ENERGY

Energy is a fundamental concept of thermodynamics and one of the most significant aspects
of engineering analysis.

Energy is a familiar notion, and you already know a great deal about it. A basic idea is that
energy can be stored within systems in various forms. Energy also can be converted from one
form to another and transferred between systems. For closed systems, energy can be
transferred by work and heat transfer. The total amount of energy is conserved in all
conversions and transfers.

The total energy of a system is constituted by the sum of energy that can exist in numerous
forms such as kinetic, potential, internal, etc.

The two primary forms of energy are macroscopic and microscopic. The macroscopic forms
of energy are the kinetic and potential energy which a system possesses as a whole and with
respect to an outside reference frame. The macroscopic energy of a system is related to motion
and the influence of some external effects such as gravity. Kinetic energy is what a system
possesses because of its motion relative to some reference frame. Potential energy is the
energy that a system possesses because of its elevation in a gravitational field.

Figure 1. Varying value of potential energy depending on the reference frame

Lower value of
potential energy in
this reference frame

Higher value of
potential energy
due to higher
elevation in a
different
reference frame

Meanwhile, the microscopic forms of energy are the several forms of energy that are related
to the molecular structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity. Microscopic
forms of energy are independent of outside reference frames.

Internal energy is the sum of all the microscopic forms of energy of a system that is related to
the molecular structure and the degree of molecular activity. It can be viewed as the sum of the
kinetic and potential energies of the molecules. Some forms of energy that make up the
internal energy of a system are the following:
Sensible energy: associated with the kinetic energies of the molecules.
Latent energy: associated with the phase of a system (solid, liquid, or gas).
Chemical energy: associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule.
Nuclear energy: the tremendous amount of energy associated with the strong bonds within
the nucleus of the atom.

Two common terms related to energy are mechanical and thermal energy which are
alternative or collective term for the fundamental forms of energy. Mechanical energy is the
combined form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work completely and directly.
Kinetic and potential energies are considered forms of mechanical energy. Meanwhile,
thermal energy is the form of energy that cannot be converted to work directly and
completely.

Expression of Total Energy

The absolute value of the total energy that a system possesses cannot be easily quantified. Only
the change in the total energy is accounted and this change is considered important in the
analysis of systems in engineering.

Kinetic energy and potential energy are constituents in the total energy of the system and can
be calculated from other properties of the system. Internal energy is also accounted in the total
energy of the system, but this can be determined based on other properties if the system like
pressure and temperature.

Table 1: Expression of the total energy neglecting all other effects

E total energy

KE total kinetic energy

E = KE + PE + U
PE total potential energy

U total energy

Table 2: Expression of the kinetic energy of a system

KE total kinetic energy

1
KE = mv2 m mass
2
v velocity

Table 3: Expression of the potential energy of a system

 PE total potential energy

m mass
PE = mgz
g gravitational acceleration

z elevation of the center of gravity

Sample Problems

Sample Problem 1: Calculate the total potential energy, in kJ, of an object whose mass is 20
kg when it is located 20 m below a datum level in a location where g = 9.5 m/s 2.
Illustration:

m = 20 kg

h = 20 m

Datum level/ Datum line

Required value:

Potential energy in kJ

Solving for the potential energy:

𝐏𝐄 = 𝐦𝐠𝐡
𝐏𝐄 = 𝟐𝟎 𝐤𝐠 (𝟗. 𝟓 𝐦⁄𝐬 𝟐 )(𝟐𝟎 𝐦)
𝐏𝐄 = 𝟑𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝐉
𝐏𝐄 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟎 𝐤𝐉
HEAT AND WORK AS ENERGY TRANSFER

Forms of energy can be classified as either static or dynamic. Static forms of energy can be
contained or stored in that system whereas dynamic forms of energy or energy interactions
cannot be stored in a system. The dynamic forms of energy are accounted when they cross the
system boundary and as energy gained or lost during a process. The two distinct dynamic
forms of energy are heat and work. Energy crosses the system boundary as heat when there is
temperature difference. Energy crosses the system boundary as work when it is not heat.
Heat as Energy Transfer

Heat is the form of energy that is transferred between two systems or a system and its
surroundings due to temperature difference. The direction of energy transfer as heat is
always from the higher temperature body to the lower temperature body. Energy transfer
stops when equal temperature is reached. Heat transfer cannot happen between two
systems that are at the same temperature.
 Figure 2: Heat transfer between systems and between system and surroundings

System A System B
at higher at lower

Heat transfer

Surroundings at Surroundings at
lower temperature higher temperature

System System
at higher Heat at lower
Heat

Heat takes the same unit as energy. The amount of heat transferred during the process from
one state to another is denoted by “Q 1-2” or just “Q”. Heat transfer per unit mass of a system
is denoted “q”. The rate of heat transfer is the amount of heat transferred per unit time
denoted
by “Q̇ ”. The units of rate of heat transfer is joule/second (J/s) or watt (W).

Table 4 : Equivalence and symbol of heat and rate of heat transfer

Adiabatic process is a process when there is no heat transfer. A process becomes adiabatic
when the system is well insulated so that only a negligible amount of heat crossing the
boundary. Another reason is when systems or both the system and the surroundings are
at the same temperature.
Work as Energy Transfer

Work is an energy interaction between a system and its surroundings. When energy crossing
the boundary of a closed system is not heat, then it is work. Specifically, work is the energy
transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.

Figure.3: Work transfer to the system in a piston-cylinder set-up

Applied force

Distance Work being

transferred to
the system by
compression

Work as a form of energy takes the units of energy. The work done during a process between
one state to another is denoted by W1-2 or simply “W”. The work done per unit mass of
a system is
denoted by “w”. The work done per unit time is called power and is denoted by “Ẇ ” with
the unit joule per second (J/s) or watt (W).

Example Question : Potential Energy, Energy and Work

1. A box is placed on top of a 3m tall spring resting on the ground. The box has a weight of 10N
and compresses the spring 1m. What is the spring constant?
2. A 3.23kg book falls off the top of a 3.01m bookshelf. What is its potential energy right before it
falls? g=9.8ms2
3. A skier is at the top of a hill. At the bottom of the hill, she has a velocity of 12ms. How tall was
the hill?
4. An astronaut is on a new planet. She discovers that if she drops a space rock from 10m above
the ground, it has a final velocity of 3ms just before it strikes the planet surface. What is the
acceleration due to gravity on the planet?
5. A 0.5kg ball rolls up a hill. If the ball is initially travelling with a velocity of 3.12ms, how high
up the hill does it roll?
6. A box is placed on top of a 3m tall spring resting on the ground. The box has a weight of 10N,
and compresses the spring 1m. What is the spring constant?
7. A man stands at the top of a 21m tall building. He holds a 3.2kg rock over the edge. What is
the potential gravitational energy of the rock?