE
Bar Nominal Number of Bars

Size Diam. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
#3 0.375 0.11 0.22 0.33 0.44 0.55 0.66 0.77 0.88 0.99 1.10
#4 0.500 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00
#5 0.625 0.31 0.62 0.93 1.24 1.55 1.86 2.17 2.48 2.79 3.10
#6 0.750 0.44 0.88 1.32 1.76 2.20 2.64 3.08 3.52 3.96 4.40
#7 0.875 0.60 1.20 1.80 2.40 3.00 3.60 4.20 4.80 5.40 6.00
#8 1.000 0.79 1.58 2.37 3.16 3.95 4.74 5.53 6.32 7.11 7.90
#9 1.128 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
#10 1.270 1.27 2.54 3.81 5.08 6.35 7.62 8.89 10.16 11.43 12.70
#11 1.410 1.56 3.12 4.68 6.24 7.80 9.36 10.92 12.48 14.04 15.60
#14 1.693 2.25 4.50 6.75 9.00 11.25 13.50 15.75 18.00 20.25 22.50
#18 2.257 4.00 8.00 12.00 16.00 20.00 24.00 28.00 32.00 36.00 40.00
Table 2.1: Total areas for various numbers of reinforcing bars (inch2 )
Bar Number of bars in single layer of reinf.

Size 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
#4 6.8 8.3 9.8 11.3 12.8 14.3 15.8
#5 6.9 8.5 10.2 11.8 13.4 15.1 16.7
#6 7.0 8.8 10.5 12.3 14.0 15.8 17.5
#7 7.2 9.1 11.0 12.8 14.7 16.6 18.5
#8 7.3 9.3 11.3 13.3 15.3 17.3 19.3
#9 7.6 9.9 12.1 14.4 16.6 18.9 21.2
#10 7.8 10.3 12.9 15.4 18.0 20.5 23.0
#11 8.1 10.9 13.7 16.6 19.4 22.2 25.0
#14 8.9 12.3 15.7 19.1 22.5 25.9 29.3
#18 10.6 15.1 19.6 24.1 28.6 33.2 37.7
Table 2.2: Minimum Width (inches) according to ACI Code

Draft
2.5 USD Examples 2–15
Figure 2.7: Bar Spacing
2.5 USD Examples
Example 2-5: Ultimate Strength; Review
Determine the ultimate moment capacity of example 2.1 fc0 = 4,000 psi; ft0 = 475 psi; fy =
60,000 psi; As = 2.35 in2
yt
25" 23"
2 yb
As = 2.35 in
10"
Solution:
As 2.35
ρact = = = .0102 (2.39-a)
bd (10)(23)
f 0 87 4 87 √
ρb = .85β1 c = (.85)(.85) = .0285 > ρact (2.39-b)
fy 87 + fy 60 87 + 60
As fy (2.35)(60)
a = = = 4.15 in (2.39-c)
.85fc0 b (.85)(4)(10)
³ µ ¶
a´ 4.15
Mn = As fy d − = (2.35)(60) 23 − = 2, 950 k.in (2.39-d)
2 2
Md = φMn = 0.9(2, 950) = 2, 660 k.in (2.39-e)
Note:

Draft
2–16
1. From equilibrium, ΣFx = 0 ⇒ c =

As f y
= (2.35)(60)
= 4.87 in
FLEXURE
.85β1 bfc0 (.85)(.85)(4)(10)
2. Comparing with previous analysis
uncracked cracked ultimate

c 13.2 7.61 4.87
245
M 45 90 1.7 = 144
3. Alternative solution:
fy
Mn = ρact fy bd2 (1 − .59ρact ) (2.40-a)
fc0
fy
= As fy d(1 − 59ρact ) (2.40-b)
fc0
60
= (2.35)(60)(23)[1 − (.59) (.0102)] = 2, 950 k.in = 245 k.ft (2.40-c)
4
Md = φMn = (.9)(2, 950) = 2, 660 k.in (2.40-d)
Example 2-6: Ultimate Strength; Design I
Design a R/C beam with L = 15 ft; DL = 1.27 k/ft; LL = 2.44 k/ft; fc0 = 3,000 psi; fy =
40 ksi; Neglect beam own’s weight; Select ρ = 0.75ρb
Solution:
wu = 1.4(1.27) + 1.7(2.44) = 5.92 k/ft Factored load (2.41-a)

wu L 2 (5.92)(15) 2
Md = = = 166.5 k.ft(12) in/ft = 1, 998 k.in (2.41-b)
8 8
f 0 87
ρ = 0.75ρb = (0.75)(0.85)β1 c (2.41-c)
fy 87 + fy
3 87
= (0.75)(.85)2 = .0278 (2.41-d)
µ 40 87¶+ 40
fy
R = ρfy 1 − .59ρ 0 (2.41-e)
f
µ c ¶
40
= (.0278)(40) 1 − (0.59)(.0278) = 0.869 psi (2.41-f)
3
Md 1, 998
bd2 = = = 2, 555 in3 (2.41-g)
φR (0.9)(0.869)
Take b = 10 in, d = 16 in ⇒ As = (.0278)(10)(16) = 4.45 in2 ⇒ use 3 # 11

Draft
2.5 USD Examples 2–17
Example 2-7: Ultimate Strength; Design II
Design a R/C beam for b = 11.5 in; d = 20 in; fc0 = 3 ksi; fy = 40 ksi; Md = 1, 600 k.in
Solution:
d 20
Assume a = 5 = 5 = 4 in
Md (1, 600)
As = a = = 2.47 in2 (2.42)
φfy (d − 2 ) (.9)(40)(20 − 42 )
check assumption,
As fy (2.47)(40)
a= 0
= = 3.38 in (2.43)
(.85)fc b (.85)(3)(11.5)
Thus take a = 3.3 in.
(1, 600)
As = = 2.42 in2 (2.44-a)
(.9)(40)(20 − 3.32 )
(2.42)(40) √
⇒a = = 3.3 in (2.44-b)
(.85)(3)(11.5)
2.42
ρact = = .011 (2.44-c)
(11.5)(20)
3 87
ρb = (.85)(.85) = .037 (2.44-d)
40 87 + 40 √
ρmax = .75ρb = .0278 > ρact (2.44-e)
Example 2-8: Exact Analysis
As an Engineer questioning the validity of the ACI equation for the ultimate flexural capacity
of R/C beams, you determined experimentally the following stress strain curve for concrete:
fc0
2 εmax ε
σ= ³ ´2 (2.45)
ε
1 + εmax
where fc0 corresponds to εmax .
1. Determine the exact balanced steel ratio for a R/C beam with b = 10”, d = 23”, fc0 =
4, 000 psi, fy = 60 ksi, εmax = 0.003.
(a) Determine the equation for the exact stress distribution on the section.
(b) Determine the total compressive force C, and its location, in terms of the location
of the neutral axis c.

Draft
2–18
(c) Apply equilibrium

FLEXURE
2. Using the ACI equations, determine the:
(a) Ultimate moment capacity.

(b) Balanced steel ratio.
3. For the two approaches, compare:
(a) Balanced steel area.

(b) Location of the neutral axis.
(c) Centroid of resultant compressive force.
(d) Ultimate moment capacity.
Solution:
1. Stress-Strain:
2 4,000
.003 ε 2.667 × 106 ε
σ= ¡ ε ¢2 = (2.46)
1 + .003 1 + 1.11 × 105 ε2
2. Assume crushing at failure, hence strain distribution will be given by

0.003
ε= y (2.47)
c
3. Combine those two equation:

8, 000 yc
σ= ¡ ¢2 (2.48)
1 + yc
4. The total compressive force is given by

Z c Z c Z Z
8, 000 yc
c
8, 000 c y
F = dF = b σdy = b ¡ y ¢2 dy = b ¡ ¢2 dy (2.49)
0 0 01 + c c 01 + 1
¸¯¯c
c
· ³ ´ · ³ ´ ¸¯c
b 1 y 2 ¯ bc 2 y 2 ¯¯
= 8, 000 ¡ ¢2 ln 1 + ¯ = 8, 000 ln 1 + ¯ (2.50)
c2 1 c ¯ c 2 c 0
c 0
= 4, 000bc ln(2) = 2, 773bc (2.51)
5. Equilibrium requires that T = C
2, 773bc = As fy (2.52)
From the strain diagram:
.003 εy + .003 (.003)d

= ⇒c= (2.53)
c d εy + .003
(.003)(23)
c = 60 = 13.6 in (2.54)
29,000 + .003

Draft
2.6 T Beams, (ACI 8.10)
6. Combining Eq. 2.52 with Eq. 2.54

2–19
(2, 773)(10)(13.6)
As = = 6.28 in2 (2.55)
60, 000
7. To determine the moment, we must first determine the centroid of the compressive force
measured from the neutral axis
Z Z Z 2
c 8, 000 yc
ydA b yσdy b Z c
0 1 + (y/c)
2 8, 000b y2
y = = = dy = ¡ ¢ dy (2.56)
A 2, 773bc 2, 773bc 2, 773bc2 0 1 + 1 2 y 2
Z " Z c
c
#
2.885 c y2 2.885 y 1 dy
= ¡ ¢2 dy = ¡ 1 ¢2 − ¡ 1 ¢2 ¡ ¢2 (2.57)
c2 01 + 1 y2 (13.61)2 01 + 1 y2
 r ¯¯c
c
 c c c
1 1 ¯¯
= .01557 yc2 − c2  q tan−1 y (2.58)
1 c2 ¯¯
c2 0
£ 3 ¤
= .01557 c − c tan (1) = (.01557)(13.61)3 (1 − tan−1 (1)) = 8.43 in (2.59)
3 −1
8. Next we solve for the moment
M = As fy (d − c + y) = (6.28)(60)(23 − 13.61 − 8.43) = 6, 713 k.in (2.60)
9. Using the ACI Code
fc0 87 4 87
ρb = .85β1 = (.85)2 = .0285 (2.61)
fy 87 + 60 60 147
As = ρb bd = (.0285)(10)(23) = 6.55 in2 (2.62)
As fy (6.55)(60)
a = 0
= = 11.57 in (2.63)
.85f cb (.85)(4)(10)
³ µ ¶
a´ 11.57
M = As fy d − = (6.55)(60) 23 − = 6, 765 k.in (2.64)
2 2
a 11.57
c = = = 13.61 (2.65)
β1 .85
10. We summarize
Exact ACI
As 6.28 6.55
c 13.6 13.6
y0 5.18 5.78
M 6,713 6,765

Draft
2–20
be
FLEXURE
hf 11111111111
00000000000
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
bw
Figure 2.8: T Beams
2.6 T Beams, (ACI 8.10)
38Equivalent width for uniform stress, Fig. 2.8 must satisfy the following requirements (ACI
8.10.2):
1. 1
2 (b − bw ) ≤ 8hf
2. b < 4bw for isolated T beams only
bw
3. hf > 2
L
4. b < 4
39 Two possibilities:
1. Neutral axis within the flanges (c < hf ) ⇒ rectangular section of width b, Fig. 2.9.
2. Neutral axis in the web (c > hf ) ⇒ T beam.
h
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
f
h d
As
Figure 2.9: T Beam as Rectangular Section
40 For T beams, we have a large concrete area, start by assuming that failure will occur by steel
yielding, Fig. 2.10.

41 The approach consists in decomposing As into 2 components Fig. 2.11.

Draft
2.6 T Beams, (ACI 8.10)
b
2–21
ε u =0.003 0.85 f’c

11111111111111111
00000000000000000 a=β1 c
hf 00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 c C=0.85f’
c
a
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
hd 00000000000000000
11111111111111111
As
d
εs T=As yf
b
w
Figure 2.10: T Beam Strain and Stress Diagram
1. Asf → resists compression force in (b − bw )hf
2. (As − Asf ) → resists compression force in bw c
2.6.1 Review
42 Given, b, d, hf , As , fc0 , fy , determine the moment capacity M , Fig. 2.11.

b
111111
000000 111111
000000 111111
000000
hf 000000
111111
000000
111111 000000
111111
000000
111111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111 000000
111111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
c
000000
111111
000000
111111
= + 000000
111111
bw A sf A s − A sf
As (b−b w
)h f bwc
Figure 2.11: Decomposition of Steel Reinforcement for T Beams
43 The moment is obtained from
Flanges:
.85fc0 (b−bw )hf
Asf = fy ΣF = 0
h
(2.66)
Mn1 = Asf fy (d − 2f ) ΣM = 0
Web:
(As − Asf )fy
a = ΣF = 0 (2.67-a)
.85fc0 bw
a
Mn2 = (As − Asf )fy (d − ) ΣM = 0 (2.67-b)
2
Total moment:
Mn = Mn1 + Mn2 (2.68)

Draft
2–22
2.6.2 Design, (balanced)

FLEXURE
44 Let us derive an expression for ρb and use it for design

c εu
= Strain Compatibility (2.69-a)
d εu + εy
As fy = .85fc0 β1 cbw + .85fc0 (b − bw )hf ΣF = 0 (2.69-b)
| {z }
Asf fy
thus,
 ρb
As fy = .85fc0 β1 cbw + Asf fy 

{z }|
def As fc0 εu
ρw = ρw = .85 β1 +ρf (2.70)
def
bw d
Asf 
 fy εu + εy
ρf = bw d
Hence,
ρwb = ρb + ρf (2.71)
ρw,max = .75(ρb + ρf ) (2.72)
Example 2-9: T Beam; Moment Capacity I
For the following beam: As = 8 # 11 ( 12.48 in2 ); fc0 =3,000 psi; fy = 50,000 psi. Determine
Mn
30"
ε u=0.003 0.85 f’c
11111111111111111
00000000000000000 a= β1c
7" 00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 C=0.85f’c ab
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
c
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
36"
d
εs T=Asfy
14"
Solution:
1. Check requirements for isolated T sections

√
(a) bw = 30 in should not exceed 4bw = 4(14) = 56 in
√
(b) hf ≥ b2u ⇒ 7 ≥ 14
2
2. Assume Rectangular section
As fy (12.48)(50)
a= 0
= = 8.16 in > hf (2.73)
.85fc b (0.85)(3)(30)

Draft
2.6 T Beams, (ACI 8.10)
3. For a T section
2–23
.85fc0 hf (b − bw )
Asf = (2.74-a)
fy
(.85)(3)(7)(30 − 14)
= = 5.71 in2 (2.74-b)
50
Asf 5.71
ρf = = = .0113 (2.74-c)
bwd (14)(36)
Asw = As − Asf = 12.48 − 5.71 = 6.77 in2 (2.74-d)
Asw 12.48
ρw = = = .025 (2.74-e)
bw d (14)(36)
f 0 87
ρb = .85β1 c (2.74-f)
fy 87 + fy
3 87
= (.85)(.85) = .0275 (2.74-g)
50 87 + 50
4. Maximum permissible ratio
ρmax = .75(ρb + ρf ) (2.75-a)

√
= .75(.0275 + .0113) = .029 > ρw (2.75-b)
5. The design moment is then obtained from

µ ¶
7
Mn1 = (5.71)(50) 36 − = 9, 280 k.in (2.76-a)
2
(As − Asf )fy
a = (2.76-b)
.85fc0 bw
(6.77)(50)
= = 9.48 in (2.76-c)
(.85)(3)(14)
9.48
Mn2 = (6.77)(50)(36 − ) = 10, 580 k.in (2.76-d)
2
Md = (.9)(9, 280 + 10, 580) = 17, 890 k.in → 17, 900 k.in (2.76-e)
Example 2-10: T Beam; Moment Capacity II
Determine the moment capacity of the following section, assume flange dimensions to satisfy
ACI requirements; As = 6#10 = 7.59 in2 ; fc0 = 3 ksi; fy =60 ksi.

Draft
2–24
28"
FLEXURE
ε u=0.003 0.85 f’c
6"
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 a= β1c
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111 c
C=0.85f’c ab
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
26" 00000000000000000
11111111111111111
d
εs T=Asfy
10"
Solution:
Assume rectangular beam

7.59
ρ = = .0104 (2.77-a)
(28)(26)
µ ¶µ ¶
3 87
ρb = (.85)(.85) = .0214 > ρ ⇒ fs = fy (2.77-b)
60 87 + 60
(As − Asf )fy
a = (2.77-c)
.85fc0 bw
(7.59)(60)
= = 6.37 in > 6 in ⇒ T beam (2.77-d)
(.85)(3)(28)
(.85)(3)(18)(6)
Asf = = 4.59 in2 (2.77-e)
60
Asw = 7.59 − 4.59 = 3.00 in2 (2.77-f)
7.59
ρw = = .0292 (2.77-g)
(26)(10)
4.59
ρf = = .0177 (2.77-h)
(26)(10)
ρmax = .75(.0214 + .0177) = .0294 > .0292 ⇒ Ductile failure (2.77-i)
Mn1 = (4.59)(60)(26 − 3) = 6, 330 k.in (2.77-j)
As − Asf = 7.59 − 4.59 = 3. in 2
(2.77-k)
(3)(60)
a = = 7.07 in (2.77-l)
(.85)(3)(10)
7.07
Mn2 = (3.00)(60)(26 − ) = 4, 050 k.in (2.77-m)
2
Md = (.9)(6, 330 + 4, 050) = 9, 350 k.in (2.77-n)
Example 2-11: T Beam; Design
given L = 24 ft; fy = 60 ksi; fc0 = 3 ksi; Md = 6, 400 k.in; Design a R/C T beam.

Draft
2.6 T Beams, (ACI 8.10) 2–25
3"
20"
11"
47"
Solution:
1. Determine effective flange width:


1
− bw ) ≤ 8hf
2 (b 


16hf + bw = (16)(3) + 11 = 59 in
b = 47 in (2.78-a)
L 24
4 = 4 12 = 72 in 


Center Line spacing = 47 in
2. Assume a = 3 in
Md 6, 400
As = a = = 6.40 in2 (2.79-a)
φfy (d − 2 ) (0.9)(60)(20 − 32 )
As fy (6.4)(60)
a = 0
= = 3.20 in > hf (2.79-b)
(.85)fc b (.85)(3)(47)
3. Thus a T beam analysis is required.
.85fc0 (b − bw )hf (.85)(3)(47 − 11)(3)

Asf = = = 4.58 in2 (2.80-a)
fy 60
hf 3
Md1 = φAsf fy (d − ) = (.90)(4.58)(60)(20 − ) = 4, 570 k.in (2.80-b)
2 2
Md2 = Md − Md1 = 6, 400 − 4, 570 = 1, 830 k.in (2.80-c)
(2.80-d)
d 20
4. Now, this is similar to the design of a rectangular section. Assume a = 5 = 5 = 4. in
1, 830
As − Asf = ¡ ¢ = 1.88 in2 (2.81)
(.90)(60) 20 − 42
5. check
(1.88)(60)
a = = 4.02 in ≈ 4.00 (2.82-a)
(.85)(3)(11)
As = 4.58 + 1.88 = 6.46 in2 (2.82-b)
6.46
ρw = = .0294 (2.82-c)
(11)(20)

Draft
2–26
4.58
FLEXURE
ρf = = .0208 (2.82-d)
(11)(20)
µ ¶µ ¶
3 87
ρb = (.85)(.85) = .0214 (2.82-e)
60 87 + 60
√
ρmax = (.0214 + .0208) = .042 > ρw (2.82-f)
6. Note that 6.46 in2 (T beam) is close to As = 6.40 in2 if rectangular section was assumed.
2.7 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams
45 Negative steel reinforcement is needed to

1. Increase internal moment resistance capacity (not very efficient)
2. Support stirrups
3. Reverse moments (moving load)
4. Provide ductility (earthquake)
5. Reduce creep (long term deflections)
46 Approach will again be based on a strain compatibility analysis & equilibrium equation, Fig.
2.12.
ε u=0.003 0.85 f’c 0.85 f’c
A’s f’s A’s f’s
A’s d’ εs’ a= β1c a= β1c
c
h d d−d’
= +
d
As εs Asfs (As− A’s )f s

Asfs
Figure 2.12: Doubly Reinforced Beams; Strain and Stress Diagrams
47 If ρ ≤ ρmax = .75ρb we can disregard compression steel

48 As for T beams, we decompose the tension steel into two components
1. A0s to resist the force in the top steel (assuming both yield)
2. As − A0s to resist compression in the concrete.

and we define
A0s
ρ0 = (2.83)
bd

Draft
2.7.1 Tests for fs and fs0

2–27
49 Different possibilities: Fig. 2.13
Yes Not Allowed by ACI

As yield? No
Yes A’s yield? No Yes A’s yield? No
I II III IV
f = fy f = fy f < fy f < fy
s s s s
f’ = f y f’ < f f’ = f f’ < f y
s s y s y s
Figure 2.13: Different Possibilities for Doubly Reinforced Concrete Beams
Test 1 fs = fy ?
Assuming εs = εy , and fs0 6= fy , we have from the strain diagram, Fig. 2.14
ε u =0.003
d’ εs’
A’s
h d
εs = εy
As
Figure 2.14: Strain Diagram, Doubly Reinforced Beam; is As Yielding?
εu
c = d (2.84-a)
εu + εy
d0
ε0s = εu − (εu + εy ) (2.84-b)
d
fs0 = Es ε0s (2.84-c)
From equilibrium:
ρbdfy = ρ0 bdfs0 + .85fc0 β1 bc (2.85)
Combining:
fs0 f0 εu
ρb = ρ1 = ρ0 + .85 c β1 (2.86)
fy fy εu + εy
| {z }
Victor Saouma Mechanics andρbDesign of Reinforced Concrete
Draft
2–28
thus
FLEXURE
fs0
ρb = ρ1 = ρ0 + ρb (2.87)
fy
f0
ρmax = 0.75ρb + ρ0 s (2.88)
fy
Note that 0.75 premultiplies only one term as in the other failure is ipso facto by yielding.
We also note the similarity with ρmax of T Beams (where 0.75 premultiplied both terms).
Test 2 fs = fy is fs0 = fy ?
We set ε0s = εy , and from the strain diagram
ε u =0.003
d’ εs’ = εy
A’s
h d
εs > εy
As
Figure 2.15: Strain Diagram, Doubly Reinforced Beam; is A0s Yielding?
εu
c= d0 (2.89)
ε u − εy
from equilibrium
ρbdfy = ρ0 bdfy + .85fc0 β1 cb (2.90)
combining
fc0 d0 87
ρmin ≡ ρ2 = ρ0 + .85β1 (2.91)
fy d 87 − fy
which corresponds to the minimum amount of steel to ensure yielding of compression steel
at failure. Thus, if ρ < ρmin then fs0 < fy . Note that some times ρmin can be larger than
ρ.
Test 3 fs < fy , is fs0 = fy (not allowed by ACI)?

