Introduction:-

The drilling-fluid system—commonly known as the "mud system"—is the single component of
the well-construction process that remains in contact with the wellbore throughout the entire
drilling operation. Drilling-fluid systems are designed and formulated to perform efficiently
under expected wellbore conditions. Advances in drilling-fluid technology have made it
possible to implement a cost-effective, fit-for-purpose system for each interval in the well-
construction..process.

The active drilling-fluid system comprises a volume of fluid that is pumped with specially
designed mud pumps from the surface pits, through the drillstring exiting at the bit, up the
annular space in the wellbore, and back to the surface for solids removal and maintenance
treatments as needed. The capacity of the surface system usually is determined by the rig
size, and rig selection is determined by the well design. For example, the active drilling-fluid
volume on a deepwater well might be several thousand barrels. Much of that volume is
required to fill the long drilling riser that connects the rig floor to the seafloor. By contrast, a
shallow well on land might only require a few hundred barrels of fluid to reach its objective.

A properly designed and maintained drilling fluid performs several essential

functions during well construction:

 Cleans the hole by transporting drilled cuttings to the surface, where they can be
mechanically removed from the fluid before it is recirculated downhole.
 Balances or overcomes formation pressures in the wellbore to minimize the risk
of well-control issues.
 Supports and stabilizes the walls of the wellbore until casing can be set and
cemented or openhole-completion equipment can be installed.
 Prevents or minimizes damage to the producing formation(s).
 Cools and lubricates the drillstring and bit.
 Transmits hydraulic horsepower to the bit.
 Allows information about the producing formation(s) to be retrieved through
cuttings analysis, logging-while-drilling data, and wireline logs.

The cost of the drilling fluid averages 10% of the total tangible costs of well construction;
however, drilling-fluid performance can affect overall well-construction costs in several ways.
A correctly formulated and well-maintained drilling system can contribute to cost containment
throughout the drilling operation by enhancing the rate of penetration (ROP), protecting the
reservoir from unnecessary damage, minimizing the potential for loss of circulation, stabilizing
the wellbore during static intervals, and helping the operator remain in compliance with
environmental and safety regulations. Many drilling-fluid systems can be reused from well to
well, thereby reducing waste volumes and costs incurred for building new mud.
Types of drilling fluids:-
World Oil’s annual classification of fluid systems[1] lists nine distinct categories of drilling fluids,
including:

 Freshwater systems
 Saltwater systems
 Oil- or synthetic-based systems
 Pneumatic (air, mist, foam, gas) “fluid” systems

Three key factors usually determine the type of fluid selected for a specific well:

 Cost
 Technical performance
 Environmental impact

Water-based fluids (WBFs) :-

are the most widely used systems, and are considered less expensive than 

oil-based fluids (OBFs) or  synthetic-based fluids (SBFs) :- .

The OBFs and SBFs—also known as invert-emulsion systems—have an oil or synthetic base
fluid as the continuous(0or external) phase, and brine as the internal phase. Invert-emulsion
systems have a higher cost per unit than most water-based fluids, so they often are selected
when well conditions call for reliable shale inhibition and/or excellent lubricity. Water-based
systems and invert-emulsion systems can be formulated to tolerate relatively high downhole
temperatures

.Pneumatic systems:-

 most commonly are implemented in areas where formation pressures are relatively low and
the risk of lost circulation or formation damage is relatively high. The use of these systems
requires specialized pressure-management equipment to help prevent the development of
hazardous conditions when hydrocarbons are encountered.

