LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF SMALL STRAIN MODULUS ANISOTROPY IN SAND

D. LoPresti* and D. A. O'Neill**

with ENEL-CRIS, Via Ornato, 90/14, 20100 Milan, Italy; *Technical
University, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi, 24, 10129 Turin, Italy; **ISMES SpA,
Via Pastrengo, 9, 24068 Seriate (BG), Italy

INTRODUCTION

The testing technique and initial results obtained from seismic tests
performed in the ISMES calibration chamber on dry specimens of Ticino Sand
are presented in this paper. The experimental program was designed to
investigate the anisotropy of the small strain elastic moduli in pluvially
deposited, uniform sand specimens. Stress level effects on the small strain
stiffness also come into consideration.

Many authors (e.g. [9]) have shown that the strains associated wiC-
typical working loads are relatively small, less than 0.05% to 0.1%.
Consequently, adequate geotechnical analysis of deformations for situations
far from failure require knowledge of stiffnesses characteristic of the soil
at strains ranging from very small (less than 0.001%) up to approximately
1%. The dependence of sand stiffness on stress and strain levels over this
strain interval is relatively well documented in the literature. The
anisotropy of stress-strain behavior at small strains, on the other hand,
has received far less attention notwithstanding the generally recognized
anisotropic nature of sands.

Vibrations imparted to the soil during the seismic measurements result

in shear strains less than 0.0003% and thus the moduli calculated refer to
very small strain levels. Since these strain levels are less than 0.001%, it
is the maximum, or initial, modulus which is determined, that which is truly
linearly elastic, i.e. independent of strain level [7].

To fully describe the anisotropy of the specimen, the elastic modulus

must be evaluated in various directions with respect to the deposition
direction. Use of Love's simplified anisotropic (transversely isotropic)
elastic model [121 requires experimental determination of five independent
material parameters, all of which can be obtained by measuring seismic shear
(S) and compression (P) wave propagation velocities in vertical and
horizontal directions and in one oblique direction [101. The internal,
geophone-based technique for use in large calibration chamber, dry sand
specimens described herein is particularly well-adapted to such an
investigation as all moduli of interest can be studied in one specimen.
Errors that typically accompany use of different specimens or, even worse,
different test devices are thus eliminated. This technique can only be used,
however, for the measurement of the maximum stiffness and thus the
significant degradation of the modulus with increasing, but still small
(less than 0.1%) strain cannot be investigated.

Seismic measurements in large sand specimens have previously been

studied, both in cylindrical calibration chambers [14] and in cubical
chambers [10] [16], the latter of which is capable of applying true triaxial
principal stress conditions.

APPARATUS AND TEST PROCEDURE

The tests were performed in the ISKES calibration chamber, the

physical characteristics of which are described by Bellotti et al. (4]. In
this chamber, the 1.2 m diameter, 1.4 m tall cylindrical specimens can be
Company, Inc.
Published 1991 by Elsevier Scknce Publishing
Caibraion Chamber Tesing
8Adlr A.-e. Hung 213
214

consolidated along any desired stress path. Subsequent penetration of

various in situ instruments can be effected controlling the applied stress
or strain boundary conditions in accordance with Bl, B2, B3 or B4
specifications. Of relevance to this study are the physical boundary
conditions wherein the membrane-encased specimen is surrounded by water in
the lateral direction, a rigid steel top cap and a water-filled rubber
cushion as a bottom boundary. These boundaries result in reflected waves
which must be minimized.

Each dry sand specimen was pluviated through air using the travelling
sand spreader which deposits one layer of sand at a time through a thin
rectangular aperature at the bottom of a hopper oriented perpendicular to
the travel direction. This device produces homogeneous specimens of relative
density, Dr, varying between approximately 20% and 100% depending on the
aperture width. The height of drop between the aperture and the soil surface
is maintained at a constant 160 cm.
To effect the seismic velocity determination, miniature cylindrical
geophones employed as both sources and receivers were positioned within the
sand specimen during the deposition process. These velocity transducers
(model no. LAO A-1, natural frequency - 60 Hz, of Mark Products, Houston,
Texas) are 3.5 cm in length with a diameter equal to 3.1 cm. S wave
velocities were studied by considering an array of geophones oriented side-
by-side such that their cylindrical axes were perpendicular to the
propagation direction while for P waves the geophones were oriented end-to-
end with the geophone axis parallel to the direction of propagation.
A function generator and a power amplifier were used to control the
character of the 50 V peak-to-peak signal sent to the source geophone. The
frequency of the source wave (3000 Hz and 2000 Hz for P and S waves,
respectively) was chosen such that the wavelength of the propagating
vibration was greater than three times the size of any obstruction (e.g.,
geophone) in its path, and less than half the travel distance so as to avoid
near field effects [151. Received signals were conditioned by operational
amplifiers and bandpass filters, one of each devoted to each receptor, and
then observed on a two-channel digital oscilloscope. Filters, often avoided
due to the distortion suffered by the conditioned signal, were necessary
since the calibration chamber is not isolated from ambient vibrations. The
equipment configuration is as indicated in Fig. 1.