From strain diagram:
εu
c = d0 (2.92-a)
ε u − εy
d−c
εs = εy (2.92-b)
c − d0

Draft
From equilibrium
2–29
ρbdfs = ρ0 bdfy + .85fc0 β1 bc (2.93-a)
combining
· ¸
c − d0 0 fc0 c
ρ = ρ3 = ρ + .85β1 (2.94)
d−c fy d
Summary of the tests are shown in Fig. 2.16
Test 2 Test 1 Test 3

ρmin ρ ρ
ρ
II I III IV
f’ < fy f’ = f y f=fy f <fy f’ < f y f’ = f y

s s s s s s
Figure 2.16: Summary of Conditions for top and Bottom Steel Yielding
2.7.2 Moment Equations

Case I fs = fy and fs0 = fy , usually occur if we have small bottom and top reinforcement
ratios.
As fy = A0s fy + .85fc0 ab (2.95-a)

(As − A0s )fy
a = (2.95-b)
.85fc0 b
³ a´
MnI = .85fc0 ab d − + A0s fy (d − d0 ) (2.96)
2
Case II We have fs = fy and fs0 < fy (small bottom and large top reinforcement ratios, most
common case)
c − d0
ε0s = εu (2.97-a)
c
fs0 0
= E s εs (2.97-b)
As fy = A0s fs0 + .85fc0 bβ1 c (2.97-c)
solve for c and fs0 by iteration.

Alternatively, those equations can be combined yielding
(0.85fc0 b)a2 + (0.003Es A0s − As fy )a − (0.003Es A0s β1 d0 ) = 0 (2.98)

Draft
2–30
Using a = β1 c
FLEXURE
³ a´
MnII = .85fc0 ab d − + A0s fs0 (d − d0 ) (2.99)
2
Case III fs < fy and fs0 = fy (large bottom and small top reinforcement ratios, rare)
d−c
ε s = εu (2.100-a)
c
fs = E s εs (2.100-b)
As fs = A0s fy + .85fc0 ab (2.100-c)
a = β1 c (2.100-d)
solve for a
³ a´
MnIII = .85fc0 ab d − + A0s fy (d − d0 ) (2.101)
2
Case IV (not allowed by ACI) fs < fy and fs0 < fy (large bottom and top reinforcement
ratios, rare)
c − d0
ε0s = εu (2.102-a)
c
d−c
εs = εu (2.102-b)
c
As fs = A0s fs0 + .85fc0 ab (2.102-c)
a = β1 c (2.102-d)
solve for a
³ a´
MnIV = .85fc0 ab d − + A0s fs (d − d0 ) (2.103)
2
50 Note that in most beams of normal size and proportions, it will be found that fs0 < fy when
fs = fy . We nevertheless use A0s in order to ensure ductility, stiffness and support for the
stirrups.
Example 2-12: Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam; Review
Given, fc0 = 4, 000 psi, fy = 60,000 psi, A0s = 3 (1.56) = 4.68 in2 , As = 4 (1.56) = 6.24 in2 ,
determine the moment carrying capacity of the following beam.

Draft
A’s = 3 # 11 ε u =0.003 0.85 cf’ 0.85 f’

c
2–31
A’s f’s A’s f’y

3" εs’ a=β c a=β1 c
c 1
27.3" d−d’
= +
d
εs As sf (As − A’ )
s s
As yf
16"
As = 4 # 11
Solution:
1. Determine ρ:
fc0 87 4 87
ρb = (.85)β1 = (.85)(.85) = .0285 (2.104-a)
fy 87 + fy 60 87 + 60
6.24
ρ = = .0143 (2.104-b)
(16)(27.3)
4.68
ρ0 = = .0107 (2.104-c)
(16)(27.3)
2. Check for ρmin
fc0 d0 εu
ρmin = ρ0 + .85 β1 (2.105-a)
fy d εu − εy
4 3 .003
= .0107 + (.85) (.85) = .0278 > ρ (2.105-b)
60 27.3 .003 − 29,000
60
Hence
ρ < ρmin < ρb
(2.106)
.0143 < .0278 < .0285
and thus fs = fy and fs0 < fy and we have case II
3. We have two equations: strain compatibility (nonlinear equation) and summation of forces
(linear equation), and two unknowns c and fs0
c − d0 c−3
fs0 = Es εu = (29, 000)(.003) (2.107-a)
c c
c−3
= 87 (2.107-b)
c
As fy = As fs + .85fc0 bβ1 c
0 0
(2.107-c)
(6.24)(60) = (4.68)fs0 + (.85)(4)(16)(.85)c (2.107-d)
374.4 = 4.68fs0 + 46.24c (2.107-e)
fs0 = −9.9c + 80.2 (2.107-f)
Note that if we were to plott those two equations,

Draft
2–32 FLEXURE
50
25
2 3 4 5 6
-25
-50
-75
-100
We note that fs0 increases with c from the strain diagram, but fs0 decreases with c from
equilibrium. If c increases, force in concrete increases too and force in steel decreases.
Graphically the solution is around 4.9.
4. Combining those two equations1
c2 + .7085c − 26.42 = 0 (2.108)
we obtain c = 4.80 in a = 0.85(4.8) = 4.078 in, and fs0 = (.003)(29, 000) 4.80−3
4.80 = 32.6 ksi
5. Substituting into the moment equation

³ a´
Mn = .85fc0 ab d − + A0s fs0 (d − d0 ) (2.109-a)
2 µ ¶
4.078
= (.85)(4)(4.078)(16) 27.3 − + (4.68)(32.62)(27.3 − 3) (2.109-b)
2
= 9, 313 k.in (2.109-c)
Md = 0.9(9, 313) = 8, 382 k.in = 699 k.ft (2.109-d)
6. Check
fs0 0
ρmax = .75ρb + ρ (2.110-a)
fy
32.6 √
= (.75)(.0285) + (.0107) = |{z}
.027 (2.110-b)
60
ρ
Example 2-13: Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam; Design
Given Md = 505 k.ft, fc0 = 4 ksi, fy = 60 ksi, b = 12 in, h = 24.5 in, d = 21 in, and
d0= 2.5 in, determine the reinforcement As and possibly A0s .
Solution:
1
In this problem, unfortunately an iterative method diverges if we were to start with a = d5 .

Draft
2.8 Moment-Curvature Relations
1. Check if singly or doubly reinforced section:

2–33
Md = (505)(12) = 6, 060 k.in (2.111-a)

f 0 87 4 87
ρb = .85β1 c = (.85)(.85) = .0285 (2.111-b)
fy 87 + fy 60 87 + 60
ρmax = .75ρb = (.75)(.0285) = .0213 (2.111-c)
Amax
s = (.0213)(12)(21) = 5.37 in 2
(2.111-d)
As fy (5.37)(60)
a = 0
= = 7.89 in (2.111-e)
.85fc b (.85)(4)(12)
³ µ ¶
a´ 7.89
Mmax = (0.9)As fy d − = (.9)(5.37)(60) 21 − (2.111-f)
2 2
= 4, 943 k.in < 6, 060 k.in (2.111-g)
Thus compression steel is required.
2. Assuming that fs0 = fy
Md2 = 6, 060 − 4, 943 = 1, 117 k.in (2.112-a)

Md2 1, 117
A0s = 0
= = 1.12 in2 (2.112-b)
φfy (d − d ) (0.9)(60)(21 − 2.5)
⇒ A0s = 1.12 in2 (2.112-c)
As = 5.37 + 1.12 = 6.49 in2 (2.112-d)
3. Check that fs0 = fy

1.12
ρ0 = = .00444 (2.113-a)
(12)(21)
6.49
ρ = = .0257 (2.113-b)
(12)(21)
f 0 d0 εu
ρmin = ρ0 + .85β1 c (2.113-c)
fy d εu − εy
4 2.5 87 √
= .00444 + (.85)(.85) = .0229 < ρ(.0257) (2.113-d)
60 21.0 87 − 60
Note that if it turned out that fs0 < fy , then we will need to make an assumption on A0s (such
as A0s = A2s , as we will have three equations (2 of equilibrium and one of strain compatibility)
and four unknowns (As , A0s , fs0 and c).
2.8 Moment-Curvature Relations
51 In ordinary reinforced concrete design, we need not be concerned by the moment curva-
ture relation of a flexural member. Yet this relation is important to properly understand (in
subsequent chapters)

Draft
2–34
1. Redistribution of moments (reducing negative moments, increasing positive ones).

FLEXURE
2. Short and long term deflections with the shifting of the neutral axis under service load.
3. Ductility in seismic design, i.e. the ability of a section to exhibit enough flexibility during
seismic excitation, and thus absorbs enough energy.
52 Fig.2.17 shows portion of an originally straight beam which has been bent to the radius ρ
O ε fy
ψ
y
ρ STEEL
εy ε
f’
c
A C
M c d y M
a b
CONCRETE
B D
ε el ε
Figure 2.17: Bending of a Beam
by end couples M , thus the segment is subjected to pure bending. It is assumed that plane
cross-sections normal to the length of the unbent beam remain plane after the beam is bent.
Therefore, considering the cross-sections AB and CD a unit distance apart, the similar sectors
Oab and bcd give
y
ε= (2.114)
ρ
where y is measured from the axis of rotation (neutral axis), ρ the radius of curvature.
53 Furthermore, we define the curvature Ψ as
ε εc
Ψ= = (2.115)
y c
54 Next we seek to derive the moment curvature for a beam. This will clearly depend on the
location of the neutral axis, and we identify the following key stages, Fig. ??:
Uncracked Elastic is the first stage

fr Iut
Mcr = (2.116-a)
c2
εr fr
Ψcr = = (2.116-b)
c2 E c c2
Cracked Elastic: when the section cracks, the stiffness is immediately reduced and the cur-
vature increases (the moment does not change). We will then have a linear response up

Draft
2.9 Bond & Development Length
111111111
000000000
ε<ε el
2–35
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111 d h c ψcr
000000000
111111111 1
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
c2
000000000
111111111
ε=ε fr
cr
EI
ε=ε M n
ct
el EI
111111
000000
000000
111111 c = kd
ut Failure
ψel
000000
111111 1
000000
111111 d
cS = d−kd jd
M el Proportional
Limit of Concrete
11111111
00000000
ε<ε T=A S εE M cr Cracking
y S S
ε<ε <ε f =f
el u 1 c
111111
000000
000000
111111 c ψ inel
111111
000000 1 ψ
d
Z
ε=ε cs
T=A S εE < A fy
S
S S
Figure 2.18: Moment-Curvature Relation for a Beam
to the limit of elasticity of the concrete where, Eq. 2.4-c

bd2
Mel = kjfc (2.117-a)
2
fc,el
εel = (2.117-b)
Ec
εel
Ψ1el = (2.117-c)
c1
we should check that fs = M
As jd ≤ fy .
Cracked Section, Inelastic Material: For this case
1. Select top face concrete strain εel ≤ ε ≤ εu
2. Assume the neutral axis depth to be at a distance c1 below top fibers.
3. From the strain diagram and similarity of triangles, determine εs = εcs .
4. Determine the tensile steel stress fs = Es εs ≤ fy , and T + As fs .
5. Check equilibrium of forces (C = T ), this requires computing C (area under the
nonlinear stress curve). If equilibrium is not satified, adjust location of neutral axis
upward or downward until equilibrium is reached. The internal lever arm z is then
determined.
6. Solve for
i
Minel = Ci zi (2.118-a)
εi
Ψiinel = i1 (2.118-b)
c1
7. Plot the results.
55 Considering the equilibrium of forces acting on an infinitesimal portion of a rebar, Fig. 2.19,
and defining U as the force per unit length, we have

Draft
2–36
M M +∆M
FLEXURE
111
000
000
111
111
000
111
000 111
000
C C + dC
jd
T 111111111111111111
000000000000000000
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
T+dT
V V+dV 111111111111111111
000000000000000000
T T+dT
dx
dx
Figure 2.19: Bond and Development Length
dT
U dx = dT ⇒ U = (2.119)
dx
56 The tensile force is a function of the moment
M = T jd (2.120-a)
dM
dT = (2.120-b)
jd
57 But the shear is related to the moment

dM
V = (2.121)
dx
Combing those equations together, we obtain
V
U= (2.122)
jd
58 We define u as the bond stress, and is equal to

U
u= (2.123)
Σ0
where Σ0 is the sum of all the bars perimeters.
59 If plain bar → weak adhesion → slip → need end anchorage → no bond → u = 0 → dT = 0 →
steel stress is constant over entire length → T = Mjd

max
→ total steel elongation >than if bond
present → large deflection and large crack width.
60 Actual stress distribution along steel bar is quite complex, Fig. 2.20.
61 If bond stress is too large ⇒ splitting along reinforcement, Fig. 2.21.
¡ ¢
62 Failure will initiate at points of high shear large dM
dx .
63It frequently starts at diagonal cracks ⇒ dowel action increases the tendancy of splitting ⇒
shear and bond failures are often interrelated.
64 Based on tests with one single bar, ultimate average bond force/inch of length of bar is
p
Un ≈ 35 fc0 .

Draft
2.9 Bond & Development Length 2–37
u stresses on concrete
M M
u stresses on rebar
1111111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000000
0000000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111111
1111111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000000
Steel tension slope =dT

dx
Bond stress u
Figure 2.20: Actual Bond Distribution
Figure 2.21: Splitting Along Reinforcement

Draft
2–38
65
FLEXURE
If we have several bars in one layer spaced 6 in or less, then the ultimate bond capacity is
80% of the single bar case.
66 In terms of bond stress, Fig. 2.22 p
35 fc0
un = (2.124)
Σ0
1111111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000000
Ts = 0 Ld Ts= A yf
b
Figure 2.22: Development Length
67 Putting it differently, the minimum length necessary to develop through bond a force As fy
is, Fig. ??. 
A f
Ld = Ubny   0.028Ab fy
Un = un√ Σ0 ld = p (2.125)

35 fc0  fc0
un = Σ0
U
A sf y
L
d
Figure 2.23: Development Length
68 For small bar spacing, we have to decrease the bond stress

1 0.028Ab fy 0.035Ab fy
ld = p = p (2.126)
0.8 fc0 fc0
69 If actual development length l is smaller than ld , then we must provide anchorage in order
to avoid a bond failure.
70 Note:
1. un is independent of diameter

Draft
2. For a given fs
2–39

T = Ab fs 
πd2 fs πd2b
= fs 4 b ld = (2.127)
Ab f s 
4Un
ld = Un 
ld increases with the square of db ⇒ small bar diameters require shorter development
length.
71 Top bars, with more than 12 inch of concrete below them, will have a reduced bond stress
(due to rise of water during vibration). This reduction in bond results in an increase of ld by
40%
72 ACI 12.2.2 may be obtained from above but rather than use φ we increase ld by 15% for
safety.
ldb = .04 √b
A fy
#11 or smaller; and deformed wire
fc0
.085 √ 0
fy
= #14
fc (2.128)
= √
fy
.125 0 #18
fc
> 12 in. in all cases
Consult ACI 12.5 code for hooks geometry, and corrections to this basic equation.
73 Check ACI code for modifications related to top reinforcement, lightweight aggregate, high
strength reinforcement, excess reinforcement, and spiral confinement.
ld = λd λdd ldb (2.129)
74 If not enough development length can be provided ⇒ provide hooks, Fig. 2.24 at
1. 90 degrees: bar must extend by 12db
2. 180 degrees: see code.
where
lhb = 1200 √db 0
fc (2.130)
ldh = λd lhb
and λd is given in the ACI code.
2.9.1 Moment Capacity Diagram
75 Ideally, the steel should be everywhere as nearly fully stressed as possible. Since the steel
force is proportional to the moment, then the steel area is nearly proportional to the moment
diagram.
76 Requirements include, Fig. 2.25:

Draft
2–40 FLEXURE
db
As in part (b)
Critical
section 12db
ldh
(a)
db
Critical
section 4db or 2 1/2 4db Nos. 3 through 8
in. min.
5db Nos. 9, 10, 11
ldh 6db Nos. 14 and 18
(b)
Figure 2.24: Hooks
1. At least A3s in simple beams and As

4 for continuous beams should be extended at least 6
in. into support.
2. If negative bars are cut, they must extend at least ld beyond face of support.
3. Negative bars must extend d or 12db beyond theoretical cutoff point defined by moment
diagram.
4. At least one third of top reinforcement at support must extend at least ld beyond the-
ln
oretical cutoff point of other bars, and d, 12db or 16 beyond the inflection point of the
negative moment diagram.
77 Determination of cutoff points can be rather tedious, for nearly equal spans uniformly loaded,
in which no more than about one half the tensile steel is to be cut off or bent, locations shown
in Fig. 2.26 are satisfactory (note that left support is assumed simply supported).
78 Fig. 2.27 is an illustration of the moment capacity diagram for a beam.

Draft
Theoretical
positive
moment
Face of support
Inflection point
for (+As) Moment Capacity
of bars O
of span
Theoretical
negative
Inflection point
moment for (-As)
L
Moment capacity
C
of bars M
Greatest of d, 12 d , ln/16 b
d or 12 db for at least 1/3 of (-AS)
ld
Bars M ld Bars N
Bars L ld Bars O
ld d or 12 db
6" for at least
1/4 of (+AS)
(1/3 for simple spans)
Figure 2.25: Bar cutoff requirements of the ACI code

Draft
2–42 FLEXURE
L1 L1 L2 L2
4 3 3 3
0" 0" L2
L1 L2
6"
8
6" 6" 8
8
L1 L2
L1 L1 L2 L2
4 3 3 3
0" 0" L2
6" L1 L1 L2
7 4 6" 6" 4
4
L1 L2
Figure 2.26: Standard cutoff or bend points for bars in approximately equal spans with uni-
formly distributed load

Draft
A B C
5 bars
2 bars 4 bars AA
A B C
BB
Ld
Ld Mcap of 5 bars
CC
Mcap of 4 bars
Md=φMn
Ld
Mcap of 2 bars
d or 12’’
Figure 2.27: Moment Capacity Diagram

Draft
2–44 FLEXURE

Draft
Chapter 3
SHEAR
3.1 Introduction
1 Beams are subjected to both flexural and shear stresses. Resulting principal stresses (or stress
trajectory) are shown in Fig. 3.1.
Tension trajectories
Compression trajectories
90 α
45
τ τ σ1 σ2 τ
τ τ
τ σ τ σ
α
τ
σ σ
τ τ
τ ο
45 τ σ2 σ1
Figure 3.1: Principal Stresses in Beam
2 Due to flexure, vertical flexural cracks develop from the bottom fibers.
3 As a result of the tensile principal stresses, two types of shear cracks may develop, Fig. 3.2:
Large V Small V Large V
Small M Large M Small M
Web Shear Cracks Flexural Shear Cracks Flexural Cracks

Flexural Cracks
Figure 3.2: Types of Shear Cracks
Web shear cracks: Large V, small M. They initiate in the web & spread up & down at ≈ 45o .
Draft
3–2
Flexural shear cracks: Large V, large M. They initiate as an extension of a pre-existing

SHEAR
flexural crack, initially vertical, then curve.
4 Shear failure is sudden ⇒ φ = 0.85

5 Some of the important parameters controlling shear failure:
M
1. Shear span ratio Vd
2. Steel ratio ρ = Abds

p p
3. ft0 = 4 fc0 note that fr0 = 7.5 fc0
6 We shall first examine the shear strength of uncracked sections, then the one of cracked
sections (with shear reinforcement).
3.2 Shear Strength of Uncracked Section
7 Question: What is the maximum shear force which can be applied before a flexural crack
develop into a flexural shear crack?
1. Apply M → flexural crack
2. Apply V → flexural shear crack
8 Note that all shear resistance is provided by the concrete. As with flexural reinforcement,
steel is ineffective as long as the section is uncracked.