Types:-
Many types of drilling fluids are used on a day-to-day basis. Some wells require that
different types be used at different parts in the hole, or that some types be used in
combination with others. The various types of fluid generally fall into a few broad
categories:

 Air: Compressed air is pumped either down the bore hole's annular space or down
the drill string itself.
 Air/water: The same as above, with water added to increase viscosity, flush
the hole, provide more cooling, and/or to control dust.
 Air/polymer: A specially formulated chemical, most often referred to as a type
of polymer, is added to the water & air mixture to create specific conditions. A
foaming agent is a good example of a polymer.
 Water: Water by itself is sometimes used. In offshore drilling sea water is
typically used while drilling the top section of the hole.
 Water-based mud (WBM): Most basic water-based mud systems begin
with water, then clays and other chemicals are incorporated into the water to create a
homogeneous blend resembling something between chocolate milk and a malt
(depending on viscosity). The clay (called "shale" in its rock form) is usually a
combination of native clays that are suspended in the fluid while drilling, or specific
types of clay that are processed and sold as additives for the WBM system. The
most common of these is bentonite, frequently referred to in the oilfield as "gel". Gel
likely makes reference to the fact that while the fluid is being pumped, it can be very
thin and free-flowing (like chocolate milk), though when pumping is stopped, the
static fluid builds a "gel" structure that resists flow. When an adequate pumping force
is applied to "break the gel", flow resumes and the fluid returns to its previously free-
flowing state. Many other chemicals (e.g. potassium formate) are added to a WBM
system to achieve various effects, including: viscosity control, shale stability,
enhance drilling rate of penetration, cooling and lubricating of equipment.
 Oil-based mud (OBM): Oil-based mud is a mud where the base fluid is a
petroleum product such as diesel fuel. Oil-based muds are used for many reasons,
including increased lubricity, enhanced shale inhibition, and greater cleaning abilities
with less viscosity. Oil-based muds also withstand greater heat without breaking
down. The use of oil-based muds has special considerations, including cost,
environmental considerations such as disposal of cuttings in an appropriate place,
and the exploratory disadvantages of using oil-based mud, especially in wildcat
wells. Using an oil-based mud interferes with the geochemical analysis of cuttings
and cores and with the determination of API gravity because the base fluid cannot be
distinguished from oil returned from the formation.
 Synthetic-based fluid (SBM) (Otherwise known as Low
Toxicity Oil Based Mud or LTOBM): Synthetic-based fluid is a mud
where the base fluid is a synthetic oil. This is most often used on offshore rigs
because it has the properties of an oil-based mud, but the toxicity of the fluid fumes
are much less than an oil-based fluid. This is important when men work with the fluid
in an enclosed space such as an offshore drilling rig. Synthetic-based fluid poses the
same environmental and analysis problems as oil-based fluid.

On a drilling rig, mud is pumped from the mud pits through the drill string where it sprays
out of nozzles on the drill bit, cleaning and cooling the drill bit in the process. The mud
then carries the crushed or cut rock ("cuttings") up the annular space ("annulus")
between the drill string and the sides of the hole being drilled, up through the
surface casing,where it emerges back at the surface. Cuttings are then filtered out with
either a shale shaker, or the newer shale conveyor technology, and the mud returns to
the mud pits. The mud pits let the drilled "fines" settle; the pits are also where the fluid is
treated by adding chemicals and other substances.

Fluid Pit

The returning mud can contain natural gases or other flammable materials which will
collect in and around the shale shaker / conveyor area or in other work areas. Because of
the risk of a fire or an explosion if they ignite, special monitoring sensors and  explosion-
proof certified equipment is commonly installed, and workers are advised to take safety
precautions. The mud is then pumped back down the hole and further re-circulated. After
testing, the mud is treated periodically in the mud pits to ensure properties which
optimize and improve drilling efficiency, borehole stability, and other requirements listed
below.