Seismic velocities were interpreted in the time domain using the

visual true interval method, wherein the signals from two receivers in
response to a single source impulse are considered on the oscilloscope
screen in the evaluation of the interval travel time. Thus, the substantial
time delay errors associated with the conditioning equipment and the method
of activating the source were avoided as were difficulties associated with
identifying the -actual time of arrival. To evaluate the most opportune
reference point on the received wave the configuration in Fig. 1 was
carefully studied using a dynamic signal analyser (Hewlett-Packard 3562A).
On the basis of interpretation of the impulse response, slightly distorted
due to the filter, the point on each received wave 1/4 wavelength after the
"arrival time" was chosen as the point of comparison.

Use of the true interval method requires use of a linear array of

three geophones in the direction of interest for each measurement, as
indicated schematically in Fig. 2. The three shear wave velocities studied
in this research: Svh, Shy and Shh; and the two compression waves: Pv and Ph
are also indicated. The notation used herein is such that the direction of
wave propagation and polarization for S waves are identified by the first
and second subscripts, respectively, while for P waves, propagation and
vibration are in the same direction.
 215

CALIBRATION CHAMBER
SAND SPECIMEN

RECErNER2

RECEIVERI

SOURCEi, DIFFERENTtAL
S0URC ~ AMPLIFIERS
60 dB

500 H, to 10000 H,

POWER OSCILLOSCOPE

AMPLIFIER

FUNCTION C2 to 4 ) Ioe~
GENERATORI

Figure 1. Seismic measurement equipment configuration.

P- :~ SPREADER DIRECTION

.-- -120 ca-

Figure 2. Distribution of geophones in the calibration chamber sand

specimen.
216

SEISMIC
WAVE
TYPE
2 x COV(velocity) ()
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
PVX ' Ab,'D'''' ' ' ' '
Pvy * + +
Phx o
M, 4
Phy 01D O4* * +

Sxy .in
SYMBOL TEST
Syx *0Uj No.
Svx 4- 00 + 310
* 308
Svy X a 0 306
4 307
S45 * 309
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Figure 3. Coefficient of variation associated with the evaluation of seismic
wave velocity in the calibration chamber.

Interval travel time measurements were effected a minimum of

15 minutes after application of each consolidation stress increment. The
stress state under which velocities are considered refers to the vertical
and horizontal effective stress acting at the midpoint of the travel path
(i.e., between the two receiving geophones). Separation distance was
corrected for the strain incurred at a given stress level, assuming a linear
strain distribution.

The error associated with this seismic technique has been interpreted
in terms of repeatability of the measurement. Data presented in Fig. 3
represent the evaluation of six separate readings of the interval travel
time using the same geophones at a given stress level. P and S wave travel
time measurements from five different tests indicate standard deviations
equal to +/-0.025 msec and 0.020 msec, respectively, resulting in 95%
confidence level (two times the coefficient of variation) velocities equal
to +/-6% and +/-3%, respectively. The larger scatter associated with the
P waves is largely due to their lower travel time.

TEST PROGRAM
The cohesionless soil investigated was medium to coarse Ticino sand, a
soil of fluvial origin obtained from the Po river valley in northern Italy.
The characteristics of Ticino sand are presented in Fig. 4. Over the past
decade, this sand has received intensive attention in the laboratory,
including numerous cone penetration, dilatometer and pressuremeter tests in
the calibration chamber [3] [8], as well as exhaustive triaxial and resonant
column test series [1] (2] [5] [17]. The seismic measurement test program
comprised a total of 18 tests performed on 18 different dry sand,
calibration chamber specimens. Two densities were considered: low medium
35
(Dr- -45%) and very dense (Dr-85-90%).