C vc vn
fc
jd +
Flexure Shear
T
σ
Shear
Figure 3.3: Shear Strength of Uncracked Section
9 Solution strategy:
1. Determine the flexural compressive stress fc in terms of M
2. Determine shear stress v in terms of V

Draft
3.2 Shear Strength of Uncracked Section
3. Compute the principal stresses

3–3
4. Equate principal tensile stress to the tensile strength
10 Using a semi-analytical approach
1. Assume that fc is directly proportional to steel stress


fc = α fns  f = α Mn ¾ αMn Mn
c nAs jd fc = = F1 (3.1)
 ρ = bd A s
nρjbd 2 ρnbd2
Mn = As fs jd ⇒ fs = AMs jdn
2. Shear stress
Vn
vn = F2 (3.2)
bd
3. From Mohr’s circle, the tensile principal stress is
τ
vn
f1
σ
fc
R
vn
Figure 3.4: Mohr’s Circle for Shear Strength of Uncracked Section
sµ ¶2
fc fc
f1 = + + vn2 (3.3)
2 2
4. Set f1 equal to the tensile strength

Vn Vn
f1 = ft0 ⇒ f1 = ft0 (3.4-a)
bd bd
Vn ft0 Vn
= (3.4-b)
bd f1 bd
ft0
= f1 bd
(3.4-c)
Vn
Combining Eq. 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3

Draft
3–4 SHEAR
Vn ft0
=  2 1/2 (3.5)
bd
 F E  
F1 Ec Mn  1 c M n  2 
+    + F2 
2 E ρVn d  2 Es ρVn d  |{z} 
| {z s} | {z } C0 2
C10 C10
p
5. set ft0 = 4 fc0
Vn 1
p = sµ ¶2 (3.6)
bd fc0 √ √
fc0 Mn C1 fc0 Mn
C1 ρ Vn d + ρ Vn d + C2
√
Mn fc0
6. Let the variables be √n
V
&
bd fc0 ρVn d
7. This is how far we can go analytically. To determine the exact factors associated with
this equation, one has to undertake a series of tests.
8. From 440 tests, Fig. 3.5 it is found that
Vn
bd f’c
3.5
2.0
1.9
Vn d
M f’
n c
Figure 3.5: Shear Strength of Uncracked Section
Vn ρVn d
p = 1.9 + 2, 500 p ≤ 3.5 (3.7)
bd fc0 Mn fc0
Vn
or if we set vc = bd , then
p ρVn d p
vc = 1.9 fc0 + 2, 500 ≤ 3.5 fc0 (ACI 11.3.2.1) (3.8)
Mn
Vn d
9. Note that vc is in terms of M or inverse of shear span ( M
V )

Draft
3.3 Shear Strength of Cracked Sections
10. This equation is usually found acceptable for predicting the flexure shear cracking load
3–5
for shear span/depth ratio VMnnd of 2.5 to 6 & is found to be very conservative for lower
values
11. Increasing ρ has a beneficial effort as a larger amount of steel results in narrower & smaller
flexural tension cracks before formation of diagonal cracks ⇒ larger area of uncracked
concrete can resist the shear.
Vu Mu
12. Use of Vu & Mu instead of Vn = φ & Mn = φ
3.3 Shear Strength of Cracked Sections

p
11 If the shear stress exceeds 1.9 fc0 + 2, 500ρ VMndd , then the flexural crack will extend into a
flexural shear crack, Fig. 3.6. and if
s
C
Vc
A v fv z
Va
T=As fs
Vd
Figure 3.6: Free Body Diagram of a R/C Section with a Flexural Shear Crack
1. No shear reinforcements ⇒ failure
2. Stirrups are present ⇒ stirrups will carry part of shear force
12 If the section is cracked, Fig. 3.7
Vext = Vc + Σn Av fv + Vd + Vay (3.9)

| {z }
Vint
where
Vc Shear resisted by uncracked section
p
n # of stirrup traversing the crack n = s
Av Area of shear reinforcement
fv Shear reinforcement stress
Vd Dowel force in steel
Va Aggregate interlock
13 We must determine the internal (resisting) shear forces at failure where fv = fy

Draft
3–6
V int
SHEAR
V cz
t
in
Vd
ΣV
V ay
Vs
Vext
Yield of stirups
Inclined cracking
Flexural cracking
Failure
Figure 3.7: Equilibrium of Shear Forces in Cracked Section
1. Due to yielding → large separation between 2 sides of cracks ⇒ Va → 0
2. Neglect Vd
3. Vext = Vn = Vc +nAv fy
|{z}
unknown
4. We will assume that at failure the shear force provided
p by concrete is equal to the one
0
which caused the diagonal crack to form ⇒ va = 1.9 fc + 2, 500ρ Md . Thus, Vc = va bw d
Vn d
5. Finally, if we assume p = d (implying a crack at 45◦ )
d
Vn = Vc + Av fy (ACI 11.1.1) (3.10)
| {z s}
Vs
3.4 ACI Code Requirements

H
14 The ACI code requirements ( 11) are summarized by Fig. 3.8:
1. Design for Vu (factored shear) rather than Vn = Vu
φ (ACI 11.1.1), ⇒ plot Vu diagram.
2. Determine φVc (nominal shear carried by the concrete) where

p
Vc = 2 fc0 bw d (ACI 11.3.1.1)
or p p
Vc = [1.9 fc0 + 2, 500ρw VMuud ]bw d ≤ 3.5 fc0 bw d (ACI 11.3.2.1) (3.11)
where
Vu d
Mu < 1
3. If Vu <0.5 φVc no shear reinforcement is needed (ACI 11.5.5.1)

Draft
3.4 ACI Code Requirements
4. If 0.5φVc < Vu ≤ φVc use minimum shear reinforcement; select Av (usually #3 bars) and
3–7
determine
Av f y
s = 50b w
(ACI 11.5.5.3)
d (3.12)
s < 2 (ACI 11.5.4.1)
s < 24 in (ACI 11.5.4.1)
5. If Vu > φVc ⇒ provide stirrup such that
Vu Av fy d
= V n = V c + Vs = V c + (ACI 11.17) (3.13)
φ s
or
Av fy d φAv fy
s = = (3.14)
− Vc u − φvc )b
Vu (v
φ
p
6. If Vu − Vc > 4 fc0 bw d, then s < d
4 and s < 12 in, (ACI 11.5.4.3).
7. Upper limit: p
Vu − Vc < 8 fc0 bw d (ACI 11.5.6.8) (3.15)
8. fy ≤ 60 ksi, (ACI 11.5.2)
9. Critical section is at d from support (reduces design shear force), (ACI 11.1.3.1)
d
V
b wd
Vu
φ
10 f ’c
f ’c
6 f ’c Steel
8
f ’c
4
2 f ’c
f ’c Concrete
not allowable s max=d/4 or 12" s max=d/2 or 24"

min. stirups
no stirups
A vfy d φ Avfy
s= Vu = (v u−φv c) b
50b w
−Vc
φ
A v fy
distance from support

s =
Figure 3.8: Summary of ACI Code Requirements for Shear

Draft
3–8
3.5 Examples
SHEAR
Example 3-1: Shear Design
b = 12 in.; d=22 in.; wu = 8.8 k/ft; L= 20 ft.; As = 3# 11; fc0 = 4 ksi; fy = 40 ksi;
Design vertical stirrup
Solution:
1. At support: Vu = 8.8 (20)

2 = 88 k and vu =
88
(12)(22) = .333 ksi
2. At d from support Vu = 88 − 22
12 (8.8) = 71.9 k and vu = 71.9
(12)(22) = .272 ksi
p √
3. vc = 2 fc0 = 2 4, 000 = 126 psi; φvc = (0.85)(126) = 107.1 psi
φvc
4. 2 = 53.6 psi
p
5. 4 fc0 = 2(126) = 252 psi;
p √
6. vu − vc = 272 − 126 = 146 psi < 4 fc0
psi d
333
Vu
272
107.1
φv c
53.6
φv c
2
x
19"
min. reinforcement no reinforcement
38.6"
7. vu − φvc = 0 ⇒ 333
(10)(12) x = 107.1 ⇒ x = 38.6 in = 3.2 ft from mid-span
φvc
8. vu − 2 =0⇒ 333
(10)(12) x = 53.6 ⇒ x = 19.3 in = 1.6 ft
9. Selecting #3 bars, Av = 2(.11) = .22 in2

)
Av f y (.22)(40,000)
smax = 50bw = (50)(12) = 14.66 in
d 22
smax = 11 in (3.16)
2 = 2 = 11 in

Draft
3.6 Shear Friction
10. at support
3–9
Av fy d φAv fy
s = = (3.17-a)
− Vc u − φvc )b
Vu (v
φ
(.85)(.22)(40, 000)
= (3.17-b)
(272 − 107.1)(12)
= 3.78 in (3.17-c)
(3.17-d)
3.6 Shear Friction
15 Previous design procedure was applicable to diagonal tension cracks (where tension was
induced by shear), for those cases where we do have large pure shear, Fig. 3.9, use shear
friction concept.
#7 Vu
N uc
An=
φfy
weld
Nuc
A n part of A v f
close sriru
(usually #3)
Avf
assumed crack
+ shear plane
remainder of A v f
assumed crack
Vu
Figure 3.9: Corbel
16 The crack for which shear-friction reinforcement is required may not have been caused by
shear. However once the crack has occurred a shear transfer mechanism must be provided for,
Fig. 3.10. The shear friction theory is based on the assumption that a crack will occur and
then reinforcement across it will resist relative displacement along the crack.
17 If we assume separation to be sufficient⇒ steel will yield
Vn = µAvf fy (3.18)
18 If the shear reinforcement is inclined with respect to the crack, Fig. 3.11
19 Component of tensile force in reinforcement gives rise to compression force at interface C ⇒
µc vertical force due to friction;

¾ ¾
Vn = T cos αf + µC Vn = T (cos αf − µ sin αf )
Vn = Avf fy (cos αf + µ sin (3.19-a)
αf
C = T sin αf T = Avf fy
Draft
3–10 SHEAR
Vn Vn
Vn
crack
crack separation
µ A vf f y
due to slip
Vn Vn
Shear−transfer
reinforcement A fy
vf
Avf f y Avf f y
2 2
Figure 3.10: Shear Friction Mechanism
Tsin α f
Tcos α f
assumed crack
applied shear=Vn
A vf fy
µC
C=Tsin α f
αf
T
Figure 3.11: Shear Friction Across Inclined Reinforcement

Draft
3.6 Shear Friction 3–11
20 Note: Vu = φVn and φ = 0.85

21 The preceding equation can be rewritten as
Vu
Avf = (3.20)
φµfy
Vu
Avf = ACI − 11.27 (3.21)
φfy (cos αf + µ sin αf )
22 ACI-11.7.4.3 specifies µ as such that

concrete cast monolithically µ = 1.4λ
concrete against hardened concrete µ = 1.0λ
concrete against steel µ = 0.7λ
where λ = 1.0 for normal weight concrete and λ = .75 for lightweight concrete. and
½
0.2fc0 Ac
Vn < (3.22)
800Ac
and Ac ( in2 ) is the area of concrete resisting shear.
Example 3-2: Shear Friction
Design reinforcement needed at the bearing region of a precast beam 14” wide & 28” deep
supported on a 4” bearing pad. Vu = 105k, horizontal force due to restraint, shrinkage, creep
is 0.3 Vu
possible crack
A vf
20
3#6
15
N uc
2#6 15
Vu N uc
4"
24" Vuc
Solution:
1. Assume all the shear Vu will be acting parallel to crack (small angle 20◦ )
2. Assume all Vu is parallel to crack ⇒ required Avf = Vu

φfy µ = 105
(0.85)(60)(1.4) = 1.47 in2
(0.3)(105)
3. As = N 2
φfy = (0.85)(60) = 0.62 in for horizontal force
ac
⇒ As = Avf + An = 1.47 + 0.62 in2 = 2.09 in2 ⇒ use 5# 6 (As = 2.20 in2 )
4. Note: ACI 11-9-3-4 Nuc > 0.2 Vu for Corbels;

Draft
3–12
3.7 Brackets and Corbels

SHEAR
To be Edited
23 Nu might be due to shrinkage, prestressing · · ·
24 Design based on truss analogy

25 A.C.I. provisions (Chapter 11)
a
1. For d < 12 , use shear friction theory
a
2. For d > 1, use ordinary beam theory
3. For 1
2 ≤ a
d ≤1
r ( r )
Nuc α Nu 3 p
Vn = [6.5 − 5.1 ](1 − 0.5 ) 1 + [64 + 160 ( ) ]ρ fc0 bw d (3.23)
Vu d Vu
0
where ρ = A??s ; and ρ ≤ 0.13 ffyc ; N
Vu not to be taken < 0.20 in calculating vu ; Nu = (+ve)
u
compression, and (-ve) tension; Ah < As also Ah ≥ 0.50As distributed uniformly; thru
fc0
3 d adjacent to As ; ρ = bd ≥ .04 fy .
2 As
3.8 Deep Beams

Draft
Chapter 4
CONTINUOUS BEAMS
4.1 Continuity
1 R/C bldgs constructions commonly have floor slabs, beams, girders and columns continuously
placed to form a monolithic system
Figure 4.1: Continuous R/C Structures
2
+ve
In a continuous system, load must be placed in such a way to maximize desired effect (Mmax
−ve V
Mmax max , Fig. 4.2
Max +ve M @
AB_CD_EF
A B C D E F G
Max -ve M @ B
Min -ve @ B
Max -ve @ C
Min -ve @ C
Max -ve @ D
Min -ve @ D
Figure 4.2: Load Positioning on Continuous Beams
3 Given the moment diagram for various load cases, a designer should draw the moment
enveloppe and design for the maximum negative and positive moments (eventhough they may
not be caused by the same load case).
Draft
4–2
4.2 Methods of Analysis

CONTINUOUS BEAMS
4 Two approaches:
1. Detailed analysis
(a) Moment distribution

(b) Computer analysis (such as RISA, SAP, etc...)
2. Approximate (but conservative) based on ACI 8.3.3 moment coefficients
4.2.1 Detailed Analysis
5 Refer to CVEN3525/3535/4525
4.2.2 ACI Approximate Method
6 This method, Fig. 4.3 can be used if:
1. 2 or more spans
2. Spans are approximately equals, and the larger of adjacent ones not greater than the
shorter by more than 20%
3. Loads are uniformably distributed
4. LL < 3DL
5. Prismatic members
Positive Moment
End Spans
1 2
Continuous end unrestrained 11 wu Ln
1 2
Continuous end integral with support 14 wu Ln
1 2
Interior spans 16 wu Ln
Negative Moment
Negative moment at exterior face of first of first interior support
1 2
Two spans 9 wu Ln
1 2
> Two spans 10 wu Ln
1 2
Negative moment at other faces of interior support 11 wu Ln
...................................... ......
Shear
Shear in end member at face of first interior support 1.15 wu2Ln
wu Ln
Shear at face of all other supports 2
where wu is the factored load, and Ln is the clear span.

7 These moment coefficients take into account some inelastic action (stress redistribution).
8 They are conservative compared to an exact analysis.

Draft
4.2 Methods of Analysis 4–3
Figure 4.3: ACI Approximate Moment Coefficients

Draft
4–4 CONTINUOUS BEAMS
C
L column
C
L column
VaL CL span
111
000
000
111
2
VaL
VaL
000
111
000
111 3
6
V
000
111
000
111
000
111 C
VaL VaL
L beam 2 VaL 3
aL 6
2
Column width aL
L
2
Moment curve based on prismatic member
aL
1111111111111111111111111 VaL
0000000000000000000000000 2
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
6
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
Adjusted Moment Curve
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
C
L beam
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111 C
L beam
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
Figure 4.4: Design Negative Moment
4.3 Effective Span Design Moment
9 Negative moments should be the one at the face of the columns, Fig. 4.4.
10 We recall that the change in moment is equal to the area under shear diagram.
V aL
M = Mcl − (4.1)
2
but V and M vary in some unknown way between center line of column and edge, thus we can
reduce M by V b/3 where b is the width of the column. Thus
Vb
Md−ve ≈ Mmax
−ve
− (4.2)
3
11 This can substantially reduce high M −ve .
4.4 Moment Redistribution

4.4.1 Elastic-Perfectly Plastic Section
12 Let us consider a uniformly loaded rigidly connected beam, Fig. 4.5

13 The beam has an elastic plastic moment curvature relation, Fig. 4.6

Draft
4.4 Moment Redistribution
WL
2
4–5
W 24
1
0
0
1 1
0
0
1 2
+
2
0
1 0
1 WL − − WL
12 12
Figure 4.5: Moment Diagram of a Rigidly Connected Uniformly Loaded Beam

M
Mp X
Curvature
Φy Φu
Figure 4.6: Moment Curvature of an Elastic-Plastic Section
14 |M −ve | > |M +ve | as w %, M −ve → Mp first ⇒
wL2 12Mp
= Mp ⇒ w =
12 L2
15 Thus we will have a plastic hinge at the support however this is not synonymous with collapse.
16 Collapse or failure occurs when we have a mechanism or 3 adjacent hinges (plastic or other-
wise). This can be easily determined from statics, Fig. 4.7

w
16 M p
2
L
M
p
12 M
p
2
L
M M
∆
p p
Figure 4.7: Plastic Moments in Uniformly Loaded Rigidly Connected Beam
wu L2
2Mp = 8
16Mp
wu = L2
17 Thus capacity was increased 33% after first plastic hinge occurred.
18 This is accompanied by large rotation of the plastic hinges at the supports, and when com-
pared with the linear elastic solution M −ve & and M +ve %
19 The section must be designed to accomodate this rotation.

Draft
4–6
4.4.2 Concrete
CONTINUOUS BEAMS
20 Concrete is brittle hence by itself no appreciable plastic deformation can occur, however in
R/C, Fig. 4.8
ε ce .003
fc fc
kd c
d−kd d−c
θy θu
Asf y Asf y
ε s= ε y ε s> ε y
.003
M u
Steel yielding
εc
M y
M cr
First crack
θcr θ y θu Strain caused by

moment redistribution θy
Unit rotation
θu
εy
Figure 4.8: Plastic Redistribution in Concrete Sections
21 If certain rotation capacity exists (i.e., if ρ − ρ0 is low) M is controlled by yielding of the steel
while the concrete strain is still low compared to 0.003 ⇒ reserve rotation capacity θu − θy is
then available for a redistribution of moment to occur before ε → 0.003
22M −ve moment at support of continuous flexural members calculated by elastic theory can
be decreased by no more than
ρ − ρ0
∆M = 20(1 − )% ACI 8.4.1 (4.3)
ρb
0
where ρb = 0.85β1 ffyc ( 87+f
87
y
) provided that
1. Moments are exactly determined (i.e., not ACI coefficients)
2. ρ or ρ − ρ0 < 0.5ρb
23 M +ve must be increased accordingly.

24 This capacity to redistribute moments (reduce M −ve and increase M +ve ) is a characterisitc
of ductile members.
25 Earthquake resistant structures must have a certain ductility to absorb the lateral oscillating
load ⇒ large amount of reinforcement at the joints.

Draft
4.5 Buildings
Example 4-1: Moment Redistribution

4–7
Determine the moment redistribution for the following singly reinforced beam with ρ = 0.5ρb
2 2
WL WL
24 20
+ +
2 2
2 2 −
WL − − WL 0.9 WL − 0.9 W L
12 12 12 12
Solution:
From above, amout of redistribution

ρ−ρ0
∆M = 20(1 − ρb )%
= 20(1 − 0.5) = 10%
2
M −ve = 0.9 wL
12
2 wL2
M +ve = 1.2 wL
24 = 20
4.5 Buildings
26 Building types, Table 4.1
Structural System Number of Stories

Frame Up to 15
Shear Wall-Frame up to 40
Single framed tube up to 40
Tube in Tube up to 80
Table 4.1: Building Structural Systems
27 We analyse separately for vertical and horizontal loads.
Vertical loads: DL and LL. This is typically done for a floor, through a grid analysis. No
need to model the entire structure. We can use
ACI Approximate equations

Exact (Moment distribution, computer)
Lateral laod: WL, EL. This requires the analysis of a 2D or 3D frame. Two approaches:
Approximate method: Portal method, or cantilever method.

