Concept of stress

● Resistance offered by the body against deformation per unit cross-

sectional area is called STRESS
● The external force acting on the body is called force or load.
● Stress is the force per unit area upon which it acts.

Force P
Stress    
Area A
● Unit of Stress:
● Pascal = 1 N/m2
● kN/m2 , MN/m2 , GN/m2
● Note: Most of engineering
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Strain
● When a body is subjected to some external force, there is a change of
dimensions of the body.
● The ratio of change of dimension of the body to the original dimension is
known as strain.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
Strain(e or ᵋ ) e= 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝛿𝑙
e=
𝑙
No unit Original length – Lo;
Change in length – ΔL or δL
Strain, e= – ΔL/ Lo or δL/ Lo
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Types of stresses
Tensile stress and strain
● When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pulls P (also
called tensile load) , then the stress induced at any section of the body is
known as tensile stress.

● Due to tensile load, there will be a decrease in cross-sectional area and an

increase in length of the body. The ratio of the increase in length to the
original length is known as tensile strain.

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Types of stresses
Compressive stress and strain
● When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pushes P (also
called compressive load) , then the stress induced at any section of the
body is known as compressive stress

● Compressive load, there will be an increase in cross-sectional area and a

decrease in length of the body. The ratio of the decrease in length to the
original length Is known as compressive strain

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Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity
Hooke's law:- states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the
stress is directly proportional to strain,
σ∝ε
σ=E×ε
𝐸 =𝜎/𝜀 (σ = P/A, ᵋ= (𝛿𝑙/l)
= 𝑃.𝑙/𝐴.𝛿𝑙

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Shear stress and shear strain
● Tensile stress and compressive stress are also known as normal or direct
stresses denoted by σ. The normal stress acts perpendicular to the area
or surface on which it acts.
● The shear stress is also known as tangential stress and usually denoted
by τ. The shear stress acts tangential to the surface or area on which it
acts.
● When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting
tangentially across the resisting section, as a result of which the body
tends to shear off the section, then the stress induced is called shear
stress (τ), The corresponding strain is known as shear strain (φ)

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 ܶܽ݊݃݁݊‫݁ܿݎ݋݂ 𝑙ܽ݅ݐ‬
Shear stress, 𝜏 = ܴ݁‫ܽ݁ݎܽ ݃݊݅ݐݏ݅ݏ‬

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Shear strain
● Deformation, when expressed in terms of the angular displacement can
represent shear strain.
● Shear strain= Φ= Δl/l=tan φ
The deformations are very small and when the angle φ is expressed in
radians, tan φ can be approximated to φ.

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Superficial Strain
This is defined as the change in area per unit area.
Superficial Strain = dA /A
where A is the surface area of the component and dA is the change
in area upon deformation due to applied load.
Volumetric Strain
This is defined as the change in volume per unit volume.
Volumetric Strain = dV /V
where V is the volume of the component and dV is the change in
volume upon deformation due to the applied load.
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● The materials which obey Hooke’s law are called linearly elastic materials,
as there is a linear relationship between stress and strain in the elastic
range.
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Modulus of Elasticity = 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜎
E = N/mm2
𝜀
This is an inherent and constant property of the material. This indicates the
ability of a given material, of a given cross section to resist deformation
when loaded.

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Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus
For elastic materials, shear strain is proportional to shear stress producing it,
within the elastic limit. The ratio of shear stress to shear strain is known as
modulus of rigidity or shear modulus, usually denoted by G.
(other notations used are C and N)
ShearStress
Modulus of Rigidity (G) =
Shear strain
𝜏
G = φ N/mm2

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Stress- strain diagram
Considerable information about the mechanical properties of a material can
be obtained from a uniaxial tensile test.
A standard specimen is loaded in tension in a testing machine commonly
known as Universal Testing Machine (UTM).

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Stress – strain curve of mild steel (ductile material)
Salient Points
A (Proportionality Limit)
- The stress is proportional to strain or
elongation is proportional to the load
giving a straight line relationship. This law
of proportionality is valid upto a point A.
B (Elastic Limit)
- For a short period beyond the point A,
the material may still be elastic in the sense
that the deformations are completely
recovered when the load is removed. The
limiting point B is termed as Elastic Limit

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C&D (Upper and Lower yield point)
– Beyond the elastic limit plastic deformation occurs and strains are not totally recoverable. There
will be permanent deformation or permanent set when load is removed. These two points are
termed as upper and lower yield points respectively. In the stress-strain diagram, beyond point C
stress starts decreasing and the strain increases. Here, a smaller value of applied stress can
develop larger strain on the material. This is known as yielding. The stress at the yield point is
called the yield strength.
E (Ultimate Stress)
- A further increase in the load will cause marked deformation in the whole volume of the metal.
The maximum load which the specimen can with stand without failure is called the load at the
ultimate strength.
F (Failure)

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Axially loaded bars with uniform cross section– calculation of
stress, strain and deformation
● Any force which acts normal to the section along the axis of a member is
called axial force

Bar of uniform
Bar of different sections –
cross section
stepped bar

Bar of varying cross section

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BARS OF UNIFORM CROSS SECTION

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BARS OF VARYING SECTION

Consider a bar made up of different lengths and having different cross-sections as shown. For such
a bar, the following conditions apply:
(i) Each section is subjected to the same external pull or push
(ii) Total change in length is equal to the sum of changes of individual lengths

𝑃𝐿
Deformation, δl=
𝐴𝐸
δl = δl1+ δl2+ δl3
𝑃𝑙 𝑃𝑙 𝑃𝑙
= 1 + 2 + 3
𝐴1𝐸1 𝐴2𝐸2 𝐴3𝐸3
𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3
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𝐴1𝐸1 𝐴2𝐸2 𝐴3𝐸3 46
Uniformly Tapering Circular Rod and Rectangular rod

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