The program was designed to evaluate small strain modulus anisotropy

in accordance with the cross anisotropic elastic model of Love [12], wherein

d
e

t
 217

I ISANDI SLT

NEIGHT
PERCENTR --.- ,--
PASSING

GRAIN SIZE (n)

1700 kg/. e "0.682 Q. 2.69

$
1391 kal e 0.93 cu. 1.6

GEOMORPHOLOGY: angular(20 %). subangular (55 %),

subrounded(M %).
SPHERICITY: 0.7 TO 0.8
MINERALOGY: QUARTZ (28%). FELDSPAR (30%)
MICA (5%), OPAOUES.
DESCRIPTION: UNIFORM COARSE TO MEDIUM SAND

Figure 4. Grain size characteristics of Ticino sand.

the horizontal plane is isotropic and strains aro related to stresses as

follows:

ax Cll C12 C13 0 0 0 Ex

ay C12 Cll C13 0 0 0 Cy
az - C1 3 C 1 3 C3 3 0 0 0 (z (1)
T
yz 0 0 0 04 4 0 0 Yyz
T
7 zx 0 0 0 0 C4 4 0 zx
xy 0 0 0 0 0 C6 6 7xY
where: ax, ay, az - normal stresses
T
yz' ?zx, rxy - shear stresses
ex, cy, ez - normal strains
7yz, 7zx, Ixy - shear strains
Cll constrained modulus of the isotropic plane, Mh
C3 3 - constrained modulus of the anisotropic plane, M v
C4 4 - shear modulus of the anisotropic plane, Gvh
C6 6 - shear modulus of the isotropic plane, Ghh
C1 3 - fifth independent parameter requiring oblique measurement
C 1 2 - Mh-2Chh (dependent parameter)

According to elastic theory, the relationships between seismic

velocities and the moduli are as follows:

G - p Vs 2 (2)
2
M p Vp (3)
218

where: 0 - elastic shear modulus

M - elastic constrained modulus
p- mass density of the soil
V.- shear wave velocity
Vp- compression wave velocity

Specific moduli related to elements of the above stiffness matrix are

associated with velocities of appropriate propagation and vibration
directions. Measurements of Cll, C3 3 , C4 4 and C6 6 , simply related to
vertical and horizontal measurements as indicated above were considered in
the early stages of the test program. Additional measurements in an oblique
direction are necessary for evaluation of C1 3 . Tests are currently underway
in which travel times are being measured for P and S waves propagated 45
degrees from the horizontal.

Many definitions exist to describe the various types of anisotropy

associated with various stages in the development of a soil deposit. Herein,
definitions presented by Casagrande and Carillo [6] are considered in which
inherent anisotropy refers to a "physical characteristic of the material and
entirely independent of applied stresses" and induced (or evolving)
anisotropy refers to that due to incurred strain associated with applied
stresses, Inherent anisotropy was evaluated by subjecting the specimen to
isotropic consolidation increments. Two such tests were performed, one each
at Dr equal to 40% and 90%, up to stress levels of 600 kPa. Induced
anisotropy was considered by subjecting the specimens to a constant
consolidation stress ratio, Kc (-o'h/o'v) with tests employing Kc equal to
4 0
0.33, 0.5, 0.66 and 1.5 for Dr- % and Kc equal to 0.5, 0.66 and 1.5 for the
very dense specimens. The maximum stess levels varied with respect to the
capacity of the calibration chamber, ranging from a'v-600 kPa for low Kc and
dropping to 300 kPa for Kc-l.5.
The dependence of anisotropic elastic characteristics on stress level
was accounted for within the framework proposed by Roesler [13] in which the
principal effective stresses are considered in terms of their orientation
with respect to the seismic wave propagation and vibration directions. The
validity of these relationships as presented below has been confirmed by
extensive studies at the University of Texas at Austin [16].
2 a
Vp - Cl a'a Ocnc (4)

V s - C2 aanaa'bnba'cnc (5)

where:
Vp - compression wave velocity
V - shear wave velocity
o'a - principal effective stress parallel to wave propagation direction
O'b - principal effective stress parallel to wave polarization direction
o'c - principal effective stress parallel to the out-of-plane direction
and Cl, C2 na, nb and nc are experimentally determined parameters.