Exact Moment distribution, computer.
28 Recommended analysis/design procedures

Draft
4–8 CONTINUOUS BEAMS
1. Use ACI approximate equations for the design of the slab. Then, there is no need to worry
about optimal placement of load to maximize positive or negative moments, or moment
redistribution.
2. Once the slab is designed, use exact method for beams, girders. Reduce negative moments.
3. Tabulate maximum +ve and -ve moments for each beam.
4. Determine the column loads, tabulate.
5. Can use approximate or “exact” method of analysis for frames. Tabulate results.
6. Add maximum positive and negative moments due to vertical and lateral loads.
7. Design accordingly.
29 A block diagram for the various steps is shown in Fig. 4.9
E-W SLAB N-S BEAM E-W GIRDER N-S GIRDER

L b L b L L
h h h b
hf
DL w0 LL w0 PW PW WL w0 PW w0 WL
wu wu wu wu
M V M V
M V R M V R
L Span
hf Slab thickness N
h Beam/girder depth
M Flexure
V
R
Shear
Reation
Col
PW Partition wall W E
WL Wind load
W0
Wa
Self weight
Total factored load
Fou
Col Column
Fou Foundation S
R/C Bldg Design
Figure 4.9: Block Diagram for R/C Building Design

Draft
Chapter 5
ONE WAY SLABS
5.1 Types of Slabs
1 Types of slabs, Fig. 5.1
Beam
Beam
Beam
Beam
Beam
Beam
one−way slab two−way slab Grid slab
Flat slab
one−way slab Flat plate slab
Figure 5.1: Types of Slabs
2 Two types of slabs, Fig. 5.2

1. One way slab: long span/short span > 2. Load is transmitted along the short span.
2. Two Way slab: Long span/short span <2. Load is transmitted along two orthogonal
directions.
L
3 If s > 2 than most of the load (≈ 95%) is carried in the short directions, Fig. 5.3
4 Load transfer in one way slabs is accomplished hierarchically through an interaction of slab,
beam, girder, column and foundations, Fig. 5.4

Draft
5–2 ONE WAY SLABS
11111
00000 0000
1111
00000
11111 Beam 1 0000
1111
00000
11111 0000
1111
00000
11111 1111
0000
1111
0000 1111
0000
0000
1111 0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111 0000
1111
0000
1111
B B
Beam 2
Beam 1
Beam 2
Beam 1
1’−0" Strip 1’−0" Strip

B B
S S
L
1111
0000
0000
1111 0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000 0000
1111
1111 0000
1111
11111
00000
00000
11111
0000
1111
0000
1111
00000
11111 Beam 1 0000
1111
00000
11111 1111
0000
Figure 5.2: One vs Two way slabs
ρB B
111
000
000
111
P ρA
A 101010 11A
00
00
11
00
11
000
111
B111
000
Figure 5.3: Load Distribution in Slabs

Draft
5.1 Types of Slabs 5–3
Figure 5.4: Load Transfer in R/C Buildings

Draft
5–4
Simply One end Both ends

ONE WAY SLABS
Cantilever
supported continuous continuous
Solid One
way slab L/20 L/24 L/28 L/10
Beams or
ribbed One way slab L/16 L/18.5 L/21 L/8
Table 5.1: Recommended Minimum Slab and Beam Depths
5.2 One Way Slabs
5 Preliminary considerations for one way slabs:

1. Load on slabs ksf.
2. Design an imaginary 12 in strip.
3. The area of reinforcement is As /ft of width or
µ ¶
As 12 in
= Ab (5.1)
ft bar spacing in inches
where Ab is the area of one bar. or

12Ab
Bar spacing in inches = (5.2)
As
4. Slab thickness t is usually assumed, and we design reinforcement. ACI 9.5.2.1 recom-
mended minimum thickness of beams/slabs are given by Table 5.1. where L is in inches,
and members are not supporting partitions. If a slab is so dimensioned
(a) Deflection need not be checked
(b) Usually, neither flexure, nor shear controls
a
5. In reinforcement design, a good initial guess for d is 0.15.
6. Slab thickness are rounded to the neares 1/4 inch for slabs less than 6 inch, and 1/2 for
thicker ones.
7. ACI Sect. 7.7.1 gives minimum cover for corrosion control
(a) Concrete not exposed to weather or in contact with ground, No. 11 or smaller 3/4
inch.
(b) Concrete exposed to weather or in contact with ground:
i. No. 5 bars and smaller, 1.5 inch.
ii. No. 6 and larger, 2. inch.
8. Transverse reinforcement (shrinkage, temperature) must be provided

As 
0.002 Grade 40 and 50 bars
= ACI 7.12.2.1 (5.3)
bh 
0.0018 Grade 60 and welded wire fabric

Draft
5.3 Design of a One Way Continuous Slab
p
9. Shear does not usually control & no minimum reinforcement is needed (vc = 2 fc0 )
5–5
10. Principal reinforcement shall not be spaced at more than 3 times the slab thickness nor
18 in (ACI 7.6.5).
11. Usually No. 4 and larger bars are used for flexural reinforcement, as No. 3 may be
bent out of position by workers walking on it. This is more critical for top than bottom
reinforcement.
12. Sometimes, No.3 is used for bottom, and No. 4 for top.
13. Shrinkage/temperature reinforcement shall not be spaced at more than 5 times the slab
thickness nor 18 in (ACI 7.12.2.2).

Design an 8 span floor slab. Each span is 15 ft long, fc0 = 3, 750 psi, fy = 60 ksi, wl =100 psf,
floor cover is 0.5 psf, mechanical equipment 4 psf, and ceiling 2 psf. Interior supporting beams
have a width of 14 inch, and exterior ones 16 inches. First span is measured from exterior of
exterior beam to center of first interior beam.
Thickness: of the floor is based on ACI recommendation:

16 14
le = (15)(12) − − = 165 in (5.4-a)
2 2
14
li = (15)(12) − 2 = 166 in (5.4-b)
2
l 165
hemin = = = 6.88 in (5.4-c)
24 24
l 166
himin = = = 5.93 in (5.4-d)
28 28
We round h up to h = 7.25 in. Assuming 3/4 in. cover and No. 4 bars
µ ¶
0.5
d = 7.25 − 0.75 + = 6.25 in (5.5)
2
Factored Loads Slab

7.25
wd = (150) = 90.6 psf of floor surface (5.6)
12
Total dead load 90.6 + 0.5 + 4 + 2 = 97.1 psf
Factored load
wu = 1.4(97.1) + 1.7(100) = 306 psf (5.7)
The load per foot of strip is 306 lbs/ft
Since wl < 3wd we can use the ACI 8.3.3 coefficients to compute the moments.
Net spans
1. First interior span ln = (15)(12) − 16

2 − 14
2 = 165 in = 13.75 ft

Draft
5–6
2. Second interior span ln = (15)(12) − 14 = 166 in = 13.83 ft

ONE WAY SLABS
3. Average span ln = 12 (165 + 166) 12

1
= 13.79 ft
Flexural Design
ai = 0.15d = 0.15(6.25) = 0.9375 in (5.8-a)

Mu 12Mu 0.222
As = = = Mu (5.8-b)
φfy (d − a2 ) 0.9(60)(6.25 − a2 ) 6.25 − a2
As fy 60
a = 0
= As = 1.569As (5.8-c)
0.85fc b (0.85)(3.75)(12)
Amin
s = 0.0018bh = 0.0018(12)(7.25) = 0.157 in2 /f t (5.8-d)
For maximum spacing, ACI specifies 3h = 3(7.25) = 21.75 in but no more than 18 in,
⇒ smax = 18 in.
Support Midspan Support Midspan Support Midspan

ln , ft 13.75 13.75 13.79 13.83 13.83 13.83
wu ln2 57.85 57.85 58.19 58.53 58.53
M Coeff. 1/24 1/14 1/10 1/11 1/16 1/11 1/16
√
Mu ft-kip/ft 2.41 4.13 5.82 5.82 5.29 3.66 5.32 3.66
a 0.937 0.937 0.937 0.937 0.937
As 0.092 0.159 0.223 0.141 0.204
a 0.145 0.249 0.351 0.221 0.320
As 0.087 0.150 0.213 0.132 0.194
a 0.136 0.235 0.334 0.207 0.304
√ √
As 0.087 0.150 0.212 0.132 0.194
√ √ √
Amin
s 0.157 0.157 0.157 0.157 0.157
Reinf. #4@15 #4 @15 #4@12 #4@15 #4@12
Aprov
s 0.16 0.16 0.20 0.16 0.20
Shear Since we have unequal spans we must check at
1. Exterior face of the first interior support
ln (1.15)(306)(157)
Vu = 1.15wu = = 2, 302 lb/ft of width (5.9)
2 2
2. Typical interior span
ln (1.0)(306)(166)
Vu = 1.0wu = = 2, 117 lb/ft of width (5.10)
2 2
The shear resistance is
p p
φVc = (0.85)2 f 0 cbw d = (0.85)(2) 3, 750(12)(6.25) = 7, 808 lb/ft (5.11)
hence the slab is adequate for shear.

Draft
Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement must be provided perpendicular to the span

5–7
of the slab
As = 0.0018bh = 0.0018(12)(7.25) = 0.157 in2 /f t (5.12)
and maximum spacing is 18 in. Therefore, we can provide # 4 bars at 15 in. as shrinkage
and temperature reinforcement. They should be placed on top of the lower layer of steel.
Note that in this problem a 6.5 in. thickness was acceptablee for the six interior spans, but a
7.25 in. thickness was required for the end spans.
If the entire floor were made of 6. in. thick slab instead of 7.25 in. about 45 cubic yards of
concrete could have been saved (for a total floor width of about 90 ft) per flor or 180 kips of
dead load per floor. This would represent a considerable saving in say a 20 story building.
In this case, it would be advisable to use 6., and check for delfections in the end spans.

Draft
5–8 ONE WAY SLABS

Draft
Chapter 6
SERVICEABILITY
1 So far we have focused on the ultimate structural behaviour (failure), Vu & Mu , i.e the strength
of a member.
2 It is important to also control the behaviour of structural elements under service load (unfac-
tored)
1. Cracking
2. Deflection
6.1 Control of Cracking
3 As σy %, εy %⇒ larger crack width is associated with large fy . This is why the ACI code
places a limitation on max fy = 80ksi. (ACI 9.4)

4 The concern is not the # of crack (we can not control it) but rather the crack width.
5 Crack width should be minimized because:
1. Appearance
2. Corrosion of steel
3. Redistributions of internal stresses
4. Effect on deflection
6 The controlling parameters are:
1. Surface of the reinforcing bar
(a) Round & smooth ⇒ few wide cracks (bad)

(b) Irregular & deformed ⇒ many small cracks (better)
2. Steel stress
3. Concrete cover
Draft
6–2
4. Distribution of steel over the tensile zone of concrete ←

SERVICEABILITY
7 Based on purely experimental research, the following emperical relation was determined, Fig.
6.1:
p
w = .076βfs 3 dc A Gergely & Lutz Eq. (6.1)
where
w width in 1/1,000 in
fs Steel service stress ksi (if not computed can be assumed as 0.6 fy )
dc Thickness of concrete cover measured from tension face to center of bar
closest to this face, in.
h2
β h1
A Area of concrete surrounding one bar = Total effective tensile area in2
# of bars
Neutral Axis
h1 h
2
111
000
000
111 Steel Centroid
2y
y 000
111
000
111
d
c
w
Figure 6.1: Crack Width Equation Parameters
8 ACI
1. Expresses the crack width indirectly by z where
w p
z= = fs 3 dc A (ACI 10.6.4) (6.2)
.076β
and assumes β = h2
h1 = 1.2 ⇒ w = .091z
Interior beams z ≤ 175 (w = .016 in)
Note that to reduce z (beneficial) we must
Exterior beams z ≤ 145 (w = .013 in)
reduce A or increase the number of bars.
2. Only deformed bars can be used
3. Bars should be well distributed in tension zone
4. fy < 80 ksi
5. In lieu of an accurate evaluation, fs = 0.6fy .
9 Maximum acceptable crack width (ACI Committee 224).

Draft
6.2 Deflections
Exposure wmax (in.)

6–3
dry air, or protective membrane .016

humidity, moist air, soil .012
deicing chemicals .007
seawater, salt .006
water retaining structures .004
Example 6-1: Crack Width
fc0 = 3,000 ksi; fy = 40 ksi; As = 4 # 8; LL = 2.44 k/ft; DL = 1.27 k/ft; L = 15 ft.;

Determine z and crack width
7.85"
22.5"
20"
12.15"
14.65"
00000000000
11111111111
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
11111111111
00000000000
00000000000
11111111111
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
2.5" 00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
11.5"
Solution:
√
1. w = .076βfs 3 dc A
√
2. Ec = 57 3, 000 = 3, 120 ksi
29×103
3. n = 3,120 = 9.29
b(kd)2
4. Taking first moment (Eq. 2.6) 2 − nAs (d − kd) = 0 ⇒ k = .393 ⇒ j = 1 − k
3 =
.869 ⇒ kd = 7.85 in
2 (1.27+2.44)(15) (12) 2
5. M = wL8 and fs = As jd ⇒ fs = 8(3.14)(.869)(20) = 22.9 ksi
M
Note that ACI allows 0.6fy = (0.6)(40) = 24 ksi conservative

22.5−7.85 14.65
6. β = 20−7.85 = 12.15 = 1.206 (note ACI stipulates 1.2)
(2.5)(2)(11.5)
7. A = 4 = 14.38 in2
p 1
8. w = (.076)(1.206)(22.9) 3 (2.5)(14.38) 1,000 = .00696 in .
√ p
9. or z = fs3 dc A = (22.9) 3 (2.5)(14.38) = 75.64
6.2 Deflections
10 ACI Code Sect. 9.5

11 Every structural design must satisfy requirements of strength, stiffness & stability

Draft
6–4 SERVICEABILITY
12 With the increased usuage of: a) high strength material (resulting in smaller cross section)
& b) use of refined design methods, we can no longer rely on the factor of safety to “take care”
of deflection, ⇒ we but must detemine it
13 Deflection should be controlled because of:
1. Visually unacceptable
2. Possible ponding of water
3. Cracking in partition walls
4. Functional difficulties (windows, doors, etc · · ·)
5. Machine misalignment
6. Vibration
14 Deflection are computed for service loads only

15 Both long term & short term deflection should be considered.
16 As a rule of thumb, deflections seldom control if ρ < 0.5ρb
6.2.1 Short Term Deflection

f (w,L) 5wL4
17 In general δ = EI , i.e., uniform load over simply supported beam in 384EI
18 f (w, l) and E are known, but how do we determine I? (uncracked transformed or cracked),
Fig. 6.2
Ε cΙ ut Ε cΙ e1 Ε cΙ e2 Ε cΙ cr
Μ2
Μ1
Μ cr
Α B Α B Α B Α B Α B ∆ ∆
1 2
Figure 6.2: Uncracked Transformed and Cracked Transformed X Sections
19 It would be too complicated to have I = I(M )

20 ACI recommends to use a weighted average expression for I → Ieff
µ ¶ " µ ¶ #
Mcr 3 Mcr 3
Ieff = Ig + 1 − Icr (ACI 9.5.2.3) (6.3)
Ma Ma

Draft
6.2 Deflections
where
6–5
Ieff ≤ Ig
Mcr = fr0 ygb
I
p
fr0 = 7.5 fc0
and Ma is the maximum (service) moment at stage in which deflection is computed
21 For continuous beams average
Ieff = 0.70Im + 0.15(Ie1 + Ie2 )
22 For beams with one end continuous Ieff = 0.85Im + 15(Icon ) where Im , Ie are the moment of
inertia at the middle and the end respectively.
23 Note that Ig may be substituted for Iut
24Deflection evaluation is a nonlinear problem, as w % M % Mcr
Ma & Ieff & and for a continu-
ous beam ½
5 wL4 w% ∆%
∆=
384 EI I& ∆%
6.2.2 Long Term Deflection
δt
δ inst.
t
Figure 6.3: Time Dependent Deflection
25 Creep coefficient:
εf
Cc = εi
σ σ Ec
Ect = ε = εi (1+Cc ) = 1+Cc
⇒ Creep tends to reduce the elastic modulus of concrete, Fig. 6.4

26 From Strain diagram:
1. Steel strain remains unchanged
2. As concrete undergoes creep, the N.A. moves down ⇒ larger area of concrete is under
compression but since C = T ⇒ stress in concrete is slightly reduced

Draft
fci
b εi εt
fct
Cracked
elastic φi
neutral axis kd
φt
d
As A s fs
εs
Figure 6.4: Time Dependent Strain Distribution
3. But since C is now lower and we still satisfy Mext = Mint both stresses in steel & concrete
must increase with time
27 According to ACI section 9.5.2.5:
1. Additional long term deflection δ t
δt = δi × λ (6.4)
where
ξ
λ = 1+50ρ0
0 0
As
ρ = bd
and
Time (months) 3 6 12 ≥ 60
ξ 1.0 1.2 1.4 2.0
Thus compressive reinforcement can substantially reduce long term deflections
δtotal = δinitial (1 + λ) (6.5)
A B C
LL short
DL sustained
1111
0000 1111
0000
0000
1111 0000
1111
Figure 6.5: Short and long Term Deflections

Draft
6.2 Deflections
28 Short and long term deflections, Fig. 6.5

6–7
A → δi,sust
B → δi,sust + δt,sust
C → δsust + δi,short
Note that we are usually interested in the live load deflection (C-B), thus
δi, short = δi, sust + short − δi, sust (6.6)

| {z } | {z }
Ieff (DL+LL) Ieff (DL)
29 ACI max. deflections (ACI 9.5.2.6)
L
Flat roof not supporting nonstructural elements likely to be damaged δi,sh < 180
L
Floors not supporting nonstructural elements likely to be damaged δi,sh < 360
L
Roofs or floors supporting nonstructural elements likely to be damaged δt,sust + δi,sh < 480
L
Floors not supporting nonstructural elements not likely to be damaged δt,sus + δi,sh < 240
Example 6-2: Deflections
b = 11.5 in.; h = 22.5 in,; d = 20 in.; As = 4 # 8; fc0 = 3,000 psi; fy = 40 ksi; DL = 1.27
k/ft; LL = 2.44 k/ft; L = 15 ft.
1. Determine the short term deflection
2. Find the creep portion of the sustained load deflection & immediate live load deflections
Solution:
1. δi, short = δi,short + sust − δi, sust

| {z } |{z} | {z }
2.44 1.27 1.27
2. Moment of inertias:
³ ´3 · ³ ´3 ¸
Ieff = Mcr
Ma Ig + 1 − Mcr
Ma Ict
bh3 (11.5)(22.5)3
Ig = 12 = 12 = 10, 916 in4
3. To find Ict , need to locate N.A @ service

Draft
11.5"
7.85"
20"
12.15"
b(kd)2
− nAs (d − kd) = 0 ⇒ k = .393 ⇒ kd = 7.85 in
2
(11.5)(7.85)3 ¡ ¢2
Ict = + (11.5)(7.85) 7.85 + (9.29) (3.14)(12.152 ) = 6, 130 in4
12 2 | {z } | {z }
√ n As
fr0 = 7.5 3, 000 = 410.8 psi
f0I
Mcr = rybg
(410.8)(10,916)
= 11.25 = 33.2 k.ft = 399 k.in
4. Ma for sustained load

(1.27)(15)2 (12)
Masust = = 428.6 k.in = 35.72 k.ft
8
5. Ma for sustained and short load
(1.27 + 2.44)(15)2 (12)
Masust+short = = 1, 252 k.in = 104 k.ft
8
6. Moment of inertias
¡ ¢ h ¡ 33.2 ¢3i
33.2 3
Ieff, sust + short = (10, 916) + 1 − 104.3 (6, 130) = 6, 209 in4
104.3
¡ 33.2 ¢3 h ¡ 33.2 ¢3 i
Ieff, sust = 35.7 (10, 916) + 1 − 35.7 (6, 130) = 9, 993 in4
7. Deflections √
E = 57 3, 000 = 3, 120 ksi
5 wL4
δ = 384 EI
5 (1.27+2.44)[(15)(12)]4
δi, short + sust = 384 (3,120)(6,209) = .218 in
4
5 (1.27)[(15)(12)]
δi, sust = 384 (3,120)(9,993) = .046 in
δi = .218 − .046 = .172 in
8. δcreep = λδi, sust
2.
λ= = 2. ⇒ δcreep = (2)(.046) = .092 in
1+0

Draft
Chapter 7
APPROXIMATE FRAME
ANALYSIS
1 Despite the widespread availability of computers, approximate methods of analysis are justi-
fied by
1. Inherent assumption made regarding the validity of a linear elastic analysis vis a vis of
an ultimate failure design.
2. Ability of structures to redistribute internal forces.
3. Uncertainties in load and material properties
2 Vertical loads are treated separately from the horizontal ones.

3 We use the design sign convention for moments (+ve tension below), and for shear (ccw +ve).
4 Assume girders to be numbered from left to right.
5 In all free body diagrams assume positivee forces/moments, and take algeebraic sums.
7.1 Vertical Loads
6 The girders at each floor are assumed to be continuous beams, and columns are assumed to
resist the resulting unbalanced moments from the girders.

7 Basic assumptions
1. Girders at each floor act as continous beams supporting a uniform load.
2. Inflection points are assumed to be at
(a) One tenth the span from both ends of each girder.
(b) Mid-height of the columns
3. Axial forces and deformation in the girder are negligibly small.
4. Unbalanced end moments from the girders at each joint is distributed to the columns
above and below the floor.
Draft
7–2
8
APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS
Based on the first assumption, all beams are statically determinate and have a span, Ls
equal to 0.8 the original length of the girder, L. (Note that for a rigidly connected member, the
inflection point is at 0.211 L, and at the support for a simply supported beam; hence, depending
on the nature of the connection one could consider those values as upper and lower bounds for
the approximate location of the hinge).
9 End forces are given by
Maximum positive moment at the center of each beam is, Fig. 7.1
w
rgt
lft M
M
rgt
V
lft
V
0.1L 0.1L
0.8L
L
111
000
000 111
000
111 000
111
1
0 11
00
0
1 00
11
0
1 00
11
0
1 00
11
Figure 7.1: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Girder Moments
1 1
M + = wL2s = w (0.8)2 L2 = 0.08wL2 (7.1)
8 8
Maximum negative moment at each end of the girder is given by, Fig. 7.1
w w
M lef t = M rgt = − (0.1L)2 − (0.8L)(0.1L) = −0.045wL2 (7.2)
2 2
Girder Shear are obtained from the free body diagram, Fig. 7.2
wL wL
V lf t = V rgt = − (7.3)
2 2
Column axial force is obtained by summing all the girder shears to the axial force transmit-
ted by the column above it. Fig. 7.2
rgt
P dwn = P up + Vi−1 − Vilf t (7.4)

Draft
7.1 Vertical Loads 7–3
above
P
rgt lft
V i−1 Vi
below
P
Figure 7.2: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Axial Forces
h/2
h/2
above
M col
lft rgt
M lft rgt
Mi−1 Mi M
i−1
i
rgt lft rgt

Vlft Vi−1 V
i
V
i
i−1
Mbelow
col
Li−1 Li
h/2
h/2
Figure 7.3: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Moments

Draft
7–4 APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS
Column Moment are obtained by considering the free body diagram of columns Fig. 7.3
rgt
M top = Mabove
bot
− Mi−1 + Milf t M bot = −top (7.5)
Column Shear Points of inflection are at mid-height, with possible exception when the columns
on the first floor are hinged at the base, Fig. 7.3
M top
V = h
(7.6)
2
Girder axial forces are assumed to be negligible eventhough the unbalanced column shears
above and below a floor will be resisted by girders at the floor.
7.2 Horizontal Loads
10 We must differentiate between low and high rise buildings.
Low rise buidlings, where the height is at least samller than the hrizontal dimension, the
deflected shape is characterized by shear deformations.
High rise buildings, where the height is several times greater than its least horizontal di-
mension, the deflected shape is dominated by overall flexural deformation.
7.2.1 Portal Method
11 Low rise buildings under lateral loads, have predominantly shear deformations. Thus, the
approximate analysis of this type of structure is based on
1. Distribution of horizontal shear forces.
2. Location of inflection points.
12 The portal method is based on the following assumptions
1. Inflection points are located at
(a) Mid-height of all columns above the second floor.