Functions of drilling fluid :-

Transport cuttings to surface:-

Transporting drilled cuttings to the surface is the most basic function of drilling fluid. To
accomplish this, the fluid should have adequate suspension properties to help ensure that
cuttings and commercially added solids, such as barite weighing material, do not settle during
static intervals. The fluid should have the correct chemical properties to help prevent or
minimize the dispersion of drilled solids, so that these can be removed efficiently at the
surface. Otherwise, these solids can disintegrate into ultrafine particles that can damage the
producing zone, and impede drilling efficiency.
Prevent well-control issues:-
The column of drilling fluid in the well exerts hydrostatic pressure on the wellbore. Under
normal drilling conditions, this pressure should balance or exceed the natural formation
pressure to help prevent an influx of gas or other formation fluids. As the formation pressures
increase, the density of the drilling fluid is increased to help maintain a safe margin and
prevent “kicks” or “blowouts.” However, if the density of the fluid becomes too heavy, the
formation can break down. If drilling fluid is lost in the resultant fractures, a reduction of
hydrostatic pressure occurs. This pressure reduction also can lead to an influx from a
pressured formation. Therefore, maintaining the appropriate fluid density for the wellbore
pressure regime is critical to safety and wellbore stability.

Preserve wellbore stability:-

Maintaining the optimal drilling-fluid density not only helps contain formation pressures, but
also helps prevent hole collapse and shale destabilization. The wellbore should be free of
obstructions and tight spots, so that the drillstring can be moved freely in and out of the hole
(tripping). After a hole section has been drilled to the planned depth, the wellbore should
remain stable under static conditions while casing is run to the bottom, and cemented. The
drilling-fluid program should indicate the density and physicochemical properties most likely to
provide the best results for a given interval.

Minimize formation damage:-

Drilling operations expose the producing formation to the drilling fluid, and any solids and
chemicals contained in that fluid. Some invasion of fluid filtrate and/or fine solids into the
formation is inevitable. However, this invasion, and the potential for damage to the formation,
can be minimized with careful fluid design that is based on testing performed with cored
samples of the formation of interest. Formation damage also can be curtailed by expert
management of downhole hydraulics using accurate modeling software, as well as by the
selection of a specially designed “drill-in” fluid, such as the systems that typically are
implemented while drilling horizontal wells.

Cool and lubricate the drillstring:-

The bit and drillstring rotate at relatively high revolutions per minute (rev/min) all or part of the
time during actual drilling operations. The circulation of drilling fluid through the drillstring and
up the wellbore annular space helps reduce friction. and cool the drillstring. The drilling fluid
also provides a degree of lubricity to aid the movement of the drillpipe and bottomhole
assembly (BHA) through angles that are created intentionally by directional drilling and/or
through tight spots that can result from swelling shale. Oil-based fluids (OBFs) and synthetic-
based fluids (SBFs) offer a high degree of lubricity, and, for this reason, are the preferred fluid
types for high-angle directional wells. Some water-based polymer systems also provide
lubricity approaching that of the oil- and synthetic-based systems.

Provide information about the wellbore:-

Because drilling fluid is in constant contact with the wellbore, it reveals substantial information
about the formations being drilled, and serves as a conduit for much data collected downhole
by tools located on the drillstring and through wireline-logging operations performed when the
drillstring is out of the hole. The drilling fluid’s ability to preserve the cuttings as they travel up
the annulus directly affects the quality of analysis that can be performed on the cuttings.
These cuttings serve as a primary indicator of the physical and chemical condition of the
drilling fluid. An optimized drilling-fluid system that helps produce a stable, in-gauge wellbore
can enhance the quality of the data transmitted by downhole measurement and logging tools
as well as by wireline tools.

Minimize risk to personnel, the environment, and

drilling equipment:-
Drilling fluids require daily testing, and continuous monitoring by specially trained personnel.
The safety hazards associated with handling of any type of fluid are clearly indicated in the
fluid’s documentation. Drilling fluids also are closely scrutinized by worldwide regulatory
agencies to help ensure that the formulations in use comply with regulations established to
protect both natural and human communities where drilling takes place. At the rigsite, the
equipment used to pump or process fluid is checked constantly for signs of wear from
abrasion or chemical corrosion. Elastomers used in blowout-prevention equipment are tested
for compatibility with the proposed drilling-fluid system to ensure that safety is not
compromised.