The exponents na, nb and nc for Ticino sand were evaluated by

performing tests in which one of the two controllable applied principal
stresses (axial or radial) was maintained constant while the other was
Increased in increments of 25 kPa or 50 kPa. After the application of each
increment all wave interval travel times were measured. The biaxial nature
of the calibration chamber limits the rigorous evaluation of this
relationship in that the effect of a'c cannot be determined for Shy or Svh
waves.
 219

1000

700
\Pxnc--0.045

400 SOb nc-o.03

VELOCTTY
Weed 131 , nc-0.O

[SThAE TES
200 I EFFECT
TicinoSand
OP - 40 X
TESTNo.331

100

100 200 400 700 1000

VETICALEFFECTIVE
STRESS kd3a)

Figure 5. Effect of the out-of-plane principal effective stress, o'c, On

wave velocity.

TEST RESULTS

Aspects associated with stress level effects on the seismic velocity

which should be independent of the elastic anisotropy of the specimen [13],
are discussed prior to anisotropic evaluations. As aforementioned, the
principal effective stresses are studied within the Roesler [13] framework
(Eqns. 4 and 5). The o'-V relationship can be simplified since the effect of
the out-of-plane stress, a'c, on wave propagation velocities has been found
to be very small [10] [13]. This finding is supported by data presented in
Fig. 5 in which the propagation velocity of horizontal P waves (Phx and Phy)
and horizontally propagated and polarized S waves (Shxhy and Shyhx) are
plotted versus o'v. The subscripts x and y associated with the wave types in
Fig. 5 refer to the directions parallel and orthogonal to the travelling
sand spreader (Fig. 2).

The specimen was consolidated isotropically to 300 kPa, during which

all velocities increased. Then, O'h was maintained constant at 300 kPa while
o'v was increased to 700 kPa, during which the horizontal wave velocites
remained essentially constant. It is worth noting that only a small
variation in one velocity measurement is sufficient to result in a non-zero
exponent determined via linear regression. Of note also is that there is
virtually no difference between the velocities of x and y oriented waves,
thus confirming the isotropy of the horizontal plane.

The exponents na and nb were evaluated assuming nc equal to zero.

Examples of these data are shown in Figs. 6 and 7 for na and nb,
respectively. Again, the specimens were isotropically consolidated to
300 kPa following which a'v was maintained constant. Bearing in mind the
quality of the linear regressions (coefficients of regression varying
between 0.8 and 0.9), these data demonstrate the effect of increasing o'h on
waves propagating in the horizontal direction (Shv; na-O.12) and on waves
vibrating in the horizontal direction (Svh; nb-0.15). Considering all
available data in this manner, na was found to be about equal to nb with an
average value of about 0.13. Note that when na is assumed equal to nb, a
220

500

tiv : 3 different
400 geophone groups
na - 0. 102 / mo

VELOCITY
(a/sec)
300 Aa0.4
OF (a
EFFECT M
"ICINO
SA t/effective
s n 332
% stresspath

200

t00 200 400 700 1000

EFFECTIVE
HORIZONTAL STRESS (kPa)

Figure 6. Effect of the principal effective stress in the direction of wave

propagation, a'a, on wave velocity.

500

Svn - 3 different no - 0.178

400 geophone groups
/
VELOCITY
(slsec)
300 n-o- 0.t143
-FFECTOF rob
TICIN0 SADM t't effective
Dr - 35 2 path
stress
Test no. 332 .- lo

t00 200 400 700 1000

EFFECTIVESTRESS (kPa)
HORIZONTAL

Figure 7. Effect of the principal effective stress in the direction of wave

vibration, O'b, on wave velocity.

slightly lower value of the average exponent was determined (na-nb=0.12).

This could be due to the fact that when individual exponents are studied,
(e.g. Figs. 6 and 7), the "negligible" effects of the other two stresses
serve to increase the wave velocit; measured and thus are mistakenly
interpreted as a slightly increased value of the exponent calculated.

Results presented for isotropically consolidated specimens (Figs. 8

and 9) allude to the inherent anisotropy of medium and very dense specimens
of dry Ticino sand deposited using the travelling sand spreader. At both
40
relative densities (Dr- % and 85%) and for both S and P waves, the
propagation velocities in the horizontal direction were greater than those
in the vertical direction. On the basis of these measurements, the inherent
elastic anisotropy of this sand can be characterized by ratios between
horizontal and vertical shear moduli (Ghh/Gvh) and constrained moduli
(Mhh/Kvh) equal to approximately 1.2.
 221

1000
INHIENT ANISOTROPY
Ticino Sand
700 Or - 40 % Ph .._

Test No.305

VELOCITY na-nb

(m/sed .2S)~,A U
0.11 O

200 0.112 Svh

0.11 RESONANTCOLUMN
esp. formula
(LoPresti. 1987. Armand. .1991)

iO0...............................................I

100 1000 10000 100000 !. 0JO00

sigma' a x sigma' b (kPa^2)

Figure 8. Seismic wave velocities measured in isotropically consolidated

specimens prepared at relative density equal to 40%.