(b) Mid-height of floor columns if rigid support, or at the base if hinged.
(c) At the center of each girder.
2. Total horizontal shear at the mid-height of all columns at any floor level will be dis-
tributed among these columns so that each of the two exterior columns carry half as
much horizontal shear as each interior columns of the frame.
13 Forces are obtained from

Draft
7.2 Horizontal Loads 7–5
H/2 H H H/2
Figure 7.4: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Shear
Column Shear is obtained by passing a horizontal section through the mid-height of the
columns at each floor and summing the lateral forces above it, then Fig. 7.4
P
ext F lateral
V = V int = 2V ext (7.7)
2No. of bays
Column Moments at the end of each column is equal to the shear at the column times half
the height of the corresponding column, Fig. 7.4
h
M top = V M bot = −M top (7.8)
2
Girder Moments is obtained from the columns connected to the girder, Fig. 7.5
h/2
h/2
above
M col
lft rgt lft rgt
M i−1 M i−1 Mi Mi
rgt rgt
lft
Vi−1 V Vlft Vi
i−1 i
below
M col
Li−1/2 Li−1/2 Li /2 Li /2
h/2
h/2
Figure 7.5: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Girder Moment

Draft
Milf t = Mcol
above
− Mcol
below rgt
+ Mi−1 Mirgt = −Milf t (7.9)
Girder Shears Since there is an inflection point at the center of the girder, the girder shear
is obtained by considering the sum of moments about that point, Fig. 7.5
2M
V lf t = − V rgt = V lf t (7.10)
L
Column Axial Forces are obtained by summing girder shears and the axial force from the
column above, Fig. ??
above
P
rgt lft
V i−1 Vi
below
P
Figure 7.6: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Axial Force
P = P above + P rgt + P lf t (7.11)
Example 7-1: Approximate Analysis of a Frame subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads
Draw the shear, and moment diagram for the following frame. Solution:
Vertical Loads

Draft
0.25 k/ft
7–7
15 k
5 12 6 0.5 k/ft13 7 14 8
14
30 k
9 10 11
1 2 3 4 16
11
00 11
00 11
00 11
00
20’ 30’ 24’
Figure 7.7: Example; Approximate Analysis of a Building
1. Top Girder Moments

lf t
M12 = −0.045w12 L212 = −(0.045)(0.25)(20)2 =− 4.5 k.ft
cnt
M12 = 0.08w12 L212 = (0.08)(0.25)(20)2 = 8.0 k.ft
rgt lf t
M12 = M12 =− 4.5 k.ft
lf t
M13 = −0.045w13 L213 = −(0.045)(0.25)(30)2 =− 10.1 k.ft
cnt
M13 = 0.08w13 L213 = (0.08)(0.25)(30)2 = 18.0 k.ft
rgt lf t
M13 = M13 =− 10.1 k.ft
lf t
M14 = −0.045w14 L214 = −(0.045)(0.25)(24)2 =− 6.5 k.ft
cnt
M14 = 0.08w14 L214 = (0.08)(0.25)(24)2 = 11.5 k.ft
rgt lf t
M14 = M14 =− 6.5 k.ft
2. Bottom Girder Moments

M9lf t = −0.045w9 L29 = −(0.045)(0.5)(20)2 =− 9.0 k.ft
M9cnt = 0.08w9 L29 = (0.08)(0.5)(20)2 = 16.0 k.ft
M9rgt = M9lf t =− 9.0 k.ft
lf t
M10 = −0.045w10 L210 = −(0.045)(0.5)(30)2 =− 20.3 k.ft
cnt
M10 = 0.08w10 L210 = (0.08)(0.5)(30)2 = 36.0 k.ft
rgt lf t
M10 = M11 =− 20.3 k.ft
lf t
M11 = −0.045w12 L212 = −(0.045)(0.5)(24)2 =− 13.0 k.ft
cnt
M11 = 0.08w12 L212 = (0.08)(0.5)(24)2 = 23.0 k.ft
rgt lf t
M11 = M12 =− 13.0 k.ft
3. Top Column Moments
M5top = lf t
+M12 =− 4.5 k.ft
M5bot = −M5top = 4.5 k.ft
M6top = rgt
−M12 lf t
+ M13 = −(−4.5) + (−10.1) =− 5.6 k.ft
top
M6bot = −M6 = 5.6 k.ft
M7top = rgt
−M13 lf t
+ M14 = −(−10.1) + (−6.5) =− 3.6 k.ft
M8top = rgt
−M14 = −(−6.5) = 6.5 k.ft
M8bot = −M8top =− 6.5 k.ft

Draft
7–8
4. Bottom Column Moments

M1top = +M5bot + M9lf t = 4.5 − 9.0 =− 4.5 k.ft

M2top = +M6bot − M9rgt + M10 lf t
= 5.6 − (−9.0) + (−20.3) =− 5.6 k.ft
top
M2bot = −M2 = 5.6 k.ft
M3top = rgt
+M7bot − M10 + M11lf t
= −3.6 − (−20.3) + (−13.0) = 3.6 k.ft
top
M3bot = −M3 =− 3.6 k.ft
M4top = rgt
+M8bot − M11 = −6.5 − (−13.0) = 6.5 k.ft
5. Top Girder Shear

lf t (0.25)(20)
V12 = w122L12 = 2 = 2.5 k
rgt lf t
V12 = −V12 =− 2.5 k
lf t (0.25)(30)
V13 = w132L13 = 2 = 3.75 k
rgt lf t
V13 = −V13 =− 3.75 k
lf t (0.25)(24)
V14 = w142L14 = 2 = 3.0 k
rgt lf t
V14 = −V14 =− 3.0 k
6. Bottom Girder Shear
V9lf t = w92L9 = (0.5)(20)
2 = 5.00 k
V9rgt = −V9lf t =− 5.00 k
lf t
V10 = w102L10 = (0.5)(30)
2 = 7.50 k
rgt lf t
V10 = −V10 =− 7.50 k
lf t
V11 = w112L11 = (0.5)(24)
2 = 6.00 k
rgt lf t
V11 = −V11 =− 6.00 k
7. Column Shears
M5top −4.5
V5 = H5 = 14 = − 0.64 k
2 2
M6top −5.6
V6 = H6 = 14 = − 0.80 k
2 2
M7top 3.6
V7 = H7 = 14 = 0.52 k
2 2
M8top 6.5
V8 = H8 = 14 = 0.93 k
2 2
M1top −4.5
V1 = H1 = 16 = − 0.56 k
2 2
M2top −5.6
V2 = H2 = 16 = − 0.70 k
2 2
M3top 3.6
V3 = H3 = 16 = 0.46 k
2 2
M4top 6.5
V4 = H4 = 16 = 0.81 k
2 2
8. Top Column Axial Forces

lf t
P5 = V12 = 2.50 k
rgt lf t
P6 = −V12 + V13 = −(−2.50) + 3.75 = 6.25 k
rgt lf t
P7 = −V13 + V14 = −(−3.75) + 3.00 = 6.75 k
rgt
Victor Saouma P8 = −V14 Mechanics and Design of=Reinforced
3.00 k Concrete
Draft
0.25K/ft
5 12 6 13 7 14 8
0.50K/ft 14’
9 10 11
1 2 3 4 16’
20’ 30’ 24’
+8.0’k +18.0’k +11.5’k

-4.5’k -4.5’k
-10.1’k -10.1’k -6.5’
k
-6.5’k
+16.0’k +23.0’k
+32.0’k
-9.0’k -9.0’k
k k-13.0’ k
-13.0’k
-20.2’ -20.2’
-4.5’k -5.6’k +3.6’k +6.5’k
+4.5’k +5.6’k -3.6’k -6.5’k

-4.5’k -5.6’k +3.6’k +6.5’k
+4.5’k +5.6’k -3.6’k -6.5’k
Figure 7.8: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Vertical Loads

Draft
+2.5K +3.75K +3.0K
-2.5K -3.75K
K
-3.0K
+5.0 K +7.5 +6.0 K
-5.0K -6.0K
-7.5K
-0.64K -0.80K +0.51K +0.93K
-0.56K -0.70K +0.45K +0.81K
Figure 7.9: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Shears Due to Vertical Loads

Draft
9. Bottom Column Axial Forces

7–11
P1 = P5 + V9lf t = 2.50 + 5.0 = 7.5 k

rgt
P2 = P6 − V10 + V9lf t = 6.25 − (−5.00) + 7.50 = 18.75 k
rgt lf t
P3 = P7 − V11 + V10 = 6.75 − (−7.50) + 6.0 = 20.25 k
rgt
P4 = P8 − V11 = 3.00 − (−6.00) = 9.00 k
Horizontal Loads, Portal Method
1. Column Shears
15
V5 = (2)(3) = 2.5 k
V6 = 2(V5 ) = (2)(2.5) = 5k
V7 = 2(V5 ) = (2)(2.5) = 5k
V8 = V5 = 2.5 k
15+30
V1 = (2)(3) = 7.5 k
V2 = 2(V1 ) = (2)(7.5) = 15 k
V3 = 2(V1 ) = (2)(2.5) = 15 k
V4 = V1 = 7.5 k
2. Top Column Moments
(2.5)(14)
M5top = V12H5 = 2 = 17.5 k.ft
(5)(14)
M6top = V62H6 = 2 = 35.0 k.ft
V up H (5)(14)
M7top = 7 2 7 = 2 = 35.0 k.ft
M7bot = −M7top = − 35.0 k.ft
V up H (2.5)(14)
M8top = 8 2 8 = 2 = 17.5 k.ft
M8bot = −M8top = − 17.5 k.ft
3. Bottom Column Moments
V dwn H (7.5)(16)
M1top = 1 2 1 = 2 = 60 k.ft
M1bot = −M1top = − 60 k.ft
V dwn H (15)(16)
M2top = 2 2 2 = 2 = 120 k.ft
V dwn H (15)(16)
M3top = 3 2 3 = 2 = 120 k.ft
V dwn H (7.5)(16)
M4top = 4 2 4 = 2 = 60 k.ft
4. Top Girder Moments
lf t
M12 = M5top = 17.5 k.ft
rgt lf t
M12 = −M12 =− 17.5 k.ft
lf t rgt
M13 = M12 + M6top = −17.5 + 35 = 17.5 k.ft
rgt lf t
M13 = −M13 =− 17.5 k.ft
lf t rgt
M14 = M13 + M7top = −17.5 + 35 = 17.5 k.ft
rgt lf t
M14 = −M14 =− 17.5 k.ft

Draft
Approximate Analysis Vertical Loads APROXVER.XLS Victor E. Saouma
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q
1
2 L1 L2 L3
3 Height Span 20 30 24
4 14 Load 0.25 0.25 0.25
5 16 Load 0.5 0.5 0.5
6 MOMENTS
7 Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3
8 Col Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col
9 Lft Cnt Rgt Lft Cnr Rgt Lft Cnt Rgt
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16 SHEAR
17 Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3
19 Lft Rgt Lft Rgt Lft Rgt
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24 AXIAL FORCE
26 Col
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9.00
Figure 7.10: Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Spread-Sheet Format

Approximate Analysis Vertical Loads APROXVER.XLS Victor E. Saouma
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q
Draft
Victor Saouma
2 L1 L2 L3
3 Height Span 20 30 24
4 14 Load 0.25 0.25 0.25
5 16 Load 0.5 0.5 0.5
6 MOMENTS
7 Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3
9 AAAAAAAA A
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A AAAA
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30 =+C28+D22 AAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAA =+G28-F22+I22 AAAAA
A =+L28-K22+N22 =+Q28-P22
AAAA AAAA
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A
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
Figure 7.11: Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Equations in Spread-Sheet
Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

7–13
Draft
7–14
5. Bottom Girder Moments

M9lf t = M1top − M5bot = 60 − (−17.5) = 77.5 k.ft

M9rgt = −M9lf t =− 77.5 k.ft
lf t
M10 = M9rgt + M2top − M6bot = −77.5 + 120 − (−35) = 77.5 k.ft
rgt lf t
M10 = −M10 =− 77.5 k.ft
lf t
M11 = M10 + M3top − M7bot = −77.5 + 120 − (−35)
rgt
= 77.5 k.ft
rgt lf t
M11 = −M11 =− 77.5 k.ft
15K 14
5 12 6 13 7 8
14’
30K 9 10 11
1 2 3 4 16’
20’ 30’ 24’
+17.5’K +35’K +35’K +17.5’K
-17.5’K -35’K -35’K -17.5’K

+60’K +120’K +120’K +60’K
-60’K -120’K -120’K -60’K
+17.5’K +17.5’K +17.5’K

-17.5K -17.5K -17.5K
K K K
+77.5’ +77.5’ +77.5’
-77.5’K -77.5’K -77.5’K
Figure 7.12: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Lateral Loads

Draft
6. Top Girder Shear

7–15
2M lf t
lf t
V12 = − L1212
= − (2)(17.5)
20 = −1.75 k
rgt lf t
V12 = +V12 = −1.75 k
2M lf t
lf t
V13 = − L1313
= − (2)(17.5)
30 = −1.17 k
rgt lf t
V13 = +V13 = −1.17 k
2M lf t
lf t
V14 = − L14
14
= − (2)(17.5)
24 = −1.46 k
rgt lf t
V14 = +V14 = −1.46 k
7. Bottom Girder Shear

2M lf t
V9lf t = − L12
9
= − (2)(77.5)
20 = −7.75 k
V9rgt = +V9lf t = −7.75 k
2M lf t
lf t
V10 = − L1010
= − (2)(77.5)
30 = −5.17 k
rgt lf t
V10 = +V10 = −5.17 k
2M lf t
lf t
V11 = − L1111
= − (2)(77.5)
24 = −6.46 k
rgt lf t
V11 = +V11 = −6.46 k
8. Top Column Axial Forces (+ve tension, -ve compression)

lf t
P5 = −V12 = −(−1.75) k
rgt lf t
P6 = +V12 − V13 = −1.75 − (−1.17) = −0.58 k
rgt lf t
P7 = +V13 − V14 = −1.17 − (−1.46) = 0.29 k
rgt
P8 = V14 = −1.46 k
9. Bottom Column Axial Forces (+ve tension, -ve compression)
P1 = P5 + V9lf t = 1.75 − (−7.75) = 9.5 k

rgt
P2 = P6 + V10 + V9lf t = −0.58 − 7.75 − (−5.17) = −3.16 k
rgt lf t
P3 = P7 + V11 + V10 = 0.29 − 5.17 − (−6.46) = 1.58 k
rgt
P4 = P8 + V11 = −1.46 − 6.46 = −7.66 k
Design Parameters On the basis of the two approximate analyses, vertical and lateral load,
we now seek the design parameters for the frame, Table 7.2.

Draft
Portal Method PORTAL.XLS Victor E. Saouma
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S
1 PORTAL METHOD
2 # of Bays 3 L1 L2 L3
3 20 30 24
4 MOMENTS
5 # of Storeys 2 Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3
6 Force Shear Col Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col
7 H Lat. Tot Ext Int AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAA
Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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AAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA
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8 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA A 17.5
A
AAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAA
-17.5
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAA 17.5
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
-17.5
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAA
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AAAA
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AAAA 17.5
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-17.5
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9 H1 14 15 15 2.5 5 17.5 AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA
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35.0 AAAA
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17.5
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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A AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAA
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11 A 77.5 -77.5 AAAA AAA 77.5 -77.5 AAAA AAAA 77.5 -77.5AAAA
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A
12 H2 16 30 45 7.5 15 60.0 AAAA AAAAAAAA
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120.0 AAAAAAAA
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13 -60.0 AAAA AAAA
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-60.0
14 SHEAR
AAAAAAAA AAAA
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18 AAAA
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AAAA
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21 AAAA
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A -7.75 -7.75 AAAA
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AAA -5.17 -5.17 AAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAA -6.46 -6.46AAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
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A
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22 7.50 AAAA AAAA
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23 7.50 AAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
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7.50
24 AXIAL FORCE
AAAAAAAA AAAA
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27 AAAAAAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
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A
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28 1.75
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29 AAAAAAAAAAAA
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A AAAA AAAAAAAA
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AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA
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30 9.50 AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA
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AAAA
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AAAA 1.58 AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA
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AAAA
-7.92
Figure 7.13: Portal Method; Spread-Sheet Format

Draft
Portal Method
A
A
AA
B
A
AA
C
A
AA
D
A
AA
E
A
AA
F
A
A
G
A
A
H
A
A
I
PORTAL.XLS
A
A
J
A
A
K
A
A
L
AA
AA
M
A
A
N
A
A
O
A
A
P
A
A
Q
7–17
A
A
R
A
A
Victor E. Saouma
S
1 PORTAL METHOD A A A A A A AA A A A A A A
AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
AA
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
2 AAAA
# ofAAAA
Bays A A A A A3 AL1 A A AAL2 A A A L3 A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAA AA AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AA AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A
A AAAAAAAAAAAA A
A AAAAAAAA AA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
3 A A A A A A20 A A AA30 A A A 24 A
AA AA AA AA AA A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A AA
AA A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A
4 A A A A A A A MOMENTS A A A A AA A A A A A A
AA AA AA AAA AAA AAAAAAAAAAAA A A
A A
A A
A A AA
AA A
A A
A A A
A A
A A
A
A A A A A A AA A A Bay 3 AA A A
5 # of Storeys A A AA A A2
A
Bay 1 A A
A A Bay 2 AA A
A A A
A A
A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAA A A A AA A A A A A
6 Force AA Shear A
A Col Beam A
A Column Beam A
A Column Beam A
A Col
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A
A A A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A A A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
7 H Lat. AA Tot Ext AInt
A AAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
Lft A Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAALft
A
A Rgt
A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAA
Lft A Rgt
A AAAA
A
A
A
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAA
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AAA AAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAA
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AAA AAAAAAAA
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8 A A AAAA =+H9 =-I8 =+J8+K9 =-M8 =+N8+O9 =-Q8 AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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9 AAAA
H1 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 14 AAAA A15 AAAA
A =+C9
AAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAA AAAA =+D9/(2*$F$2)
AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA
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11 A
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12 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
H2 16 A30 A
A =SUM($C$9:C12) A=+D12/(2*$F$2)
A
A=2*E12
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13 A A =-H12 AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-K12
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A A A A A A A A AAAAAAAA AAAA
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A A AAAA
AA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAA
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A AAAAAAA
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A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AA A AAAAAA A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A A AAAAAAAA
14 A A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A
AA AA AA AA AA A
A A SHEAR A A A A AA A A A A A A
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A A A A A A A A
A A
A A
A A AA
AA A A
A A A A A
A A A
15 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A Bay 1 A A A Bay 2 AA A Bay 3
AA AA AA AA AA A
A A A A AA A
A A A A A A
16 A A A A A A Col Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col
A A A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A
17 AA AA AA AA AA A
A Lft Rgt Lft Rgt
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
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A
A
A
A
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A AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
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AAAA
Rgt
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AA AA AA AA AA A
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AAAA AAAAAAA
18 A A A
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A
A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA
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=-2*M8/M$3
AAAA
AAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =-2*Q8/Q$3
AA
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19 AA AA AA AA AA A
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A A A
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A A A A A A AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAA
20 A A A A A A =+H19 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+K19 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+O19 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+S19
AA AA AA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AA AA A
AAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA
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21 A A A A A A AAAA
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22 A
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23 A A A A A A =+H22 AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAA =+O22 AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAA
A A A
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A
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A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A
24 AA AA AA AA AA A
A A
A AXIAL FORCE
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A A A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A
A A A A A A A A A AA A
25 AA AA AA AA AA A
A Bay 1 A A A Bay 2 AA A Bay 3
A A A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A A A A AA A
A A A A A A
AA AA AA AA AA A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAA AAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAA AAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAA
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AAA AAAAAAAA
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27 A A A A A A AAAA 0 0 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 0 AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A A A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AA AA A AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAA
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AA
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28 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A
A AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA
A
A AAAA
A
A
A
AAAA AAAAAAAA AAA =-I18
AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA
AAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA =+J18-M18
AAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAA =+N18-Q18
AAAA
AA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA
AAA
AAAA AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAA
AAAAAAA
AAA =+R18
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A A AAAAAAAA
A A AAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAA
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AAAA AAAAAAAA
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AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA
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AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA
29 A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 0 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAA
AAA
0 AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA 0 AA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA
AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAA
AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAA
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AA AAAAAAAA
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AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA
30 A =+H28-I21 AAAA AAAA=+K28+J21-M21 AAAA =+O28+N21-Q21 AAAA AAA=+S28+R21
A AAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA
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A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAA
Figure 7.14: Portal Method; Equations in Spread-Sheet

Draft
Mem. Vert. Hor. Design

Values
Moment 4.50 60.00 64.50
1 Axial 7.50 9.50 17.00
Shear 0.56 7.50 8.06
Moment 5.60 120.00 125.60
2 Axial 18.75 15.83 34.58
Shear 0.70 15.00 15.70
Moment 3.60 120.00 123.60
3 Axial 20.25 14.25 34.50
Shear 0.45 15.00 15.45
Moment 6.50 60.00 66.50
4 Axial 9.00 7.92 16.92
Shear 0.81 7.50 8.31
Moment 4.50 17.50 22.00
5 Axial 2.50 1.75 4.25
Shear 0.64 2.50 3.14
Moment 5.60 35.00 40.60
6 Axial 6.25 2.92 9.17
Shear 0.80 5.00 5.80
Moment 3.60 35.00 38.60
7 Axial 6.75 2.63 9.38
Shear 0.51 5.00 5.51
Moment 6.50 17.50 24.00
8 Axial 3.00 1.46 4.46
Shear 0.93 2.50 3.43
Table 7.1: Columns Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads

Draft
Mem. Vert. Hor. Design

Values
-ve Moment 9.00 77.50 86.50
9 +ve Moment 16.00 0.00 16.00
Shear 5.00 7.75 12.75
-ve Moment 20.20 77.50 97.70
10 +ve Moment 36.00 0.00 36.00
Shear 7.50 5.17 12.67
-ve Moment 13.0 77.50 90.50
11 +ve Moment 23.00 0.00 23.00
Shear 6.00 6.46 12.46
-ve Moment 4.50 17.50 22.00
12 +ve Moment 8.00 0.00 8.00
Shear 2.50 1.75 4.25
-ve Moment 10.10 17.50 27.60
13 +ve Moment 18.00 0.00 18.00
Shear 3.75 1.17 4.92
-ve Moment 6.50 17.50 24.00
14 +ve Moment 11.50 0.00 11.50
Shear 3.00 1.46 4.46
Table 7.2: Girders Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads

Draft

Draft
Chapter 8
COLUMNS
Draft
Chapter 9
COLUMNS
9.1 Introduction
1 Columns resist a combination of axial P and flexural load M , (or M = P e for eccentrically
applied load).
9.1.1 Types of Columns

Types of columns, Fig. 9.1
Tied column Composite colu
tie steel
main longitudinal steel reinforcement
Pipe column
Spiral column
Figure 9.1: Types of columns
2 Lateral reinforcement, Fig. 9.2

P
Spiral
X Tied X
Figure 9.2: Tied vs Spiral Reinforcement
1. Restrains longitudinal steel from outward buckling
2. Restrains Poisson’s expansion of concrete
3. Acts as shear reinforcement for horizontal (wind & earthquake) load
4. Provide ductility
Draft
9–2
very important to resist earthquake load.