The upper hole sections typically are drilled with low-density water-based fluids (WBFs).
Depending on formation types, downhole temperatures, directional-drilling plans, and other
factors, the operator might switch to an OBF or SBF at a predetermined point in the drilling
process. High-performance WBFs also are available to meet a variety of drilling challenges.

Depending on the location of the well, the drilling-fluid system can be exposed to:-

 Saltwater flows.
 Influxes of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide.
 Solids buildup.
 Oil or gas influxes.
 Extreme temperatures at both ends of the scale.
 All of these.

Contamination also comes from contact with the spacers and cement slurries used to

permanently install casing, and in the course of displacing from one drilling-fluid system to
another.

The drilling-fluid specialists who prepare drilling-fluid programs should be aware of the
operational and environmental challenges posed by any well. Working closely with the
operator, the specialist (who typically is supported by technical experts and a research staff)
can plan for the scope of conditions that are likely to be encountered, and generate a program
that is both safe and cost-effective. The planning stage usually includes the identification of
specific performance objectives and the means by which success will be measured.
Throughout the well-construction process, the drilling-fluid personnel
assigned to the operation maintain:-

 Accurate records of test results

 Fluid volumes
 Drilling events
 Product inventory
 Actions related to achieving environmental compliance

The standard drilling-mud report reflects the type of information the drilling-fluid personnel
(often called “mud engineers”) provide at the rig site on a daily basis. These reports, often
computer-generated and stored in a database, and the post-well analysis performed at the
conclusion of the well serve as reference materials for future wells in the same area or wells
that present similar challenges.

 Drilling problems:-
It is almost certain that problems will occur while drilling a well, even in very carefully planned
wells. For example, in areas in which similar drilling practices are used, hole problems may
have been reported where no such problems existed previously because formations are
nonhomogeneous. Therefore, two wells near each other may have totally different geological
conditions.

Types of drilling problems:-

In well planning, the key to achieving objectives successfully is to design drilling programs on
the basis of anticipation of potential hole problems rather than on caution and containment.
Drilling problems can be very costly. The most prevalent drilling problems include:

 Pipe sticking.
 Loss of circulation.
 Hole deviation.
 Pipe failures.
 Borehole instability.
 Mud contamination.
 Formation damage.
 Hole cleaning.
 H2S-bearing zones.
 Shallow gas zones.
 Equipment and personnel-related problems.
 Drilling fluid circulate system:-
A drilling fluid circulation system is claimed for containing drilling cuttings, gas
and drilling fluid in a closed loop. The system includes a separator having two
sealed compartments, one for settling out drilling cuttings and one for holding
clean drilling fluid. A fine solids separator is provided between the two
compartments, and a gas exhaust line for conducting gas released from the
returning drilling fluid is provided to conduct the produced gas to a safe

location away from the working area. A solids discharge device is provided for removing
.settled drilling cuttings
  Additives for Drilling Fluids:-

Just as drilling fluids are integral to the borewell drilling process,

additives that are very much a part of their composition, have a unique
role to play. Most of these additives have distinct properties that
specifically help in countering specific challenges encountered during the
drilling process. They help in accomplishing the drilling work with
efficiency and precision. They also help in minimizing human hazards.