1000

INHERENTANISOTRfOPY
Ticilno
Sand
700 Or -B5
Test No. 330

na - nb SM
400
VELOCITY 0.123 5l A A
(a/see) 0.134 A

200 0.112
COLUMN
RSONANT
es. formula
(Lopresti,1967:Amandi.1991)

100
tO0 1000 1O000 100000 1000000

sig"' a x salga' b (kPa^2)

Figure 9. Seismic wave velocities measured in isotropically consolidated

specimens prepared at relative density equal to 90*.

Also presented in Figs. 8 and 9 are estimates of shear modulus based

on an empirical equation involving the octahedral effective stress and the
void ratio derived from results from resonant column, RC, tests on
40 9
isotropically consolidated medium (Vr- ) and very dense (Dr- O%) specimens
222

of Ticino sand [1] [17]. The seismic wave monitored in the RC device is a
vertically propagating, horizontally vibrating S wave (Svh). The correlation
with the measurements in the calibration chamber is notably good.

Evaluation of induced or evolving anisotropy is effected by

consolidating different specimens along different paths at constant
O'hc/O'vc. The anisotropy measured is thus a combination of inherent and
that induced by strains incurred by the application of a nonisotropic
consolidation stress ratio, Kc~l. These data are presented in Figs. 10 and
11 for S and P waves from tests performed on medium dense specimens. Data
obtained from very dense specimens, not shown here, exhibited far less
scatter.

The data in these figures clearly manifest the inherent anisotropy

(greater velocities for the horizontally propagating waves), regardless of
Kc. On the other hand, neither S waves nor P waves immediately appear to be
affected by the stress ratio. Note, however, for the Shh waves the velocites
3
for Kc-O. and 0.5 are approximately equal, while corresponding Svh
velocities are lower for the lower Kc, resulting in an increase in the ratio
of the moduli, Ghh/Gvh. Studying this aspect closely, the data indicate that
for Kc less than about 0.7, the velocity of the Svh waves decreases with
decreasing Kc such that the ratio Ghh/Gvh increases to approximately 1.3.
Data for the dense specimens showed the same trend for the effect of Kc on
S wave velocities. A trend of decreasing Gmax with decreasing Kc was also
noted by Yu and Richart [18] on the basis of resonant column test results.
Additional research at stress ratios less than unity are necessary to better
describe this phenomenon.

CONCLUSIONS

The seismic method presented wherein both S and P wave velocities are
measured in large, dry sand specimens in the calibration chamber is well
adapted to the investigation of small strain modulus anisotropy. Employing
the visual true interval method using two receivers, the 95% confidence
level scatter associated with the technique is equal to approximately +/-3%
and +/-6% for S and P wave velocities, respectively. Appropriate disposition
of approximately 25 to 30 geophones at three elevations within the sand
specimen permits measurement of Svh, Shv Shh, Pv and Ph velocities.
Implanting a minimum of six geophones at a tilt allows the evaluation of
obliquely propagating S and P waves.

The dry, pluviated, Ticino sand specimens demonstrated a slight

inherent anisotropy with elastic moduli in the horizontal plane
approximately 2Q% greater than those measured in the vertical direction. The
effect of different constant values of Kc, ranging from 0.3 to 1.5,
indicated limited induced anisotropy for this sand. Essentially, for Kc
greater than about 0.7, the anisotropy was essentially equal to that
measured under isotropic conditions. As the stress ratio is further
decreased, however, for both relative densities investigated there appears
to be a measurable reduction in the Svh wave, thus increasing the shear
stiffness ratio. Additional research is needed to better quantify this
effect. Additional investigation is also required to fully describe the
elastic anisotropy of the specimen, particularly with regard to the
evaluation of the C 1 3 parameter of the stiffness matrix. Tests are currently
underway to measure the the velocities of S and P waves propagating at 45
degrees from the horizontal.
 223

500

400

VELOCITY 3Sft
(m/seci

200 51

K, 1± Sh±I
0.3 A A
IDUCEDANISOTRPY ~ 0.5 #
Shear' WaveVelocity fl0.7 10 a
Ticinlo Sand fl1.0 -

O 401.5 0 0-

100
too 1000 MsOO 100000 ±000000
sigma' a x sigma' b (kPa'21
Figure 10. Shear wave velocity measured on specimens aubjected to different
consolidation stress ratioa, Kc.