COLUMNS
9.1.2 Possible Arrangement of Bars
3 Bar arrangements, Fig. 9.3
4 bars 6 bars 8 bars
Corner column
10 bars
12 bars
Wall column
16 bars
14 bars
Figure 9.3: Possible Bar arrangements
9.2 Short Columns

9.2.1 Concentric Loading
4 No moment applied,
Elastic Behaviour
P = fc Ac + fs As
= fc (Ac + nAs )
Ultimate Strength
Pd = φPn
Pn = .85fc0 Ac + fy As
note:
1. 0.85 is obtained also from test data

2. Matches with beam theory using rect. stress block
3. Provides an adequate factor of safety
9.2.2 Eccentric Columns
5 Sources of flexure, Fig. 9.4
1. Unsymmetric moments M L 6= M R
2. Uncertainty of loads (must assume a minimum eccentricity)

Draft
9.2 Short Columns
P
n
9–3
e P L R
M M
ML MR
L R
e= M − M
P
n
Figure 9.4: Sources of Bending
3. Unsymmetrical reinforcement
6 Types of Failure, Fig. 9.5

1. Large eccentricity of load ⇒ failure by yielding of steel
2. Small eccentricity of load ⇒ failure by crushing of concrete
3. Balanced condition
Pn c
ε cu
ε cu
P
0
8 Compression
failure range
e = 0; a = h; c =
Radial lines show

Mn
c
constant e=
e small Pn ε cu
ε
y
Balanced Failure
Load path for
givin e Tension failure
eb range
c e c
e large ε cu
ε > εy
Mn su
c ~ h; e=
8
M
0
Figure 9.5: Load Moment Interaction Diagram
A0s
7 Assumptions A0s = As ; ρ = As
bd = 0
bd ; fs = fy
9.2.2.1 Balanced Condition
M
8 There is one specific eccentricity eb = P such that failure will be triggered by simultaneous
1. Steel yielding
2. Concrete crushing

Draft
9–4
9 From the strain diagram (and compatibility of concrete and steel strains), Fig. 9.6
COLUMNS
d’
d
h/2
As A’s
b
εs εcs ε’s
A sf y Pn
A sf s
c
c
A sf s
0.85f’c
A’sf s
A’sf y
a
e
e’
Figure 9.6: Strain and Stress Diagram of a R/C Column
εc = .003 (9.1-a)
fy
εy = (9.1-b)
Es
εu .003
c = d= fy
d (9.1-c)
ε u + εy + .003
Es
Furthermore,
ε0s εc
= (9.2-a)
c − d0 c
c − d0
⇒ ε0s = εc (9.2-b)
c
thus the compression steel will be yielding (i.e. ε0s = εy ) for εc = .003 and d0 = 2 in if c > 6 in
10 Equilibrium (neglecting ceter steel for now):
 Pn 
Pn = .85fc0 ab + A0s fy0 − As fs  a = .85fc0 b 
 .003
fs = fy a = β 1 cb Pn,b = .85β1 fc0 bd fy (9.3)
0  c = .003
d 
 + .003
As = As b fy
+.003
Es
Es

Draft
9.2 Short Columns
or
9–5
87, 000
Pnb = .85β1 fc0 bd (9.4)
fy + 87, 000
11 To obtain Mnb we take moment about centroid of tension steel As of internal forces, this
must be equal and opposite to the externally applied moment, Fig. 9.6.
a
Mnb = Pnb eb = .85fc0 ab(d − ) + A0s fy (d − d0 )
| {z } 2 {z (9.5)
M
| }
ext
Mint
12 Note: Internal moments due to As fy and A0s fy cancel each other for symmetric columns.
9.2.2.2 Tension Failure

Case I, e is known and e > eb
In this case a and Pn are unknowns, and for failure to be triggered by fy in As we must
have e > eb .
Can still assume As fy = A0s fy
Pn
ΣFy = 0 ⇒ Pn = .85fc0 ab ⇒ a = (9.6-a)
.85fc0 b
a
ΣM = 0 ⇒ Pn e0 = Pn (d − ) + A0s fy0 (d − d0 ) (9.6-b)
2
Two approaches
1. Solve iteratively for those two equations

(a) Assume a (a < h2 )
(b) From strain compatibility solve for fsc , center steel stress if applicable.
(c) ΣFy = 0 ⇒ solve for Pn
(d) ΣM = 0 with respect to tensile reinforcement,⇒ solve for Pn
(e) If no convergence among the two Pn , iterate by solving for a from ΣFy = 0
2. Combine them into a quadratic equation in Pn
 sµ 
 0 0
¶2 · µ 0
¶ 0
¸
e e d e
Pn = .85fc0 bd −ρ − ( − 1) + 1− + 2ρ µ 1 − + (9.7)
 d d d d 
where
As A0s
ρ = bd = bd
fy
µ = .85fc0

Draft
9–6
Case II c is known and c < cb ; Pn is unknown

COLUMNS
In this case, we only have two unknown, Pn and fs0 .
a = β1 c (9.8-a)
def
fs = fy (9.8-b)
c− d0
fs0 = εu E s ≤ fy (9.8-c)
c
C = 0.85fc0 ab (9.8-d)
Pn = C+ A0s fs0
− As fy (9.8-e)
µ ¶ µ ¶
h−a 0 0 h 0 h
Mn = C + As fs − d + As fs d − (9.8-f)
2 2 2
Mn
e = (9.8-g)
Pn
Note this approach is favoured when determining the interaction diagram.
9.2.2.3 Compression Failure

Case I e is known and e < eb ; Pn , a and fs are unknown
Compression failure occurs if e0 < e0b ⇒ εu = .003, assume fs0 = fy , and fs < fy
From geometry
εu
c = fs
d
+ εu
Es
d−c
⇒ fs = E s εu
c
d − βa1
= E s εu a (9.9-a)
β1
Pn = .85fc0 ab + A0s fy − As fs (9.9-b)
a
Pn e0 = .85fc0 ab(d − ) + A0s fy (d − d0 ) (9.9-c)
2
this would yield a cubic equation in Pn , which can be solved analytically or by iteration.
1. Assume a (a ' h)
2. Solve for ΣM = 0 with respect to tensile reinforcement & solve for Pn
3. From strain compatibility solve for fs
4. Check that ΣFy = 0 & solve for a
5. If ai+1 6= ai go to step 2
Case II: c is known and c > cb ; fs , fs0 , and Pn are unknown

Draft
9.2 Short Columns
In this case
9–7
a = β1 c (9.10-a)
d−c
fs = εc Es ≤ fy (9.10-b)
c
0 c − d0
fs = εc Es ≤ fy (9.10-c)
c
0
C = 0.85fc ab (9.10-d)
Pn = C + As fs + A0s fs0 (9.10-e)
µ ¶ µ ¶
h−a h h
Mn = C + A0s fs0 − d0 + As fs d − (9.10-f)
2 2 2
9.2.3 ACI Provisions

1. Governing equations
ρmin = 1% ACI 10.9.1
ρmax = 8%
A 0
ρs = 0.45( Agc − 1) ffyc ACI 10.5 (9.11)
φ = 0.7 for tied columns
φ = 0.75 for spiral columns
where
ρs minimum ratio of spiral reinforcement
Ag gross area of section
Ac area of core
2. A minimum of 4 bars for tied circular and rect
3. A minimum of 6 bars for spirals (ACI10.9.2)
4. φ increases linearly to 0.9 as φPn decreases from 0.10fc0 Ag or φP0 , whichever is smaller,
to zero (ACI 9.3.2).
5. Maximum strength is 0.8φP0 for tied columns (φ = 0.7) and 0.85φP0 for spirally reinforced
columns (φ = 0.75).
9.2.4 Interaction Diagrams
13 Each column is characterized by its own interaction diagram, Fig. 9.7
9.2.5 Design Charts
14 To assist in the design of R.C. columns, design charts have been generated by ACI in term
Pn Mn χe As +A0s
of non dimensionalized parameters χ = bhf 0 vs bh2 f 0 = h for various ρt where ρt = bh and
c c
fy
µ= .85fc0
Example 9-1: R/C Column, c known

Draft
9–8 COLUMNS
Tied: Pn(max) = 0.80 P0

P
Spir. reinf: P n(max) = 0.85 P
0
Compression
control region
P0
A 1
P n(max) e e
ilur
ced fa
P n−M n (M n’ Pn )
B alan
φ Pn(max)
e=0; a=h; c= infty
P d −M d Tension
n
mi
(M Pnb ) control region
e
nb’
eb
0.10f’ c A g
0 e~h; e = infty φM n Mn M
Figure 9.7: Column Interaction Diagram
A 12 by 20 in. column is reinforced with four No. 4 bars of area 1.0 in2 each, at each
corner. fc0 = 3.5 ksi, fy = 50 ksi, d0 = 2.5 in. Determne: 1) Pb and Mb ; 2) The load and moment
for c = 5 in; 3) load and moment for c = 18 in.
Solution:
Balanced Conditions is derived by revisiting the fundamental equations, rather than mere
substitution into previously derived equation.
d = h − d0 = 20 − 2.5 = 17.5 in (9.12-a)
.003 .003
cb = fy
d = 50 17.5 = 11.1 in (9.12-b)
E + .003 29,000 + .003
s
a = β1 cb = (0.85)(11.1) = 9.44 in (9.12-c)

def
fs = fy = 50 ksi (9.12-d)
c−d 0 11.1 − 2.5
fs0 = Es εc = (29, 000)( (0.003) = 67.4 ksi > fy ⇒ fs0 = 50(9.12-e)
ksi
c 11.1
C = 0.85fc0 ab = (0.85)(3.5)(9.44)(12) = 337 k (9.12-f)
Pnb = C + As fs − A0s fs = 337 + (2.0)(50) + (2.0)(−50) = 337 k (9.12-g)
a
Mnb = Pnb e0 = .85fc0 ab(d − ) + A0s fy (d − d0 ) (9.12-h)
µ ¶ 2
9.44
= 337 17.5 − + (2.0)(50)(17.5 − 2.5) = 5, 807 k.in = 484 k.ft (9.12-i)
2
5, 807
eb = = 17.23 in (9.12-j)
337
Tension failure, c = 5 in
def
fs = fy = 50 ksi (9.13-a)

Draft
9.2 Short Columns
c − d0
9–9
fs0 = εc E s ≤ fy (9.13-b)
c
5.0 − 2.5
= (0.003)(29, 000) = 43.5 ksi (9.13-c)
5.0
a = β1 c = 0.85(5.0) = 4.25 in (9.13-d)
C = 0.85fc0 ab (9.13-e)
= (0.85)(3.5)(4.25)(12) = 152 k (9.13-f)
Pn = C+ A0s fs0 − As fy (9.13-g)
= 152 + (2.0)(43.5) − (2.0)(50) = 139 k (9.13-h)
µ ¶ µ ¶
h−a h h
Mn = C + A0s fs0 − d0 + As fs d − about section centroid (9.13-i)
2 2 2
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
20 − 4.25 20 20
= (152) + (2.0)(43.5) − 2.5 + (2.0)(50) 17.5 − (9.13-j)
2 2 2
= 2, 598 k.in = 217 k.ft (9.13-k)
2, 598
e = = 18.69 in (9.13-l)
139
Compression failure, c = 18 in
a = β1 c = 0.85(18) = 15.3 in (9.14-a)
d−c
fs = εc Es ≤ fy (9.14-b)
c
17.5 − 18.0
= (0.003)(29, 000) = −2.42 ksi As is under compression (9.14-c)
18.0
c − d0
fs0 = εc Es ≤ fy (9.14-d)
c
18.0 − 2.5
= (0.003)(29, 000) = 75 ksi > fy ⇒ fs0 = 50 ksi (9.14-e)
18.0
C = 0.85fc0 ab = (0.85)(3.5)(15.3)(12) = 546 k (9.14-f)
Pn = C + A0s fs0 − As fs (9.14-g)
= 546 + (2.0)(50) − (−2.42)(2) = 650 k (9.14-h)
µ ¶ µ ¶
h−a h h
Mn = C + A0s fs0 − d0 + As fs d − about section centroid (9.14-i)
2 2 2
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
20 − 15.3 20 20
= (546) + (2.0)(50) − 2.5 + (2.0)(−2.42) 17.5 − (9.14-j)
2 2 2
= 2, 000 k.in = 167 k.ft (9.14-k)
2, 000
e = = 3.07 in (9.14-l)
650
Example 9-2: R/C Column, e known

Draft
9–10
For the following column, determine eb , Pb , Mb ; Pn and Mn for e = 0.1h and e = h.

COLUMNS
fc0 = 3, 000 psi and fy = 40, 000 psi. The area of each bar is 1.56 in2 .
12"
20"
3" 3"
24"
c
εy
.003
Cc
Balanced Condition:
fy 40
εy = = = .001379 (9.15-a)
Es 29, 000
εu .003
cb = d= .003 = 14.4 in (9.15-b)
ε u + εy .003 + .001379
a = β1 cb = (.85)(14.4) = 12.2 in (9.15-c)
Cc = .85fc0 ab
= (.85)(3)(12.2)(20) = 624 k (9.15-d)
c − h/2 14.4 − 12
εsc = εu = .003 = .0005 (9.15-e)
c 14.4
fsc = (29, 000)(.0005) = 15 ksi center bars (9.15-f)
Cs = (.0005)(29, 000)(2)(1.56) = 46.8 k (9.15-g)
Pnb = 624 + 46.8 = 670.8 k (9.15-h)
Note that the compression steel is yielding because d0 > 2” and c > 6” (as previously
proven)
Taking moment about centroid of section
Mnb = Pnb e (9.16-a)

µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
h a h h
= .85fc0 ab −
+ As fy − d0 + A0s fy − d0 (9.16-b)
2 2 2 2
µ ¶
12.2
= (.85)(3)(12.2)(20) 12 − + 4(1.56)(9)(40)
2
+4(1.56)(40 − .85 × 3)(12 − 3) (9.16-c)
= 3, 671 + 2, 246 + 2, 246 (9.16-d)
= 8, 164 k.in; 680 k.ft (9.16-e)
8, 164
eb = = 12.2 in (9.16-f)
670.8
Draft
9.2 Short Columns 9–11
e= .1 h e = (.1)(24) = 2.4 in < eb ⇒ failure by compression. Pn , a and fs are unknown.

Available equations: 1) ΣF = 0; 2) ΣM = 0; and 3) strain diagram; Solve by iterations.
12"
20"
3" 3"
h−c−d’
24"
c=23.5"
εy
ε ε ε
s sc y
.003
e=2.4"
9"
Pn
e’=11.4" h/2=12"
.85f’c
A sf s
A scf sc Cc A’ sf y
a=20" a/2
1. Assume a = 20 in
a 20
c= = = 23.5 in (9.17)
β1 .85
2. For center steel (from geometry)
εsc .003
= (9.18-a)
c − h2 c
c − h2
⇒ εsc = .003 (9.18-b)
c
fsc = Es εsc (9.18-c)
c− h
2
= Es .003 (9.18-d)
c
23.5 − 12
= 29, 000 .003 = 42.5 ksi > fy ⇒ fsc = fy (9.18-e)
23.5

Draft
9–12
3. Take moment about centroid of tensile steel bar

COLUMNS
a h
Pn e0 = 0.85fc0 ab(d − ) + A0s fy (h − 2d0 ) + Asc fy ( − d0 ) (9.19-a)
2 2
20
Pn (9 + 2.4) = (.85)(3)(20)(20)(21 − ) + 4(1.56)(40)(24 − 6) + 2(1.56)(40)(9)
(9.19-b)
2
= 11, 220 + 4, 493 + 259.7 (9.19-c)
⇒ Pn = 1, 476 k (9.19-d)
4. Get εs in tension bar (from strain diagram)

εs .003
= (9.20-a)
h − d0 − 23.5 c
.003
⇒ εs = (24 − 3 − 23.5) (9.20-b)
23.5
= −.000319 (9.20-c)
fs = Eεs = (29, 000)(0.000319) = 9.25 ksi (9.20-d)
5. Take ΣF = 0 to check assumption of a
Pn = 0.85fc0 ab + A0s fy + Asc fsc + As fy (9.21-a)

1, 476 k = (.85)(3)(a)(20) + (4)(1.56)(40) + (2)(1.56)(40) + (4)(1.56)(9.25)
(9.21-b)
1, 476 = 51a + 432.1 (9.21-c)
√
⇒ a = 20.4 in (9.21-d)
Pn = 1, 476 k (9.21-e)
Mn = (1, 476)(2.4) = 3, 542 k.in = 295 k.ft (9.21-f)
e=h 1. In this case e = 24 in > eb ⇒ failure by tension. Pn and a are unknown. We have
two equations: 1) ΣF = 0, and 2) ΣM = 0.
2. Assume a = 7.9 in ⇒ c = a
β1 = 7.9
.85 = 9.3 in
3. Steel stress at centroid
c 12 − c
= (9.22-a)
.003 εsc
12 − 9.3
⇒ εsc = .003 = .00087 (9.22-b)
9.3
⇒ fsc = (29, 000)(0.00087) = 25.3 ksi (9.22-c)
4. Iterate
ΣF = 0 ⇒ Pn = (.85)fc0 ab + Asc fsc (9.23-a)

= (.85)(3)(7.9)(20) − 2(1.56)(25.3) (9.23-b)
= 403 − 79 = 324 k (9.23-c)
a
ΣM = 0 ⇒ Pn (e + h/2 − d ) = .85fc0 ab(d − ) + A0s fy (d − d0 )
0
2
d − d0
−Asc fsc ( ) (9.23-d)
2
Draft
9.2 Short Columns
7.9
9–13
Pn (24 + 9) = (.85)(3)(7.9)(20)(21 − ) + 4(1.56)(40)(21 − 3)

2
+2(1.56)(25.3)(9) (9.23-e)
Pn (33) = 6, 870 + 4, 493 − 710 = 10, 653 k.in (9.23-f)
√
⇒ Pn = 323 k (9.23-g)
5. Determine Mn
Mn = Pn e = (323)(24) = 7, 752 k.in = 646 k.ft (9.24)
Example 9-3: R/C Column, Using Design Charts
Design the reinforcement for a column with h = 20 in, b = 12 in, d0 = 2.5 in, fc0 = 4, 000 psi,
fy = 60, 000 psi, to support PDL = 56 k, PLL = 72 k, MDL = 88 k.ft, MLL = 75 k.ft,
Solution:
1. Ultimate loads
201
Pu = (1.4)(56) + (1.7)(72) = 201 k ⇒ Pn = = 287 k (9.25-a)
0.7
251
Mu = (1.4)(88) + (1.7)(75) = 251 k.ft ⇒ Mn = = 358 k.ft (9.25-b)
0.7
2. Chart parameters
e (358)(12)
= = 0.75 (9.26-a)
h (287)(20)
h − 2d0 20 − (2)(2.5)
γ = = 0.75 ⇒ interpolate between A3 and A(9.26-b)
4
h 20
Pn 287
κ = = = 0.3 (9.26-c)
bhfc0 (12)(20)(4)
e
κ = (0.3)(0.75) = 0.225 (9.26-d)
h
3. Interpolating between A.3 and A.4 ⇒ ρt µ = 0.4
4. Reinforcement
)
ρt = At
bh (0.4)(b)(h)(.85)(fc0 ) 1 2
fy At = = (0.4)(12)(20)(.85)(4) = 5.45 in(9.27-a)
µ = .85fc0 fy (60)
⇒ use 4 # 9 & 2 # 8, ⇒ At = 5.57 in2

Draft
9–14
9.2.6 Biaxial Bending

COLUMNS
15 Often columns are subjected to biaxial moments (such as corner columns)

16 An exact approach entails the trial and eror determination of an inclined neutral axis, this
is an exact method but too cumbersome to use in practice.
17 Hence, we seek an approximate solution, the most widely used method is the load contour
method or Bresler-Parme method.