 Basic Classification of Additives:-

Typically, a particular compound of drilling fluid or drilling mud would

have myriads of additives in them. This is quite unlike foam or air based
drilling fluids that may not be containing too many drilling fluids because
most of these additives are either available in solid or in liquid form.
Therefore, they would not mix well with foam based or an air based
substance. Some of the significant compounds that work well as additives
have been detailed out below:
1. Weighting Compounds —Primarily, weighting materials or compounds
are used for increasing the mud density. Common examples would be
barium sulfate or barite. The density of the mud needs to be increased
because it is important to equilibrate the wellbore pressure and the
formation pressure, especially when the challenge is to drill through
zones that are heavily pressurized. In case of oil based drilling fluids or
mud, Hematite which is an iron compound is also considered to be an
excellent weighting additive.
2. Corrosion Inhibitors —Since drilling would involve the installation and
usage of several metallic components, it would be essential to introduce
corrosion inhibitors through the drilling fluids that are being used for the
process. Considering that the metallic parts would encounter a slew of
acidic compounds during the course of the drilling process, corrosion
maybe rampant. Popular anti corrosives that are used as additives would
include aluminum bisulfate, iron oxides, protect- pipes of zinc chromate,
zinc carbonate and so on.
3. Dispersants —During the drilling process, it is essential to introduce
agents that can help in breaking up solid clusters in smaller particles that
can be easily carried by the drilling fluid from one place to the another,
without causing any unnecessary obstructions. This is specifically what
dispersants do. Examples include iron lignosulfonates.
4. Flocculants —Flocculants are nothing but acrylic polymer compounds
that help in the cluster formation of suspended particles, so that they can
be grouped together and removed from the resultant fluid when they
reach the surface.
5. Surfactants —Surfactants are nothing but compounds like soaps and fatty
acids that would emulsify and defoam the drilling mud or fluid.
6. Biocides —The drilling mud or fluid compound would be a fertile ground
of breeding bacteria that could lead to complete souring of the
compound. In order to reduce the sourness and thwart the growth of
bacteria, biocides would have to be introduced in the form of
cholorophenols, formaldehydes or organic amines.
7. Reducers of Fluid Loss — Drilling may often involve working with
highly permeable formations that might also be under pressurized.
Typically, one has to introduce fluid loss reducing compounds like
organic polymers and starches.
8. Fluid Viscosifiers/Rheology modifiers — Viscosifiers help in controlling
the rhelogy of the fluid.

 Mud cost categories:-

The prices are based on build cost for a certain mud weight and a daily
maintenance expense. These costs vary from different mud types and are
dependent on the chemicals and weighting material required and on the base
fluid phase, such as water or oil. Miscellaneous cost factors include specialty
products such as hydrogen sulfide scavengers, lost-circulation materials, and
hole-stability chemicals.

 Build cost :-
The build cost for a mud system (Fig. 1) is the price for the individual
components and mixing requirements. Oil-based muds have a higher build
cost than most water-based muds, because of

 The expensive oil phase.

 The mixing and emulsion-stability chemicals.
 The additional barite required to achieve comparable densities with
water-based muds.

Fig. 2 shows a comparison of build costs for an oil-based mud (invert type)
and a lignosulfonate mud. The total build cost includes purchasing the initial
mud system and the expenses involved with increasing mud weight in the well
as it is drilled.


Fig. 1—Build costs for invert-emulsion and lignosulfonate muds.

Fig. 2—Empirical maintenance costs for invert-emulsion and lignosulfonate muds.

 Maintenance cost :-
The maintenance costs for deep, high-pressure wells are usually larger than
the build costs. The maintenance fee includes the chemicals required daily to
maintain the desired mud properties. These chemicals include:

 Fluid-loss agents
 Thinners
 Caustic soda

Fig. 2 shows an estimate of empirically derived maintenance costs for invert

emulsion, oil muds, and lignosulfonate water muds. The illustration
demonstrates that heavy muds can have high daily fees. A system with 1,000
bbl of 16.0-lbm/gal lignosulfonate mud would cost approximately U.S. $2,700
for daily maintenance. In addition, note that the maintenance costs for invert-
emulsion muds is significantly less than that for lignosulfonate muds, even
though the reverse is true for build costs.

Several additional factors affect mud costs. Small mud companies can often
provide less-expensive mud systems than larger companies, although a
sacrifice is made occasionally in terms of technical support and mud-problem
testing capabilities. In addition, many mud companies offer mud without
technical support at a price reduction over mud with engineering support.