l00

Ph

00

400 0> S
*0m

VELOCITY c -A-"
(u/sec)0
3D. Ps Ph
0.3 A 4
INDCE AISTRPY0.5
Compression Wave fl0.7 a
Velocit f 1.0 - - - -
Ticinos Sand U1.5 0

200 1 1 ..
100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
sigma* a x sigma* b (kPa^2)
Figure 11. Compression wave velocities measured on specimens subjected to
different consolidation stress rstios, jKc*
224

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The contributions of Drs. K. Stokoe (Univ. Texas at Austin, Austin,

Texas) and G. Rix (Georgia Inst. of Tech., Atlanta, Georgia) to the
realization and execution of the experimental program are gratefully
acknowledged.

REFERENCES

1. Armandi, M. (1991), Caratteristiche della deformibilita' delle sabbie

del Ticino and di Toyoura da prove di colonna risonante e taglio
torsionale, M.Sc. Thesis, Politecnico di Torino.
2. Baldi, G. et al. (1985), Laboratory validation of in situ tests,
Associazione Geotecnica Italians Jubilee Volume, XI Int. Conf. on Soil
Mach. and Found. Eng., San Francisco.
3. Bellotti, R., V.Ghionna, M.Jamiolkowski, R. Lancellotta and G.
Manfredini (1986), Deformation characteristics of cohesionless soils
from in situ tests, Proc. In Situ 1986 GT div. , Amer. Society of Civil
Eng., Blacksburg, Virginia.
4. Bellotti, R., G. Bizzi and V. Ghionna (1982), Design, construction and
4
use of a calibration chamber, Proc. ESOPT II, Amsterdam, Vol.2, pp 39-
446.
5. Carriglio, F. (1989), Caratteristiche sforzi-deformazioni-resistenza
delle sabbie, Ph.D. Thesis, Politecnico di Torino, 292p.
6. Casagrande, A. and N. Carillo (1944), Shear failure of anisotropic
materials, Proc. Boston Society of Civil Engineers, Vol.31, pp74-87.
7. Hardin, B. (1978), The nature of stress-strain behavior for soils,
Proc. Earthquake Engineering and Soil Mechanics, Amer. Soc. of Civil
Engineers, pp3-90.
8. Jamiolkowski, M., V. Ghlonna, R.Lancellotta and E.Pasquslini (1988),
New applications of penetration tests in design practice, ISOPT-I,
Orlando, Florida.
9. Jardine, R., D. Potts, A. Fourie and J.B. Burland (1986), Studies of
the influence of non-linear stress strain characteristics in soil-
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structure interaction, Geotechnique, Vol.36, No.3, pp - .
10. Lee, S. and K. Stokoe (1986), Investigation of low amplitude shear wave
velocity in anisotropic material, Report GR86-6, Civil Eng. Dept.,
34
Univ. of Texas at Austin, 3p.
11. Lopresti, D.C.F. (1987), Comportamento della sabbia del Ticino in prove
di colonna risonante, Ph.D. Thesis, Politecnico di Torino, 252p.
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Vols. Cambridge University Press.
13. Roesler, S. (1979), Anisotropic shear modulus due to stress
anisotropy, Journal of the Ceotechncial Engineering Division, American
Society of Engineers, Vol.105, CT7, pp871-880.
14. Schmertmann, J.H. (1978), Effect of shear stress on dynamic bulk
modulus of sand, U.S. Army Engineering Waterways Experiment Station,
Technical Report S-78-16, 92pp.
15. Stokoe, K., Y.S. Mok, N. Lee, R. Lopez (1989), In situ seismic methods:
Recent advances in testing: Understanding and applications, XIV
Conferenze di Geotecnica di Torino, Politecnico di Torino.
16. Stokoe, K., S. Lee and D. Knox (1985), Shear moduli measurements under
true triaxial stresses, Advances in the Art of Testing Soils under
Cyclic Conditions, October 1985, Detroit, Michigan, pp166-185.
17. Tatsuoka, F., T. Iwasaki, S. Fukushima and H. Sudo (1979), Stress
conditions and stress histories affecting shear modulus and damping of
sand under cyclic loading, Soils and Foundations, Vol.19, No.2, pp29-
43.
18. Yu, P. and F. Richart (1984), Stress ratio effects on shear modulus of
dry sand, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Amer. Society of Civil
3 3
Eng., Vol.110, No.3, pp 31- 45.