18 The failure surface of a biaxialy loaded column is shown in Fig. 9.8, and the general nondi-
Pn
111111
000000
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111 M0y
M0x 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111 Mny
000000
111111
000000
111111
Mnx
Figure 9.8: Failure Surface of a Biaxially Loaded Column
mensional equation for the moment contour at a constant Pn may be expressed as

µ ¶ µ ¶
Mnx α1 Mny α1
+ = 1.0
M0x M0y
where
Mnx = Pn ey
Mny = Pn ex
M0x = Mnx capacity at axial load Pn when Mny (or ex ) is zero
M0y = Mny capacity at axial load Pn when Mnx (or ey ) is zero
and α1 and α2 are exponent which depend on geometry and strength.
19 Bresler suggested that we set α1 = α2 = α. For practical purposes, a value of α = 1.5 for
rectangular columns, and between 1.5 and 2.0 for square sections has proven acceptable.
20 An improvement of Bresler equation was devised by Parme. The main assumption is that at
any load Pn , Fig. 9.9

Mny M0y
=
Mnx M0x
or
Mnx = βM0x ; Mny = βM0y

Draft
9.2 Short Columns
M ny /M0y
9–15
M ny βM 1.0
0x C
M 0y C
β B
B
βM 0y
M 0y β
M0x
A M o
nx
M
45 A
0x 1.0
Mnx /M0x
Figure 9.9: Load Contour at Plane of Constant Pn , and Nondimensionalized Corresponding

plots
21 Thus, β is the portion of the uniaxial moment strength permitted to act simultaneously on
the column section. It depends on the cross section, strength, and layout.
22 The usual range is between 0.55 and 0.70, with a recommended value of 0.65 for design.
23 Hence, once β is selected, we can substitute in Bresler’s equation
³ ´α ³ ´
M0x M0y α
βM 0x
+ β M0y = 1.0
β α = 12
α log β = log 0.5
α = log 0.5
log β
thus,
µ ¶log 0.5/logβ µ ¶log 0.5/logβ
Mnx Mny
+ = 1.0 (9.28)
M0x M0y
24 Effect of β is shown in Fig. 9.10.

25 Gouwens proposed to replace the above curves, by a bilinear model, Fig. 9.11
Review of a section
µ ¶
Mny Mnx 1 − β Mny Mnx
+ = 1 If ≥ (9.29)
M0y M0x β M0y M0x
µ ¶
Mnx Mny 1 − β Mny Mnx
+ = 1 If ≤ (9.30)
M0x M0y β M0y M0x
Design of a column
¶µ µ ¶
M0y 1−β Mny M0y
Mny + Mnx = M0y If ≥ (9.31-a)
M0x β Mnx M0x
µ ¶µ ¶
M0x 1−β Mny M0y
Mnx + Mny = M0x If ≤ (9.31-b)
M0y β Mnx M0x

Draft
9–16 COLUMNS
Biaxial Bending Interaction Diagram

1.0 0.90
0.
0.8 85
0.7 0
5
0.7
0
0.8 0.6
5
0.6
0
0.
be 55
ta
0.6 =0
.5
0
Nny/M0y
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Mnx/M0x
Figure 9.10: Biaxial Bending Interaction Relations in terms of β
Pn β
1111111
0000000
0000000
1111111 C
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
M ny /M 0y + M nx /M 0x (1− β/ β ) =1
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
1.0
α α
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
1−β
B
(M nx /M 0x ) +(M ny /M 0y) =1
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
M0y β
M0x 0000000
1111111
0y
0000000
1111111
M ny /M
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
M nx /M 0x + M ny /M 0y (1− β/ β) =1
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
β
β
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
Mny 1−β
0000000
1111111
o
45
A
Mnx M nx /M 0x 1.0
Figure 9.11: Bilinear Approximation for Load Contour Design of Biaxially Loaded Columns

Draft
9.2 Short Columns
26 Note, circular or square columns with symmetric reinforcement should always be considered
9–17
first for biaxially loaded columns.
Example 9-4: Biaxially Loaded Column
Determine the adequacy of a 16 in. square tied column with 8 # 9 bars. d0 = 2.5 in, and
there are 3 bars on each side. The section is to carry factored loads of Pu = 144 k, Mux = 120 k.ft
and Muy = 54 k.ft, fc0 = 3 ksi and fy = 40 ksi. P0 = 952 k, M0x = M0y = 207 k.ft (we have a
symmetrical reinforcement).
Solution:
Mux (120)(12)
ey = Pu = 144 = 10.0 in
Muy (54)(12)
ex = Pu = 144 = 4.5 in
The interaction diagram for e = 10 in, e = 4.5 in and e = 0 will give Pn equal to 254, 486, and
952 kips respectively.
The required load Pn = 144
0.7 = 205 k, the corresponding moments are M0x = M0y = 207 k.ft
from the interaction diagram. Using β = 0.65
120
Required Mnx 0.7
M0x = 207 = 0.828
54
Required Mny 0.7
M0y = 207 = 0.373
We shall use both solutions
Bresler-Parme which is exact solution

log(0.5) log 0.5
log β = log 0.65 = 1.609
³ ´log 0.5/logβ ³ ´log 0.5/logβ
Mnx Mny
M0x + M0y =
1.609 √
(0.828) + (0.373)1.609 = 0.943
Mnx Mny
Note that we could have first solved for M0x , and then determined M0y from Fig. 9.10.
Mny
This would have given M0y ≈ 0.45 which is greater than the actual value, hence the design
is safe.
Gouwens which is an approximate solution

³ ´
Mny 1−β
Mnx
M0x + M0y β ≤1
¡ 1−0.65 ¢
0.828 + 0.337 0.65 = 0.828 + 0.1815 = 1.0095
which indicates a slight overstress.
We note that the approximate method is on the conservative side.

Draft
9–18
9.3 Long Columns

COLUMNS
9.3.1 Euler Elastic Buckling
27Column buckling theory originated with Leonhard Euler in 1744. An initially straight mem-
ber is concentrically loaded, and all fibers remain elastic until buckling occur.
28 For buckling to occur, it must be assumed that the column is slightly bent as shown in Fig.
9.12. Note, in reality no column is either perfectly straight, and in all cases a minor imperfection
P P
x
x and y are
principal axes
x
Slightly bent position

L
Figure 9.12: Euler Column
is present.
29 At any location x along the column, the imperfection in the column compounded by the
concentric load P , gives rise to a moment
Mz = −P y (9.32)
Note that the value of yis irrelevant.

30 Recalling that
d2 y Mz
2
= (9.33)
dx EI
upon substitution, we obtain the following differential equation
d2 y P
2
− =0 (9.34)
dx EI
P
31 Letting k 2 = EI , the solution to this second-order linear differential equation is
y = −A sin kx − B cos kx (9.35)
32 The two constants are determined by applying the essential boundary conditions
1. y = 0 at x = 0, thus B = 0
2. y = 0 at x = L, thus
A sin kL = 0 (9.36)

Draft
9.3 Long Columns
This last equation can e satisfied if: 1) A = 0, that is there is no deflection; 2) kL = 0, that is
9–19
no applied load; or 3)
kL = nπ (9.37)
P
¡ ¢2
Thus buckling will occur if EI = nπ L or
n2 π 2 EI
P =
L2
33The fundamental buckling mode, i.e. a single curvature deflection, will occur for n = 1; Thus
Euler critical load for a pinned column is
π 2 EI
Pcr = (9.38)
L2
The corresponding critical stress is

π2E
σcr = ¡ ¢2 (9.39)
L
r
where I = Ar.
34 Note that buckling will take place with respect to the weakest of the two axis.
9.3.2 Effective Length

kL kL
35 Large r column buckling, small r column crushing, Fig. 9.13.
Pfail
f
Pn
−1
tan E t
fp Pcr
Crushing Buckling
−1
tan E
ε (kl/r) lim (kl/r)
Figure 9.13: Column Failures
36 Recall from strength of material slenderness ratio

Le
λ=
r
q
I
where Le is the effective length and is equal to Le = kL and r the radius of gyration (r = A ).
37 Le is the distance between two adjacent (fictitious or actual) inflection points, Fig. 9.13

Draft
9–20 COLUMNS
P cr P cr Pcr
i.p.
l/4 i.p.
i.p.
<kl<l
kl=l kl= l l l
2
2
l
i.p.
l/4
i.p.
i.p.
P cr Pcr P cr
k=1 k=1/2 1/2<k<1
P Pcr P
cr cr
i.p.
l l<kl<
l i.p.
l 8
kl=21
kl=1
Pcr
Pcr Pcr
i.p.
l<kl<
8
i.p.
k=2 k=1
Figure 9.14: Critical lengths of columns

Draft
9.3 Long Columns
38 k is known for some simple highly idealized cases, but for most cases k depends on ΨA + ΨB
9–21
(relative stiffnesses of columns to connected beams), Fig. 9.15
Σ( EI
L )of columns
Ψ= EI
(9.40)
Σ( L )of floor members
and k is then determined from the chart shown in Fig. 9.16.
P ( EI ( P P
2
( EI ( ln ∆
1
ln
A ψA
A ψA A ψA
( EI (
2
ln
( EI (
1
ln
MA MA
MA
MB
MB MB
B ψB
B ψB B ψB
Single curvature Double curvature
Braced Unbraced
Figure 9.15: Effective length Factors Ψ
9.3.3 Moment Magnification Factor; ACI Provisions
39 The critical stress in a column is given by

µ ¶
P π2E
= ¡ ¢2
A cr kL
r
40 Code recommends some minimum eccentricity to account for imperfectly placed load, Fig.
9.17
41 For an eccentrically placed load
1
Mmax = M0 (9.41)
1 − 1−P
P
| {z }
cr
Moment magnification factor
42 The moment magnification factor reflects the amount by which the beam moment M0 is
magnified by the presence of an axial load, Fig. 9.18

43The previous equation assumes the presence of hinges at each end (Euler column). In the
most general case we will have
Cm
Mmax = M0 (9.42-a)
1 − PPcr
Draft
9–22 COLUMNS
Sidesway Inhibited Sidesway Uninhibited
Ga K Gb Ga K Gb
∞ 1.0 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
50. 50. 20.
10. 10. 100. 10. 100.
50. 50.
5. 5.
30. 5. 30.
3. 0.9 3. 20. 20.
4.
2. 2.
10. 3. 10.
0.8 9. 9.
8. 8.
1. 1. 7. 7.
6. 6.
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7 5. 5.
0.6 0.6 4. 2. 4.
0.7
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4 3. 3.
0.3 0.3 2. 2.
0.6 1.5
0.2 0.2
1. 1.
0.1 0.1
0. 0.5 0. 0 1. 0
Figure 9.16: Standard Alignment Chart (ACI)
P e
Figure 9.17: Minimum Column Eccentricity

Draft
9.3 Long Columns
P
9–23
φ P 0
P 0(max)
M P
P cr C
M B
Pu
Pu e Pu ∆
∆
Pn
P
in
em
M
0
M M c =δ M 2
0
kl/r M M M 0 M Mc M
0 n 2
Figure 9.18: P-M Magnification Interaction Diagram
M1
Cm = .6 + .4 ≥ .4 (9.42-b)
M2
where
M1 is numerically smaller than M2 (not algebracially)
M1
M2 >0 if single curvature
M1
M2 <0 if double curvature
Cm < 1 if members are braced against sidesway
Cm =1 if members are not braced against sidesway
44 ACI Code
Lu unsupported length ACI 10.11.1
k ≤ 1.0 braced columns ACI 10.11.2
k ≥ 1.0 unbraced columns ACI 10.11.2
r = .3h rectangular x section ACI 10.11.3
r = .25d circular cross section
r < 34 − 12 M2
kLu M1
braced, neglect slenderness ACI 10.11.4
kLu
r < 22 unbraced, neglect slenderness
45 From conventional elastic analysis get Pn &Mn
Mc = δM2 (9.43)
Cm
δ = ≥ 1.0 (9.44)
1 − φP
Pn
cr
π 2 EI
Pcr = 10.11.5 (9.45)
(kLu )2
M1
Cm = .6 + .4 (9.46)
M2
Ec Ig
5 + Es Is
EI = (9.47)
1 + βd
Ec Ig
2.5
or EI = (9.48)
1 + βd
MD 1.4PDL
βd = = (9.49)
M D + ML 1.4PDL + 1.7PLL
βd is the ratio of maximum design load moment to maximum design total load moment (always

Draft
9–24
+ve) as β % EI &⇒ dead load has a detrimental effect (creep)

COLUMNS
Example 9-5: Long R/C Column
A 15 ft long, 14” circular column is connected to 40 ft long 14” by 22” beams. The column
is on the last floor, below it the column is circular and has a 16” diameter. No sidesway.
Given, Pn = 500 k, 14 × 22 has ρ = .015, fc0 = 5, 000 psi, fy = 40, 000 psi
Solution:
22
Lu = 15 ft − = 13.17 ft (9.50-a)
12
r = .25d = (.25)(14 in) = 3.5 in (9.50-b)
p p
Ec = 57, 000 fc0 = 57, 000 5, 000 = 4, 030 ksi (9.50-c)
πd4 π(14)4
Ig = = = 1, 886 in4 (9.50-d)
64 64
Ec Ig )
EIcol = 2.5 1
1+βd EIcol = (4, 030)(1, 886) = 3, 040, 000 k in2 (9.51-a)
βd = 0 2.5
µ ¶
EI 3, 040, 000
= = 16, 890 k.in (9.52-a)
L c (15)(12)
Ig (14)(22)3 1
Ibeam = Icr ' = = 6, 210 in4 (9.52-b)
µ ¶ 2 12 2
EI (4, 030)(6, 210)
= = 52, 140 k.in (9.52-c)
L beam (12)(40)
Σ(EI/L)col (16, 890)
ΨA = = = .162 (9.52-d)
Σ(EI/L)beam 2(52, 140)
π(16)4
bottom column I = 64 = 3, 217 in4
(4, 030)(3, 217)

EI = = 5, 186, 000 (9.53-a)
µ ¶ 2.5
EI 5, 186, 000
= = 28, 800 k.in (9.53-b)
L col (15)(12)
16, 890 + 28, 800
ΨB = = .438 (9.53-c)
2(52, 140)
From ACI commentary ΨA = .162, ΨB = .438, ⇒ k ' .62 and
kLu (.65)(13.16)(12)
= = 29.3 (9.54-a)
r 3.5
M1
34 − 12 = 34 − 12 = 22 assuming M1 = M2 (9.54-b)
M2
kL
> 22 ⇒ consider column instability (9.54-c)
r
Draft
9.3 Long Columns
π 2 EI π 2 (3, 040, 000)

9–25
Pcr = = = 2, 848 k (9.54-d)

(kl) 2
[(.65)(13.16)(12)]2
M1
CM = .6 + .4 =1 (9.54-e)
M2
1 1
δ = = = 1.3 (9.54-f)
1 − φPcr
Pu
1 − (.75)(2,848)
500
Example 9-6: Design of Slender Column
Given: frame not braced, design AB as square column. PD = 46 k, MD = 92 k.ft, PL = 94 k,

ML = 230 k.ft, fc0 = 4 ksi, fy = 60 ksi
L 3
Lu =18’ l =43.3in
111
000
000
111 111
000
000
111
000
111 000
111
Solution:
Pu = 1.4 × 46 + 1.7 × 94 = 224 k (9.55-a)

Mu = 1.4 × 92 + 1.7 × 230 = 520 k.ft (9.55-b)
MDL (1.4)92
βd = = = .24 (9.55-c)
MDL + MLL 520
Assume a 22 × 22 inch column and ρt = .03
2.5
8.5
22"
22"

Draft
9–26
224
COLUMNS
If = = 19, 500 in4 (9.56-a)

12
Is = (2)(.015)(22)2 (8.5)2 = 1, 050 in4 (9.56-b)
p
Ec = 57, 000 4, 000 = 3.6 × 106 psi (9.56-c)
Es = 29 × 10 ksi 6
(9.56-d)
Ec Ig
5 + Es Is
EI =
1 + βd
(3.6×106 )(19,500)
+ (29 × 106 )(1, 050)
= 5
= 3.59 × 1010 (9.56-e)
1 + .24
EIc 3.59 × 1010
= = 1.66 × 108 (9.56-f)
L 12 × 18
EIb
= (3.6 × 106 )(43.3) = 1.56 × 108 (9.56-g)
L
2(1.66 × 108 )
AtA&B Ψ = = 2.13 from ACI commentary k = 1.65 (9.56-h)
1.56 × 108
kL
if r = 22 neglect slenderness
r = (.3)(22) = 6.6 in (9.57-a)

kL (1.65)(18)(12)
⇒ = = 54 > 22 (9.57-b)
r 6.6
π 2 EI π 2 (3.59 × 1010 )
Pcr = = = 279 × 106 lbs (9.57-c)
(kL)2 [(1.65)(18)(12)]2
Pu = 2.24 × 105 lb (9.57-d)
Cm = 1.0(unbraced) (9.57-e)
1 1
Moment Magnification δ = = (2.24×105 )
(9.57-f)
1 − φP
Pu
1−
cr (.7)(2.79×106 )
= 1.13 (9.57-g)
⇒ Moment for which the column is to be designed (1.13) (520) = 587 k.ft and Pu = 224

Draft
Chapter 10
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
10.1 Introduction
1 Beams with longer spans are architecturally more appealing than those with short ones.
However, for a reinforced concrete beam to span long distances, it would have to have to be
relatively deep (and at some point the self weight may become too large relative to the live
load), or higher grade steel and concrete must be used.
2 However, if we were to use a steel with fy much higher than ≈ 60 ksi in reinforced concrete
(R/C), then to take full advantage of this higher yield stress while maintaining full bond between
concrete and steel, will result in unacceptably wide crack widths. Large crack widths will in
turn result in corrosion of the rebars and poor protection against fire.
3 One way to control the concrete cracking and reduce the tensile stresses in a beam is to
prestress the beam by applying an initial state of stress which is opposite to the one which will
be induced by the load.
4 For a simply supported beam, we would then seek to apply an initial tensile stress at the
top and compressive stress at the bottom. In prestressed concrete (P/C) this can be achieved
through prestressing of a tendon placed below the elastic neutral axis.
5 Main advantages of P/C: Economy, deflection & crack control, durability, fatigue strength,
longer spans.
6 There two type of Prestressed Concrete beams:
Pretensioning: Steel is first stressed, concrete is then poured around the stressed bars. When
enough concrete strength has been reached the steel restraints are released, Fig. 10.1.
Postensioning: Concrete is first poured, then when enough strength has been reached a steel
cable is passed thru a hollow core inside and stressed, Fig. 10.2.
10.1.1 Materials
7 P/C beams usually have higher compressive strength than R/C. Prestressed beams can have
fc0 as high as 8,000 psi.

8 The importance of high yield stress for the steel is illustrated by the following simple example.
Draft
10–2 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Vertical Harping
bulkhead Harping
hold-up hold-down
point point
Anchorage Jacks
Precast Concrete Continuous Casting bed

Prestressing
bed slab element tendon
Jacks Tendon
anchorage Jacks
Casting bed Tendon

Support Hold-down
force force
Figure 10.1: Pretensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978)
Anchorage Anchorage Jack

Intermediate Beam
diaphragms Jack
Tendon in conduct
Anchorage
Slab Jack
Wrapped tendon
Figure 10.2: Posttensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978)

Draft
10.1 Introduction
If we consider the following:

10–3
1. An unstressed steel cable of length Ls

2. A concrete beam of length Lc
3. Prestress the beam with the cable, resulting in a stressed length of concrete and steel
equal to L0s = L0c .
4. Due to shrinkage and creep, there will be a change in length
∆Lc = (εsh + εcr )Lc (10.1)
we want to make sure that this amout of deformation is substantially smaller than the
stretch of the steel (for prestressing to be effective).
5. Assuming ordinary steel: fs = 30 ksi, Es = 29, 000 ksi, εs = 30
29,000 = 1.03 × 10−3 in/ in
6. The total steel elongation is εs Ls = 1.03 × 10−3 Ls

7. The creep and shrinkage strains are about εcr + εsh ' .9 × 10−3
8. The residual stress which is left in the steel after creep and shrinkage took place is thus
(1.03 − .90) × 10−3 (29 × 103 ) = 4 ksi (10.2)
30−4
Thus the total loss is 30 = 87% which is unacceptably too high.
9. Alternatively if initial stress was 150 ksi after losses we would be left with 124 ksi or a
17% loss.
10. Note that the actual loss is (.90 × 10−3 )(29 × 103 ) = 26 ksi in each case
9 Having shown that losses would be too high for low strength steel, we will use
Strands usually composed of 7 wires. Grade 250 or 270 ksi, Fig. 10.3.
11111
00000000000
111111
00000
11111000000
111111
00000
11111
00000
11111000000
111111
000000
111111
00000
11111000000
111111
00000
11111000000
111111
00000
11111000000
111111
00000
11111000000
111111
000000
111111
00000
11111000000
111111
00000
11111 000000
111111
000000
111111
00000
11111000000
111111
00000
11111 000000
111111
000000
111111
00000
11111000000
111111
00000
11111 000000
111111
000000
111111
00000111111
11111
00000
11111 000000
111111
000000
00000
11111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
00000111111
11111
00000
11111 000000
111111
000000
00000
11111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
00000
11111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
00000
11111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111000000
111111
000000
111111000000
111111
000000
111111000000
111111
000000
111111000000
111111
000000
111111000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111000000
111111
000000
111111000000
111111
Figure 10.3: 7 Wire Prestressing Tendon
Tendon have diameters ranging from 1/2 to 1 3/8 of an inch. Grade 145 or 160 ksi.
Wires come in bundles of 8 to 52.
Note that yield stress is not well defined for steel used in prestressed concrete, usually we take
1% strain as effective yield.
10 Steel relaxation is the reduction in stress at constant strain (as opposed to creep which
is reduction of strain at constant stress) occurs. Relaxation occurs indefinitely and produces
significant prestress loss. If we denote by fp the final stress after t hours, fpi the initial stress,
and fpy the yield stress, then
µ ¶
fp log t fpi
=1− − .55 (10.3)
fpi 10 fpy

Draft
10–4
10.1.2 Prestressing Forces

11 Prestress force “varies” with time, so we must recognize 3 stages:
1. Pj Jacking force. But then due to
(a) friction and anchorage slip in post-tension

(b) elastic shortening in pretension
is reduced to:
2. Pi Initial prestress force; But then due to time dependent losses caused by
(a) relaxation of steel

(b) shrinkage of concrete
(c) creep of concrete
is reduced to:
3. Pe Effective force
10.1.3 Assumptions
12 The following assumptions are made;
1. Materials are both in the elastic range
2. section is uncracked
3. sign convention: +ve tension, −ve compression
4. Subscript 1 refers to the top and 2 to the bottom

I I
5. I, S1 = c1 , S2 = c2 , (section modulus)
6. e + ve if downward from concrete neutral axis
10.1.4 Tendon Configuration
13 Through proper arrangement of the tendon (eccentricity at both support and midspan)
various internal flexural stress distribution can be obtained, Fig. 10.4.
10.1.5 Equivalent Load
14An equivalent load for prestressing can be usually determined from the tendon configuration
and the prestressing force, Fig. 10.5.
10.1.6 Load Deformation
15 The load-deformation curve for a prestressed concrete beam is illustrated in Fig. 10.6.

10–5
Figure 10.4: Alternative Schemes for Prestressing a Rectangular Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978)

W
Moment from prestressing
Figure 10.5: Determination of Equivalent Loads

000
111
000
111
h 000
111
000
111
None
111
000
None
f’y
Q fc 2f c
fc
000
111
000
111
1111
0000
0000
1111 00
11
00
11
P h/2 000
111
000
111 + 1111
0000
1111
0000 = 00
11
00
11
P 000
111 0000
1111 11
00
P cos θ
P cos θ
P cos θ
fc fc =f t
P cos θ
Equivalent load on concrete from tendon
P
2Q
M
2f c 2f c
P sinθ
Pe
0
000
111 00000000
11111111 00
11
P sin θ
P sin θ
P sinθ
000
111 00000000
11111111 00
11
2P sin θ
2P sinθ
000
111 +
00000000
11111111 = 00
11
2h/3 000
111
111
000 00000000
11111111
11111111
00000000 00
11
00
11
P P
2f c 2f =2f 0
t c
P sin θ
M P sin θ
P sin θ
P P sinθ
0 2f c 2f c
000 11111111
111 00000000
11111111 00
11
P cos θ
000
111 00000000 00
11
P cosθ
Pe
000
111 00000000
11111111
+ 00
11
2Q 000 11111111
111
000
111 00000000
11111111
00000000 = 00
11
00
11
P cos θ
P cosθ
000
111 00000000
11111111 00
11
2f c 2f =2f 0
t c fc
fc Midspan
P P 00
11 00
11
00
11 00
11
00
11
h/2 00 +
11
00
11
0 = 11
00
00
11
θ
P
P
00
11
P
P
P
h/3 Ends fc
fc
0 f fc
000
111
000
111 0000
1111
1111
0000c 00
11
00
11
Q 000
111
000
111 0000
1111
+ 0000
1111
00
11
00
11
000
111 0000
1111 = 11
00
Member
111
000 1111
0000 00
11
2f c
θ
ft =f c fc
P P Midspan
fc fc
e
h/2 000
111
000
111 00
11
00
11
000
111 + 0 = 00
11
θP
P
000
111 00
11
P
P
P
(d)
(g)
(c)
(e)
h/3 000
111 00
11
P
(b)
(f)
(a)
e
fc Ends fc
10.1 Introduction
Victor Saouma
Draft
Draft
10–6
Load
Ru
ptu
re
Steel yielding
Service load limit
including Overload
tolerable overload Tn
Service
load
First cracking load range
f cr
Decompression or higher
cgs (f=0)
Balanced
Full dead load
∆ ∆ ∆ Deformation ∆
o D L (deflection of camber)
∆
∆ pi = Initial prestress camber
pe ∆ pe = Effective prestress camber
∆ O = Self−weight deflection
∆ ∆ D= Dead load deflection
pi
∆ L= Live load deflection
Figure 10.6: Load-Deflection Curve and Corresponding Internal Flexural Stresses for a Typical
Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978)
10.2 Flexural Stresses
16 We now identify the following 4 stages:

I
Initial Stage when the beam is being prestressed (recalling that r2 = Ac )
1. The prestressing force, Pi only

Pi Pi ec1 Pi ³ ec1 ´
f1 = − + =− 1− (10.4)
Ac I Ac r2
Pi Pi ec2 Pi ³ ec2 ´
f2 = − − =− 1+ 2 (10.5)
Ac I Ac r
2. Pi and the self weight of the beam M0 (which has to be acconted for the moment
the beam cambers due to prestressing)
Pi ³ ec1 ´ M0
f1 = − 1− 2 − (10.6)
Ac r S1
Pi ³ ec2 ´ M0
f2 = − 1+ 2 + (10.7)
Ac r S2
Service Load when the prestressing force was reduced from Pi to Pe beacause of the losses,
and the actual service (not factored) load is apllied
3. Pe and M0

Figure 10.7: Flexural Stress Distribution for a Beam with Variable Eccentricity; Maximum
10–7

The internal stress distribution at each one of those four stages is illustrated by Fig. 10.7.
Pi Pi e c 1 Pi e c1
(1− )
Ac Ic Ac r2
00
11 0000
1111
0000
1111
00
11 0000
1111 000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
00
11 0000
1111 000000000
111111111
(10.10)
(10.11)
c1 00
11
00
11 0000
1111 000000000
111111111
00
11 0000
1111
0000
1111 000000000
111111111
00
11 0000
1111 000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
00
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
00
11 00000
11111
00000
11111 000000000
111111111
00
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
e c2 00
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
00
11
00
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
00
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
(10.8)
(10.9)
11
00 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
11111
00000 111111111
000000000
ec1 ´ M0 + MDL + MLL
ec2 ´ M0 + MDL + MLL
Pi Pi e c 2 Pi e c2
Stage 1 (1+ )
Ac Ic Ac r2
M0
M0
S1
S2
S1
S2
Pi e c1 Mo Pi e c1 Mo
−
1+ 2 +
(1− ) − (1− )−
Ac r2 S1 Ac r2 S1
ec1 ´
ec2 ´
000000000
111111111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111
r2
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
Moment Section and Support Section, (Nilson 1978)

r
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000
111111
1−
000000000
111111111 000
111
−
1+ 2 +
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111
³
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
r2
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
Ac
Ac
Pe
Pe
111111111
000000000 111
000 111111
000000
Pi e c2 Mo Pi e c2 Mo
1−
f1 = −
= −
(1+ ) + (1+ )+
Stage 2 Ac r2 S2 Ac r2 S2
³
³
Ac
Ac
Pe
Pe
4. Pe and M0 + MDL + MLL
f2
f1 = −
= − Pe
(1−
e c1
)−
Mo
−
Md + Ml Pe
(1−
e c1
)−
Mt
Ac r2 S S Ac r2 S1
000000
111111
1 0000000000
1111111111
1
0000000000
1111111111
000000
111111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
00000
11111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
f2
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
000000
111111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
00000
11111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
000000
111111
000000
111111 0000000000
1111111111 00000
11111
111111
000000 1111111111
0000000000 00000
11111
11111
00000
Victor Saouma
Pe e c2 Mo Md + Ml Pe e c2 Mt
Draft
(1+ )+ + (1+ )+
Ac r2 S2 S2 Ac r2 S2
Stage 4
Draft
17 Those (service) flexural stresses must be below those specified by the ACI code (where the
subscripts c, t, i and s refer to compression, tension, initial and service respectively):

fci permitted concrete compression stress at initial stage .60fp 0
ci
fti permitted concrete tensile stress at initial stage < 3 fci0
fcs permitted concrete compressive stress at service stage .45f 0
pc p
fts permitted concrete tensile stress at initial stage 6 fc0 or 12 fc0
p
Note that fts can reach 12 fc0 only if appropriate deflection analysis is done, because section
would be cracked.
18 Based on the above, we identify two types of prestressing:
Full prestressing (pioneered by Freysinet), no tensile stresses, no crack, but there are some
problems with excessive camber when unloaded.
Partial prestressing (pioneered by Leonhardt, Abeles, Thurliman), cracks are allowed to

occur (just as in R/C), and they are easier to control in P/C than in R/C.
19 The ACI code imposes the following limits on the steel stresses in terms of fpu which is the
ultimate strength of the cable: Pj < .80fpu As and Pi < .70fpu As . No limits are specified for
Pe .
Example 10-1: Prestressed Concrete I Beam
Adapted from (Nilson 1978)

The following I Beam has fc0 = 4, 000 psi, L = 40 ft, DL+LL =0.55 k/ft, concrete density
γ = 150 lb/ft3 and multiple 7 wire strands with constant eccentricity e = 5.19 in. Pi = 169 k,
and the total losses due to creep, shinkage, relaxation are 15%.
12"
4"
5"
2"
7" 6"
4"
24"
7" 6"
2"
5"
4"
The section properties for this beam are Ic = 12, 000 in4 , Ac = 176 in2 , S1 = S2 = 1, 000 in3 ,
r2= AI = 68.2 in2 .
Determine flexural stresses at midspan and at support at initial and final conditions.
Solution:
1. Prestressing force, Pi only

Pi ³ ec1 ´
f1 = − 1− 2 (10.12-a)
Ac r

Draft
169, 000
µ
(5.19)(12)
¶
10–9
= − 1− = −83 psi (10.12-b)

176 68.2
Pi ³ ec2 ´
f2 = − 1+ 2 (10.12-c)
Ac r
µ ¶
169, 000 (5.19)(12)
= − 1+ = −1, 837 psi (10.12-d)
176 68.21
2. Pi and the self weight of the beam M0 (which has to be acconted for the moment the
beam cambers due to prestressing)
(176) in2
w0 = (.150) k/ ft3 = .183 k/ft (10.13-a)
(144) in2 / ft2
(.183)(40)2
M0 = = 36.6 k.ft (10.13-b)
8
The flexural stresses will thus be equal to:
w0 M0 (36.6)(12, 000)
f1,2 =∓ =∓ = ∓439 psi (10.14)
S1,2 1, 000
Pi ³ ec1 ´ M0
f1 = − 1− 2 − (10.15-a)
Ac r S1
= −83 − 439 = −522 psi (10.15-b)
p √
fti = 3 fc0 = +190 (10.15-c)
Pi ³ ec2 ´ M0
f2 = − 1+ 2 + (10.15-d)
Ac r S2
= −1, 837 + 439 = −1, 398 psi (10.15-e)
√
fci = .6fc0 = −2, 400 (10.15-f)
3. Pe and M0 . If we have 15% losses, then the effective force Pe is equal to (1 − 0.15)169 =
144 k
Pe ³ ec1 ´ M0
f1 = − 1− 2 − (10.16-a)
Ac r S1
µ ¶
144, 000 (5.19)(12)
= − 1− − 439 (10.16-b)
176 68.2
= −71 − 439 = −510 psi (10.16-c)
Pe ³ ec2 ´ M0
f2 = − 1+ 2 + (10.16-d)
Ac r S2
µ ¶
144, 000 (5.19)(12)
= − 1+ + 439 (10.16-e)
176 68.2
= −1, 561 + 439 = −1, 122 psi (10.16-f)
note that −71 and −1, 561 are respectively equal to (0.85)(−83) and (0.85)(−1, 837)
respectively.

Draft
10–10

(0.55)(40)2
MDL + MLL = = 110 k.ft (10.17)
8
and corresponding stresses
(110)(12, 000)
f1,2 = ∓ = ∓1, 320 psi (10.18)
1, 000
Thus,
Pe ³ ec1 ´ M0 + MDL + MLL
f1 = − 1− 2 − (10.19-a)
Ac r S1
= −510 − 1, 320 = −1, 830 psi (10.19-b)
√
fcs = .45fc0 = −2, 700 (10.19-c)
f2 = − 1+ 2 + (10.19-d)
Ac r S2
= −1, 122 + 1, 320 = +198 psi (10.19-e)
p √
fts = 6 fc0 = +380 (10.19-f)
5. The stress distribution at each one of the four stages is shown below.
-1830
-510
-522
-83
4 3 2 1
-1122
-1398
-1837
+198
10.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge

Adapted from (Billington and Mark 1983)
20 The historical Walnut Lane Bridge (first major prestressed concrete bridge in the USA) is
made of three spans, two side ones with lengths of 74 ft and a middle one of length 160 feet.
Thirteen prestressed cocnrete beams are placed side by side to make up a total width of 44
fet of roadway and two 9.25 feet of sidewalk. In between the beams, and cast with them, are
transverse stiffeners which connect the beams laterally, Fig. 10.8

Draft
10.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge 10–11
80 ft
CENTER
LINE
ELEVATION OF BEAM HALF
9.25’ 44 ’ ROAD 9.25’
SIDEWALK
BEAM CROSS SECTIONS TRANSVERSE DIAPHRAGMS
CROSS - SECTION OF BRIDGE
52"
10"
3" TRANSVERSE DIAPHRAGM
7" 10"
3’-3" 7" 6’-7"
6 1/2" SLOTS FOR CABLES

3 1/2"
7"
30"
CROSS - SECTION OF BEAM
Figure 10.8: Walnut Lane Bridge, Plan View

Draft
10–12
10.3.1 Cross-Section Properties

21 The beam cross section is shown in Fig. 10.9 and is simplified
52"
8.9"
22.5" 7" 22.5"
6’-7"
61.2" = 79"
8.9"
SIMPLIFIED CROSS - SECTION OF BEAM
Figure 10.9: Walnut Lane Bridge, Cross Section
Ac = 2(8.9)(52) + (7)(61.2) = 1, 354 in2 (10.20-a)

" µ ¶ #
(52)(8.9)3 79 8.9 2 (7)(61.2)3
I = 2 + (52)(8.9) − + (10.20-b)
12 2 2 12
= = 1, 277 × 103 in4 (10.20-c)
h 79
c1 = c2 = = = 39.5 in (10.20-d)
2 2
I 1, 277 × 103
S1 = S2 = = = 32, 329 in3 (10.20-e)
c 39.5
I 1, 277 × 103
r2 = = = 943. in2 (10.20-f)
A 1, 354
10.3.2 Prestressing
22 Each beam is prestressed by two middle parabolic cables, and two outer horizontal ones
along the flanges. All four have approximately the same eccentricity at midspan of 2.65 ft. or
31.8 inch.
23 Each prestressing cable is made up 64 wires each with a diameter of 0.27 inches. Thus the
total area of prestressing steel is given by:

0.276 in 2
Awire = π(d/2)2 = 3.14( ) = 0.0598 in2 (10.21-a)
2
Draft
10.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge
Acable = 64(0.0598) in2 = 3.83 in2

10–13
(10.21-b)
2 2
Atotal = 4(3.83) in = 15.32 in (10.21-c)
24 Whereas the ultimate tensile strength of the steel used is 247 ksi, the cables have been
stressed only to 131 ksi, thus the initial prestressing force Pi is equal to
Pi = (131) ksi(15.32) in2 = 2, 000 k (10.22)
25 The losses are reported ot be 13%, thus the effective force is

Pe = (1 − 0.13)(2, 000) k = 1, 740 k (10.23)
10.3.3 Loads
26 The self weight of the beam is q0 = 1.72 k/ft.

27 The concrete (density=.15 k/ ft3 ) road has a thickness of 0.45 feet. Thus for a 44 foot width,
the total load over one single beam is
1
qr,tot = (44) ft(0.45) ft(0.15) k/ ft3 = 0.23 k/ft (10.24)
13
28 Similarly for the sidewalks which are 9.25 feet wide and 0.6 feet thick:
1
qs,tot = (2)(9.25) ft(0.60) ft(0.15) k/ ft3 = 0.13 k/ft (10.25)
13
We note that the weight can be evenly spread over the 13 beams beacause of the lateral
diaphragms.
29 The total dead load is
qDL = 0.23 + 0.13 = 0.36 k/ft (10.26)
30 The live load is created by the traffic, and is estimated to be 94 psf, thus over a width of
62.5 feet this gives a uniform live load of

1
wLL = (0.094) k/f t2 (62.5) ft = 0.45 k/ft (10.27)
13
31 Finally, the combined dead and live load per beam is
wDL+LL = 0.36 + 0.45 = 0.81 k/ft (10.28)
10.3.4 Flexural Stresses

1. Prestressing force, Pi only
Pi ³ ec1 ´
f1 = − 1− 2 (10.29-a)
Ac r
µ ¶
(2 × 10 )
6 (31.8)(39.5)
= − 1− = 490. psi (10.29-b)
1, 354 943.
Pi ³ ec2 ´
f2 = − 1+ 2 (10.29-c)
Ac r
µ ¶
(2 × 106 ) (31.8)(39.5)
= − 1+ = −3, 445. psi (10.29-d)
1, 354 943.
Draft
2. Pi and the self weight of the beam M0 (which has to be acconted for the moment the
beam cambers due to prestressing)
(1.72)(160)2
M0 = = 5, 504 k.ft (10.30)
8
The flexural stresses will thus be equal to:
w0 M0 (5, 50.4)(12, 000)
f1,2 =∓ =∓ = ∓2, 043 psi (10.31)
S1,2 943.
Pi ³ ec1 ´ M0
f1 = − 1− 2 − (10.32-a)
Ac r S1
= 490 − 2, 043 = −1, 553 psi (10.32-b)
p √
fti = 3 fc0 = +190 (10.32-c)
Pi ³ ec2 ´ M0
f2 = 1+ 2 + (10.32-d)
Ac r S2
= −3, 445 + 2, 043 = −1, 402. psi (10.32-e)
√
fci = .6fc0 = −2, 400 (10.32-f)
3. Pe and M0 . If we have 13% losses, then the effective force Pe is equal to (1−0.13)(2×106 ) =
1.74 × 106 lbs
Pe ³ ec1 ´ M0
f1 = − 1− 2 − (10.33-a)
Ac r S1
µ ¶
1.74 × 106 (31.8)(39.5)
= − 1− − 2, 043. = −1, 616 psi (10.33-b)
1, 354 943.
Pe ³ ec2 ´ M0
f2 = 1+ 2 + (10.33-c)
Ac r S2
µ ¶
1.74 × 106 (31.8)(39.5)
= − 1+ + 2, 043. = −954. psi (10.33-d)
1, 354 943.
(0.81)(160)2
MDL + MLL = = 2, 592 k.ft (10.34)
8
and corresponding stresses
(2, 592)(12, 000)
f1,2 = ∓ = ∓962. psi (10.35)
32, 329
Thus,
f1 = − 1− 2 − (10.36-a)
Ac r S1
= −1, 616 − 962. = −2, 578. psi (10.36-b)
√
fcs = .45fc0 = −2, 700 (10.36-c)
f2 = 1+ 2 + (10.36-d)
Ac r S2
= −954 + 962. = +8. psi (10.36-e)
p √
fts = 6 fc0 = +380 (10.36-f)

Draft
10.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge 10–15

Draft
Bibliography
Billington, D. and Mark, R.: 1983, Structural studies, Technical report, Department of Civil
Engineering, Princeton University.
Nilson, A.: 1978, Design of Prestressed Concrete, John Wiley and Sons.

Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete Victor E Saouma 2003

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Draft DRAFT

Lecture Notes in:

Mechanics and Design of

Dept. of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering

January 13, 2003

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

E 2-8 Exact Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 CONTINUOUS BEAMS 4–1

5 ONE WAY SLABS 5–1

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

7 APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS 7–1

10 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 10–1

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

10.1.5 Equivalent Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

1.1 Schematic Representation of Aggregate Gradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1–2

2.1 Strain Diagram Uncracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2–1

3.1 Principal Stresses in Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3–1

3.2 Types of Shear Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1 Continuous R/C Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–1

5.1 Types of Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–1

6.1 Crack Width Equation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6–2

9.1 Types of columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–1

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

9.3 Possible Bar arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.1 Pretensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–2

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

4.1 Building Structural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–7

5.1 Recommended Minimum Slab and Beam Depths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–4

7.1 Columns Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . 7–18

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

1.1.1.1 Mix Design

II Moderate sulfate resistant, moderate heat of hydration

III High early strength (but releases too much heat)

Figure 1.1: Schematic Representation of Aggregate Gradation

V Sulfate resistant (marine environment)

Fine aggregate fraction is that passing the No. 4 sieve.

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

Sieve Size % Passing Each Sieve

Sieve Size % Passing

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

16 Moisture states are defined as

Oven-dry (OD): all moisture is removed from the aggregate.

17 Based on the above, we can determine

Surface Moisture (SM): is the water in excess of the SSD state

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

Sieve Weight Amount Cumulative Cumulative

Size Retained Retained Amount Amount

Table 1.4: Example of Fineness Modulus Determination for Fine Aggregate

1.1.1.1.2 Preliminary Considerations

24 There are two fundamental aspects to mix design to keep in mind:

1.1.1.1.3 Mix procedure

1. Sieve analysis of both fine and coarse aggregates

2. Unit weight of the coarse aggregate

3. Bulk specific gravities

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

4. absorption capacities of the aggregates

Type of Construction Max Min

Table 1.5: Recommended Slumps (inches) for Various Types of Construction

In general maximum aggregate size is 3/4 in or 1 in.

Victor Saouma Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

Slump Sizes of Aggregates

28 days w/c Ratio by Weight